THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  ILLINOIS 
LIBRARY 

L30.7 

W ' 75  b • ■ 

1 < ''  ; » 


AB81CULTURAL 

UIMRY 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/whycostsofmilkva3453mcna 


Bulletin  345 


WHY 
COSTS 
OF  MILK 
VARY 


Possibilities  of 
Cow  Testing 
Associations 


AGRICULTURAL.  EXPERIMENT  STATION,  UNIVERSITY  OF 
WISCONSIN,  MADISON 

COOPERATING  WITH  THE  STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  MARKETS 


DIGEST 


Milk  costs  are  necessary  in  order  to  determine  profits  or  losses  of 
the  herd.  Page  3 

Cow  testing  associations  are  a possible  source  of  milk  cost  figures. 

Pages  4-5 

Feed,  labor,  building  and  equipment  cost  are  the  chief  items  which 
enter  into  the  cost  of  milk.  Pages  6-9 

Calves,  manure,  hides  and  insurance  are  items  of  credit.  Page  9 

Costs  per  hundredweight  of  milk  varied  from  $1.88  to  $4.01  for  dif- 
ferent months  of  the  year.  Pages  9-10 

Feed  and  bedding  represented  54  per  cent,  man  labor  25.8  per  cent 

and  other  costs  21.2  per  cent  of  the  net  cost  for  the  year. 

Pages  10-12 

The  costs  of  keeping  a cow  a year  were  higher  in  winter  than  in 
summer.  Pages  12-14 

Months  of  low  production  are  months  of  high  costs  per  hundred- 
weight of  milk  produced.  Pages  14-15 

It  is  fundamental  that  the  farmer  know  the  pounds  of  feed  and  hours 
of  labor  required  to  produce  a hundredweight  of  milk. 

Pages  15-17 

As  the  production  of  milk  increased  from  5,500  pounds  to  8,600 
pounds  per  cow  the  cost  per  hundredweight  decreased  from  $3.82 
to  $2.64.  Pages  17-19 

Heavy  grain  rations  are  generally  found  with  large  production,  but 
it  is  true  also  that  not  all  cows  will  respond  to  heavy  grain  rations. 

Pages  19-20 


^30,7 

WOS'A' 

: 345'-Bi^3 

^0,  «*2  ^3  O 

yk 

Why  Costs  of  Milk  Vary 


P.  E.  McNall  and  D.  R.  Mitchell* 


PROFITS  IN  tHE  PRODUCTION  OF  MILK  depend  on 
the  difference  between  the  cost  and  the  selling  price.  The 
dairyman’s  first  need  is  to  have  facts  on  milk  costs,  because 
his  profits  depend  entirely  on  the  extent  to  which  he  can  produce 
below  his  selling  price.  Since  he,  individually,  is  practically  un- 
able to  influence  the  price  he  receives,  his  whole  effort  should  be 
directed  toward  the  lowering  of  his  production  costs. 

Any  intelligent  effort  to  reduce  costs  requires,  first,  that  the 
costs  be  definitely  known ; and,  second,  that  the  data  be  complete 
enough  to  make  possible  a study  of  the  factors  involved.  A 
dairyman  should  know  definitely  the  influence  of  production  on 
costs,  the  comparative  economy  of  summer  and  winter  feeding, 
and  the  annual  and  monthly  distribution  of  costs  for  feed,  bed- 
ding, labor,  and  other  expenses.  He  should  know,  for  his  own 
herd  and  his  own  conditions,  the  unit  requirements  in  terms  of 
pounds  of  feed  and  bedding,  and  hours  of  labor  for  the  produc- 
tion of  100  pounds  of  milk.  In  other  words,  he  should  know  his 
own  business.  If  he  would  reduce  costs,  he  must  work  from 
facts,  not  guesswork. 

The  dairyman’s  first  need  is  to  have  facts  on  milk  costs.  This 
need  has  been  partially  met  by  the  70  or  more  cow-testing  asso- 
ciations in  the  state  that  have  done  and  are  doing  splendid  work. 
They  have  increased  profits  by  getting  rid  of  the  “boarder  cows” 
and  by  the  feeding  of  “balanced  rations.”  These  associations  are 
working  in  the  right  direction,  but  have  not  gone  far  enough  in 
their  record  keeping  to  furnish  the  necessary  cost  data.  The 
cow  tester’s  record  indicates  whether  a given  cow  pays  for  her 
feed,  but  does  not  show  whether  she  produces  at  a profit  or  loss. 
This  is  because  the  tester’s  work  is  essentially  a production  and 
feed-cost  study.  It  does  not  include  any  of  the  following  factors 
which  are  necessary  to  a thorough  understanding  of  the  dairy- 
man’s problem: 


•Mr.  Mitchell  personally  conducted  the  field  study  and  arranged  the 
data.  He  also  contributed  largely  to  the  narrative  part  of  the  bulletin. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  345 


1.  Labor  costs. 

2.  Bedding  costs. 

3.  Miscellaneous  costs,  such  as  building  and  equipment  costs, 
including  depreciation,  insurance,  upkeep  and  repairs,  milk 
hauling,  feed  grinding,  veterinary. 

4.  The  unit  requirements  in  terms  of  pounds  of  feed  and  bed- 
ding and  hours  of  labor  per  cow  and  for  the  production 
of  100  pounds  of  milk.  (The  tester  obtains  the  necessary 
data  for  determining  the  unit  requirement  for  feed,  but  sel- 
dom uses  it.) 

5.  Manure,  calves,  and  miscellaneous  returns  to  the  producing 
herd. 

6.  Net  profits  or  losses  of  the  farm  business. 

It  is  possible  to  obtain  more  complete  dairy  cost  figures  by 
supplementing  the  work  of  the  present  cow-testing  associations. 
Associations  using  a more  comprehensive  plan  for  study  may  be 
distinguished  from  the  ordinary  testing  association  by  the  term 
“milk-testing  cost  association.”  The  tester  in  charge  does  the 
regular  testing  work  and,  in  addition,  collects  the  cost  data  from 
each  farm,  monthly.  He  takes  the  dairy  inventory  on  each  farm, 
notes  inventory  changes,  figures  interest,  taxes,  depreciation,  and 
insurance;  keeps  record  of  feed,  bedding,  and  labor;  and,  in 
short,  keeps  a complete  cost  record  of  the  dairy  enterprise.  This 
results  in  overcoming  the  present  inadequacy  of  the  cow  tester’s 
record,  by  furnishing  to  the  farmers  facts  necessary  to  deter- 
mine their  milk  costs. 

Whether  this  plan  will  work  for  any  given  association  depends 
upon : 

(1)  The  qualifications  of  the  tester. 

He  must  possess  more  than  average  ability,  as  he  cannot  hope 
to  succeed  unless  he  is  accurate  with  figures  and  has  a working 
knowledge  of  accounting  principles.  He  must  be  rapid  enough  to 
carry  the  extra  burden  of  work,  and  enthusiastic  enough  to  com- 
plete his  job. 

(2)  The  cooperation  given  the  tester  by  the  members  of 
the  association. 

They  must  cooperate  by  helping  the  tester  in  every  way  pos- 
sible to  get  accurate  cost  data.  This  will  usually  require  about 
one  hour  a month  of  the  farmer’s  time.  As  a changing  member- 
ship is  undesirable,  cooperators  should  not  start  the  work  unless 
they  are  willing  to  see  it  through. 


Why  Costs  of  Milk  Vary 


5 


That  such  a plan  is  workable  was  shown  last  year  (Sept  1, 
1920,  to  Aug.  31,  1921)  by  the  cow-testing  association  in  the 
towns  of  Oconomowoc  and  Summit,  in  Waukesha  county.  Cost 
records  were  taken  together  with  regular  cow-testing  work  on  24 
dairy  farms.  The  results  are  shown  in  the  following  pages. 

SEASONAL  DIFFERENCES  AFFECT  COSTS 

Many  investigations  have  been  summarized  on  the  yearly  basis 
with  little  or  no  attention  being  paid  to  the  variations  in  cost  from 
month  to  month.  This  method  is  not  altogether  satisfactory  be- 
cause the  seasonal  differences  in  the  cost  vary  too  much  from 
the  average  yearly  cost  to  be  ignored.  For  example,  in  the  work 
on  the  following  pages  the  cost  of  producing  100  pounds  of  milk 
varied  from  62.3  per  cent  of  the  yearly  average  in  May  to  132.8 
per  cent  of  the  yearly  average  in  November.  If  the  average 
yearly  cost  were  used  as  a cost  fixing  basis,  the  production  of 
November  milk  would  prove  very  unprofitable,  while  the  produc- 
tion of  May  milk  would  yield  a considerable  return.  This,  of 
course,  would  tend  to  concentrate  the  production  of  milk  in  May. 
It  is  evident,  if  a constant  supply  of  milk  is  to  be  maintained  at 
all  seasons,  that  the  price  paid  must  vary,  at  least  approximately, 
with  the  seasonal  variations  in  the  cost  of  production.  These 
monthly  costs  are  essential  to  a study  of  this  character,  and  are 
included  herein  with  the  costs  for  the  year  and  for  the  winter 
and  summer  seasons. 

The  actual  costs  in  dollars  and  cents  are  secondary  to  the  de- 
termination of  the  basic  requirements  in  pounds  of  feed  and 
bedding  and  in  hours  of  labor  for  the  production  of  100  pounds  of 
milk.  These  costs  are  given  only  for  comparison  rather  than 
for  use  as  absolute  cost  figures. 

BASIS  OF  STUDY 

The  producing  herd  was  the  basis  of  study.  No  record  was 
kept  of  the  feed  and  labor  requirements  of  the  young  stock. 
Calves  born  during  the  year  were  credited  to  the  herd  at  five  days 
of  age,  and  heifers  freshening  for  the  first  time  were  charged 
into  the  herd  at  an  estimated  average  value.  The  producing  herd 
was  considered  a separate  farm  enterprise  with  the  cow  as  the 
unit. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  345 


TERRITORY  COVERED 

The  farms  included  in  this  study  were  in  the  towns  of  Ocono- 
mowoc  and  Summit,  in  Waukesha  county.  They  varied  in  size 
from  56  to  320  acres,  the  average  being  125  acres.  The  cows  in 
the  herds  varied  in  number  from  8 to  28,  the  average  being  16 
cows.  Four  of  the  herds  were  purebred,  ten  were  part  purebred 
and  part  grade,  and  nine  were  all  grade.  Every  farm  had  one  or 
more  silos  and,  with  one  exception,  every  herd  was  headed  by  a 
purebred  sire.  Seventeen  of  the  herds  were  Holstein,  four  were 
Guernsey,  one  was  Jersey,  and  two  were  of  mixed  breeds.  The 
farms  varied  considerably  in  size,  breed  of  cattle,  and  system  of 
management,  but  are  fairly  representative  of  the  country. 

METHODS  OF  OBTAINING  DATA 

The  data  were  collected  along  with  regular  cow-testing  work. 
The  dairy  accountant  in  charge  did  the  testing  and  in  addition 
collected  the  cost  data  from  each  farm  each  month.  He  was  in 
the  field  during  the  entire  time  of  the  study  and  his  personal 
knowledge  of  the  farms  was  a great  help  in  getting  careful  esti- 
mates of  feeds  consumed,  bedding  used,  hours  of  labor  ex- 
pended, receipts,  expenditures,  and  inventorial  changes.  The 
data  were  collected  each  month  for  the  preceding  month  and  en- 
tered on  special  forms  printed  for  the  purpose. 

FORMS  USED  IN  COLLECTION  OF  DATA 

The  forms  used  for  entering  the  monthly  data  for  each  farm 
consisted  of  one  for  the  investment,  one  for  the  income,  two  for 
the  expenses,  and  one  for  the  summary.* 

A brief  description  of  the  method  of  handling  the  main  items 
of  expense  and  income  follows : 

I.  Investment 

This  includes  only  that  part  of  the  farm  investment  used  ex- 
clusively for  the  milking  herd.  There  are  four  main  divisions : 

1.  Land  used  for  dairy  buildings  and  yard. 

2.  Buildings  used  by  the  dairy  herd. 

3.  Dairy  equipment  and  machinery. 

4.  Milking  herd,  including  the  sire. 

•These  forms  were  prepared  by  D.  H.  Otis,  director  of  the  Banker- 
Farmer  Exchange,  and  J.  E.  Stallard,  former  County  Agent  for  Wau- 
kesha county.  Before  being  used  in  this  work,  they  were  approved  by 
the  Department  of  Agricultural  Economics  of  the  University  of  Wis- 
consin. 


Why  Costs  of  Milk  Vary 


7 


The  buildings,  equipment,  and  machinery  were  inventoried  con- 
servatively on  the  basis  of  their  cost  minus  depreciation.  All 
grade  cows  were  valued  at  $75  per  head,  and  all  purebred  co\Ys  at 
$150  per  head.  Bulls  were  inventoried  from  $200  to  $1,250  each, 
depending  on  their  individuality  and  breeding. 

II.  Items  of  Expense 

A 

1.  Depreciation 

This  is  shown  each  month  through  a decrease  in  the  inventorial 
valuation.  Three  per  cent  annually  was  figured  on  the  buildings 
and  silos,  and  10  per  cent  annually  on  the  equipment  and  machin- 
ery. No  direct  method  of  figuring  depreciation  on  the  cattle  was 
used.  However,  if  an  animal  was  bought  or  sold  for  a sum 
greater  or  less  than  her  inventorial  valuation,  the  difference  was 
figured  as  an  income  or  expense.  The  rates  of  depreciation  for 
buildings  and  equipment  were  the  co-operating  farmers’  esti- 
mates of  the  usual  rate  for  that  area. 

2.  Taxes 

The  tax  receipts  for  the  preceding  year  were  obtained  and  the 
charge  to  the  dairy  was  based  upon  the  values  of  that  year.  This 
charge  was  distributed  as  a monthly  cost  throughout  the  year. 

3.  Insurance 

This  charge  was  difficult  to  determine,  as  the  majority  of  the 
farmers  belonged  to  a town  co-operative  insurance  company, 
where  the  losses  were  pro  rated  among  the  members  as  they  oc- 
curred. Since  no  fixed  premiums  were  paid,  the  amount  charged 
monthly  was  an  estimated  average  based  upon  previous  annual 
insurance  costs. 

4.  Interest 

The  interest  rate  used  was  6 per  cent  per  annum  or  per  cent 
figured  monthly  on  the  total  investment  at  the  beginning  of  the 
month.  The  item  is  handled  separately  so  its  influence  on  this  set 
of  records  may  be  observed. 

5.  Upkeep  and  Repair  on  Buildings 

The  upkeep  expense  included  painting,  alterations,  and  minor 
repairs  on  the  buildings.  If  the  repairs  materially  increased  the 
value  of  the  buildings,  they  were  considered  improvements,  and 
were  reflected  in  an  increase  in  inventory  rather  than  an  item  of 
expense. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  345 


6.  Feed  (Except  Pasture) 

Feeds  were  charged  each  month  at  the  average  local  retail 
price  prevailing  for  that  month.  For  purchased  feeds,  a hauling 
charge  of  50  cents  per  ton  mile  was  added,  and  for  home-grown 
feeds  a similar  charge  for  hauling  was  deducted  from  the  local 
price. 

For  such  feeds  as  silage  and  green  corn  that  have  no  quoted 
market  valuation,  the  estimated  farm  value  was  used.  This  was 
$8  a ton  for  silage  and  $8  a ton  for  green  corn.  These  prices  are 
high  because  the  corn  crop  fed  was  that  grown  in  the  summer  of 
1920  when  all  costs  of  growing  and  ensiling  the  crop  were  highest. 

7.  Pasture 

The  first  plan  was  to  determine  the  actual  cost  of  pasture  on 
the  basis  of  acreage  per  cow.  This  plan  was  unsatisfactory  be- 
cause the  cows  were  pastured  at  one  time  or  another  on  practically 
the  total  farm  acreage,  and  it  was  impossible  to  determine  with 
any  degree  of  accuracy  the  value  of  the  gleanings  from  the  vari- 
ous fields.  It  was  finally  decided  to  charge  a uniform  rate  of  $20 
a year  or  $3.33  a month  per  head  for  pasture.  The  increase  over 
the  charge  for  permanent  pasture  is  the  estimated  value,  as  given 
by  the  cooperators,  of  the  gleanings  from  other  fields. 

8.  Labor 

The  cost  of  labor  is  the  cash  paid  for  wages  plus  the  estimated 
value  of  room,  board  and  washing  furnished  the  laborer  by  the 
operator’s  family.  This  cost  averaged  approximately  30  cents  an 
hour  for  all  hired  labor.  The  operators’  time  was  considered  of 
greater  value  than  that  of  the  hired  help.  A uniform  rate  of  30 
cents  an  hour  was  charged  for  hired  labor,  and  40  cents  an  hour 
for  the  operator’s  labor. 

9.  Managerial  Ability  and  Risks 

No  business  can  long  exist  without  intelligent  management. 
This  is  especially  true  of  dairying  where  the  closest  possible  care 
is  necessary  at  all  times  if  the  herd  is  to  produce  the  best  returns. 
The  dairyman  must  be  a shrewd  buyer  and  seller  of  feeds  and 
stock,  a constructive  breeder,  a scientific  feeder  of  balanced  ra- 
tions, and  an  executive  in  carrying  out  his  plans  and  in  the  man- 
aging of  his  help.  He  must  be  continually  on  the  job,  as  even  an 
hour  of  neglect  at  a critical  time  may  mean  a lessening  of  pro- 
duction or  even,  in  time,  a failure  of  the  business.  This  some- 
thing-plus in  knowledge,  effort,  and  results,  above  the  manual 


Why  Costs  of  Milk  Vary 


9 


labor  of  chores  is  “Wages  of  Management.”  It  should  be  re- 
flected in  increased  returns  to  the  operator  and  is  entered  as  a 
cost  merely  for  comparison. 

The  dairy  business,  like  all  others,  is  subject  to  certain  unavoid- 
able risks  that  form  a legitimate  part  of  the  costs  of  production. 
The  dairyman  may  temporarily  lose  his  market  through  the  fail- 
ure of  his  receiving  plants  or  through  strikes.  At  the  time  of  the 
hoof-and-mouth  disease,  the  quarantine  of  stock  caused  dairymen 
to  lose  heavily  through  inability  to  dispose  of  surplus  animals  or 
to  purchase  needed  ones.  As  one  year’s  records  on  a small  num- 
ber of  herds  will  not  supply  the  required  data  to  determine  risk 
items,  an  arbitrary  charge  is  made.  Ten  per  cent  of  all  other 
expenses  was  allowed  to  cover  risks  and  managerial  ability. 

III.  Credit  Items 

1.  Calves 

All  grade  calves  were  credited  to  the  herd  at  $10  each  when 
five  days  of  age,  and  all  purebred  calves  were  credited  at  $40  each 
when  the  same  age. 

2.  Manure 

It  was  assumed  that  a 1,000-pound  cow  would  void  12  tons  of 
manure  a year  or  one  ton  a month.  Cows  of  greater  or  less 
weight  would  void  proportionate  amounts.  All  manure  was  cred- 
ited at  $2  per  ton. 

3.  Miscellaneous  Returns 

Under  this  heading  are  returns  from  hides,  feed  sacks,  and  in- 
surance. It  was  an  almost  negligible  quantity,  amounting  to 
$23.06  for  the  24  farms  during  the  entire  year.  Very  few  hides 
were  sold,  as  the  price  offered  did  not  justify  the  labor  of  skin- 
ning. 

GENERAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  COSTS 

Table  I (see  p.  21)  is  a financial  statement  on  the  per-cow 
basis.  It  shows  the  expenses,  the  credits,  and  the  net  costs  per 
hundredweight  of  milk  produced  for  the  year,  for  the  month, 
and  for  the  winter  and  summer  seasons. 

The  average  cost  per  hundredweight  for  the  year  was  $3.02. 
The  variations  in  cost  were  considerable,  ranging  from  $1.88  in 
May  to  $4.01  in  November,  and  from  $2.61  for  the  six  summer 
months  to  $3.40  for  the  six  winter  months.  The  distribution  of 
costs  for  the  year,  the  summer,  and  the  winter  follows : 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  345 


Feed  and  Bedding 

Labor 

Other  Costs 

Year 

54.0% 

25.8% 

20.2% 

Winter 

58.2% 

24.7% 

17.1% 

Summer 

48.3% 

28.3% 

23.4% 

Feed  and  bedding  form  a larger  percentage  of  winter  costs 
than  they  do  of  summer  costs  and  are  the  most  variable  of  the 
three  costs,  showing  a maximum  variation  of  9.9  per  cent,  while 
labor  varies  3.6  per  cent  and  other  costs  6.3  per  cent. 


Per  cent  or  Net  Cost  Represented  by  Feed 


026'  55.8  51.8  56.0  44.7  39.2  47.0  3 9.9  53.5  60.7  623  6 t.b 


M.20 


FEED  EXPENSE 


JAN  FEB  MAR  APR.  MAY  JUNE  JULY  AUG.  SEPT.  OGT.  NOV  DEG. 


Chart  No.  1 — This  chart  shows  the  proportion  of  the  net  cost  of  pro- 
ducing milk  represented  by  feed  and  bedding. 


I.  Feed  and  Bedding 

This  was  by  far  the  largest  single  item  of  expense,  averaging 
54  per  cent  of  the  net  cost  for  the  year.  The  variations  from 
month  to  month  are  shown  in  Chart  No.  1 and  range  from  39.2 
per  cent  in  June  to  62.8  per  cent  in  November.  As  would  be  ex- 
pected, the  feed  expense  for  the  pasture  months  is  considerably 
less  than  for  the  barn-feeding  months.  Expressed  in  money  terms, 
milk  was  produced  72  cents  per  hundredweight  cheaper  for  feed 
in  the  summer  than  in  the  winter.  As  each  cow  produced  3,359.1 
pounds  of  milk  during  the  summer,  this  meant  a difference  in  cost 
of  $24.19  per  cow  during  this  period.  This  would  appear  to  con- 
firm the  judgment  of  Wisconsin  dairymen  in  maintaining  an  ade- 
quate pasture  acreage,  even  on  the  high-priced  lands  of  the  south- 
ern counties.  The  loss  in  weight  of  cows  on  pasture  is  some  offset 


Why  Costs  of  Milk  Vary 


11 


to  this  advantage,  as  this  loss  must  be  made  up  during  the  winter 
months.  It  is  impossible  to  state  to  what  extent  this  loss  offsets 
the  economy  of  pasture  feeding. 

II.  Man  Labor  Expense 

Labor  expense  is  much  less  variable  than  feed.  As  shown  in 
Chart  No.  2,  somewhat  less  labor  is  required  during  the  summer 
than  during  the  winter  months.  The  difference  is  not  as  great  as 
might  be  expected,  as  the  time  required  to  get  the  cows  to  and 
from  pasture  partially  offsets  the  time  saved  in  feeding  and 
cleaning  out  the  barn.  The  rather  sharp  rise  in  labor  costs  in 
September  was  due  to  the  small  volume  of  milk  produced.  The 
saving  in  labor  for  the  pasture  months  amounted  to  10  cents  per 
hundred  pounds  of  milk  produced,  or  $3.37  per  cow.  Although 

Per  cent  or  Net  Expense  Represented  by  Labor 

24.7  23.9  223  27.6  29 3 290  27.6  243  30.9  28.5  242  24.4 

, 400 

s 

^320 

* 

^ 2.40 


k 

8 

do 

JAN.  FEB.  MAR.  APR.  MAY  JUNE  JULY  AUG.  SEPT.  OCT  NOV  DEC. 

Chart  No.  2 — This  chart  shows  the  proportion  of  the  net  cost  of  pro- 
ducing milk  represented  by  labor. 

the  saving  in  labor  during  the  pasture  season  is  not  large  from  the 
money  standpoint,  it  permits  the  dairyman  to  spend  18  hours 
more  in  the  field  during  the  summer  for  every  milk  cow  kept 
than  he  could  if  the  cows  had  been  barn-fed  the  year  around. 
With  a herd  of  16  milk  cows  this  would  amount  to  1.6  more 
hours  per  day  available  for  field  work.  As  the  summer  is  the 
season  when  the  dairyman  is  hardest  pressed  for  time  and  help, 
the  advantage  of  pasture  from  the  standpoint  of  labor  economy  is 
apparent. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  345 


III.  Other  Costs 

Feed,  bedding,  and  labor  constitutes  79.8  per  cent  of  the  yearly 
cost,  83  per  cent  of  the  winter  cost,  and  76.6  per  cent  of  the  sum- 
mer cost.  The  remainder  of  the  expenses  is  composed  of  interest, 
taxes,  insurance,  and  repairs.  Variations  in  costs  other  than  feed, 
bedding,  and  labor,  Chart  No  3,  are  due  to  changes  in  credit 
items,  or  abnormally  high  costs  of  one  kind  or  another.  For  ex- 
ample, the  high  cost  in  March  was  due  to  the  loss  of  a $1,250 
purebred  Holstein  bull.  The  high  cost  in  August  was  due  to  a 
decreased  milk  production  for  that  month.  The  low  cost  in  Octo- 
ber was  caused  bv  the  heavy  calf.crop,  58  calves,  or  17  per  cent  of 


Per  cent  or  Net  Coot  Represented  by  Peed  and  Labor 

67.5  79.7  74.1  63.7  73.9  66.2  74.7  64.2  044  693  87.0  06.0 


JAN.  FES.  MAR.  APR.  MAY  JUNE  JULY  AUG.  SEPT.  OCT  NOW  DEC. 


i uu  ia.L»or  repi  esenla  Hum  04  lu  bV'yo  ui  l ue  net 

cost  of  producing  milk. 


the  total  for  the  year,  were  born  in  that  month.  The  credits  for 
the  year  averaged  15  per  cent  of  the  net  cost,  or  $32.59  per  cow. 
Of  this,  $24.38  was  for  manure,  $8.15  for  net  herd  increase,  and 
$.06  for  miscellaneous  returns. 


COSTS  OF  KEEPING  A COW 

The  net  cost  of  keeping  a cow  for  the  year  was  $215.25  (Table 
I).  Of  this,  $116.66  was  for  feed  and  bedding,  $56  was  for 
labor,  and  $42.59  was  for  other  costs.  The  winter  costs  were 
$127.41,  compared  to  $87.84  for  the  summer. 


Why  Costs  of  Milk  Vary 


13 


Table  II  (see  p.  22)  gives  a detailed  statement  of  the  pounds 
of  feed  and  bedding,  hours  of  labor  and  days  on  pasture  per 
cow  by  the  year,  season,  and  month.  From  this  table  a farmer 
may  figure  the  approximate  cost  of  keeping  a cow  for  any 
given  month  by  applying  the  costs  for  that  month  to  the  quan- 
tities listed. 

A comparison  of  the  feed  required  for  the  year,  the  summer, 
and  the  winter  follows : 


Year 

Winter 

Summer 

Winter 

Excess 

Summer 

Excess 

Concentrates 

Succulent  roughage 

1555.2  tbs. 
8430.0  lbs. 
2866.7  lbs. 
168  days 

883.2  lbs. 

149.2  hrs. 

1073.0  lbs. 
5904.5  lbs. 

2404.1  lbs. 

482.3  lbs. 
2525.5  lbs. 
462.6  lbs. 
168  days 
85.8  lbs. 
65.6  hrs. 

590.7  lbs. 
3379.0  lbs. 
1943.5  lbs. 

168  days 

Dry  roughage 

Pasture 

Bedding 

797.4  lbs. 
83.6  hrs. 

711.6  lbs. 
18.0  hrs. 

Labor 

These  requirements  are  for  a cow  averaging  7,115  pounds  of 
3.78  per  cent  milk  per  year.  The  winter  requirements  are  con- 
siderably higher  than  the  summer  requirements.  The  greater 
cost  for  the  winter  is  represented  by  the  value  of  the  winter  ex- 
cess minus  the  value  of  the  168  days  on  pasture.  For  the  year  of 
this  study,  the  difference  was  $38.52  in  favor  of  summer  feeding. 
The  difference  in  costs  other  than  feed,  bedding,  and  labor  was 
$1.05  in  favor  of  the  summer,  making  the  net  cost  per  cow  for 
feed,  bedding,  and  labor  $39.57  less  for  the  summer  than  for  the 
winter  period. 

Minor  items  of  cow  cost  are  inventorial  decrease,  calf  loss, 
and  losses  from  the  herd  through  death,  sale,  and  other  causes. 

(a)  Inventorial  decrease 

The  inventorial  decrease  amounted  to  $10.95  per  cow,  which 
is  9 per  cent  of  the  average  valuation  of  cows.  The  inventorial 
decrease  added  to  the  herd  decrease  or  increase  will  give  the 
total  cow  decrease  or  increase  for  the  herd. 


(b)  Calf  crop 

The  calf  crop  for  the  year  was  84.8  per  cent.  The  number  and 
percentage  of  total  dropped  by  months  follows : 


Month 

Number 

dropped 

Per  cent 
total 

Month 

Number 

dropped 

Per  cent 
total 

January 

49 

15% 

July 

6 

2% 

February 

32 

10% 

August 

6 

“ /o 
2% 

March 

35 

10% 

September  . 

28 

8% 

April 

23 

7% 

October  . 

58 

17% 

May 

19 

6% 

November  . 

45 

*•  /o 
13% 

June 

9 

3% 

December 

24 

/o 

7% 

Total  calves  dropped 334 

Total  cows 394 

Calf  crop  percent 84.8 


Total  calves  dropped 334 

Total  cows 394 

Calf  crop  percent 84.8 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  345 


Approximately  85  calves  were  dropped  to  every  100  cows. 
There  was  a decided  tendency  toward  winter  calving,  as  72  per 
cent  of  the  calves  were  dropped  in  the  six  months  October  to 
March,  inclusive.  The  majority  of  the  farmers  preferred  fall 
calving,  and  had  as  many  of  their  cows  come  in  at  that  time  as 
possible. 

(c)  Losses  from  the  herd 

The  losses  of  cows  from  death  and  sales  are  shown  below : 


Means  of  disposal 

Number 

Per  cent  of 
average  number  - 
in  herd 

10 

2.5% 

Sold  (total) 

103 

26.1% 

For  breeding 

40 

10.1% 

To  butcher 

37 

9.4% 

Condemned  for  tuberculosis 

24 

6.1% 

Slaughtered  for  home  use 

2 

• 5% 

The  total  number  of  cows  lost  to  the  herd  during  the  year 
averages  28  out  of  every  hundred.  However,  the  24  condemned 
for  tuberculosis  represent  an  abnormal  loss.  If  we  eliminate  this, 
the  net  loss  to  the  herd  would  be  22  out  of  every  hundred.  Should 
this  rate  of  loss  continue,  the  cows  would  stay  in  the  herd  an 
average  of  about  4.5  years. 

COSTS  PER  HUNDREDWEIGHT  OF  MILK 

Table  III  (see  p.  22)  gives  the  distribution  of  costs  and  cred- 
its in  the  production  of  100  pounds  of  milk.  The  items  of  cost 
vary  greatly  through  the  differences  in  cost  between  summer 
and  winter  feeding  and  through  variations  in  the  volume  of 
milk  produced.  That  production  is  one  of  the  most  important 
factors  influencing  milk  cost  is  shown  clearly  in  Chart  No.  4. 
The  months  of  high  production  are  usually  the  months  of  low 
cost — the  production  line  generally  being  the  inverse  of  the  cost 
line.  In  March  the  cost  per  hundredweight  is  greater  despite 
increased  production  per  cow  because  of  the  loss  of  a purebred 
bull  valued  at  $1,250.  In  some  years  a slight  increase  in  cost 
might  be  expected  at  this  time  because  of  dairymen  running 
low  on  farm  grains  and  therefore  feeding  proportionately 
larger  quantities  of  high-priced  mixed  feeds,  but  such  was  not 
the  case  in  this  instance.  Between  May  1 and  June  1,  the  cost 
remains  practically  stationary  in  the  face  of  a rather  sharp  de- 
crease in  production.  This  is  the  period  of  change  from  barn 


Why  Costs  of  Milk  Vary 


15 


(jnait  iNo,  4 — Montns  of  high  production  are  months  of  low  cost  per 
hundredweight. 


feeding  to  pasture  feeding  and  the  shrinkage  in  production 
just  about  balances  the  decreased  cost.  Whether  it  would 
have  paid  to  supplement  the  pasture  at  this  point  is  an  in- 
teresting question  Personally,  it  is  believed  that  the  summer 
feeding  of  silage  at  this  time  can  decrease  the  cost  by  maintain- 
ing the  milk  flow.  From  September  1 to  November  1,  the  cost 
increases  with  greater  production.  This  is  the  period  of  greatest 
calving,  25  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  calves  being  dropped 
at  this  time.  A study  of  this  chart  will  emphasize  the  importance, 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  economical  production  of  milk,  of 
maintaining  the  herd  at  a high  standard  of  production. 

UNIT  REQUIREMENTS  PER  HUNDRED  POUNDS  OF  MILK 

Table  IV  (see  p.  23)  gives  the  unit  requirements  in  terms  of 
pounds  of  feed  and  bedding,  and  hours  of  labor  for  the  produc- 
tion of  100  pounds  of  milk.  The  yearly  requirements  based  on 
the  total  production  of  2,803,356  pounds  of  3.78  per  cent  milk 
were : 


Concentrates 

21.9  pounds 
118.5  pounds 

40.3  pounds 
2.4  days 

12.4  pounds 

Succulent  roughage 

Dry  roughage 

Pasture 

Bedding 

Labor 

2.1  hours 

16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  345 


Feed,  bedding,  and  labor  are  79.8  per  cent  of  the  net  cost.  So 
long  as  these  proportions  maintain,  the  average  cost  for  any  given 
year  can  be  determined  by  the  application  of  the  average  costs 
for  that  year  to  the  quantities  given  above. 

By  the  use  of  this  table  a dairyman  can  approximate  his  milk 
cost  for  any  month  of  the  year  by  applying  the  prices  for  that 
month  to  the  quantities  given  in  the  table.  For  example,  if  he 
desires  to  find  his  March  cost  per  hundred  pounds  of  milk  pro- 
duced, he  would  use  the  quantities  for  March  as  given  in  Table 
No.  4 with  the  average  prices  prevailing  for  that  month  in  his 
section.  Assuming  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  prices  for  this 
month,  his  March  cost  would  be: 


Concentrates 

Succulent  roughage 

Dry  roughage 

Bedding 

Labor 

Value  of  feed,  bedding,  and  labor 

Per  cent  of  net  cost 

Net  cost  of  March  milk  per  hundredweight. 


28.5  lbs.  at  $30  per  ton $ .43 

142.0  lbs.  at  $ 6 per  ton 43 

55.7  lbs.  at  $20  per  ton 56 

19.1  lbs.  at  $ 8 per  ton 08 

2.0  hrs.  at  25  cents 42 


, $1  .92 
.74.1% 

. $2.59 


In  using  a formula  of  this  kind  it  is  assumed : 

1.  That  the  dairyman  uses  feed,  bedding,  and  labor  in  about 
the  same  proportions  as  in  the  formula. 

2.  That  his  cows  have  an  average  production  per  year  of  about 
7,000  pounds  of  milk. 

3.  That  his  feed,  bedding,  and  labor  charges  bear  the  same 
proportionate  relation  to  his  net  costs  as  in  this  study.  Any  radi- 
cal difference  on  these  points  would  affect  the  accuracy  of  the 
results. 

The  concentrate  ration,  both  in  kind  and  amount,  is  most  likely 
to  vary.  In  this  study,  the  concentrate  ration  fed  contained  42  per 
cent  of  the  purchased  feeds,  mostly  bran  and  oil  meal.  This  pro- 
portion is  the  approximate  requirement  for  a balanced  ration  on 
ordinary  farms.  The  ratio  between  concentrates  fed  and  milk  pro- 
duction was  1 to  4.57 ; that  is,  for  every  pound  of  concentrates  fed, 
4.57  pounds  of  milk  were  produced.  This  ratio  of  concentrates  to 
milk  is  normal  for  all  but  forced  feeding,  a method  not  practiced 
on  most  farms.  The  average  production  of  the  24  herds,  namely, 
7,115  pounds,  is  almost  identical  with  the  average  production  for 
the  cow-testing  associations  in  the  state.  To  assume  that  the  ratio 
of  feed,  bedding,  and  labor  requirements  to  the  net  cost,  which 
has  been  worked  out  for  these  farms,  holds  for  all  farms  would 


Why  Costs  of  Milk  Vary 


17 


be  to  assume  that  the  costs,  other  than  feed  and  labor,  would  vary 
from  time  to  time  to  the  same  degree  as  the  costs  for  feed,  bed- 
ding, and  labor.  That  is,  if  the  charges  for  feed,  bedding,  and 
labor  decreased  one-half,  other  costs  would  decrease  one-half  also. 
Because  most  of  the  fixed  or  less  changeable  items  of  cost  are 
included  in  “Other  Costs”  an  increase  in  feed  and  labor  cost  will 
tend  to  decrease  the  relative  value  of  the  “other  costs”  items. 
Likewise  a decrease  in  the  value  of  the  feed  or  labor  items  will 
tend  to  increase  the  relative  value  of  the  “other  costs”  items. 

If  cost  formulae  are  used  with  an  intelligent  understanding  of 
their  limitations,  they  are  a great  aid  to  the  farmer  in  finding  his 
approximate  milk  costs. 

Table  V (see  p.  24)  gives  a grouping  of  the  herds  accord- 
ing to  the  cost  per  hundred  pounds.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
63.8  per  cent  of  the  milk  was  produced  at  average  cost  or 
less.  Theoretically,  if  the  price  paid  for  milk  were  based 
on  its  average  cost,  only  two-thirds  of  the  supply  would  be 
available,  because  farmers  would  refuse  to  produce  at  a 
loss.  With  the  decrease  in  supply  would  come  an  increase 
in  the  price  offered.  This  would  stimulate  production  and 
make  it  possible  for  some,  whose  previous  costs  had  been  above 
the  average,  to  now  produce  milk  at  a profit.  The  final  adjust- 
ment would  probably  find  the  price  somewhere  between  the  aver- 
age and  the  maximum  cost.  This  statement  presupposes:  (1) 

That  the  farmers  know  their  costs;  and  (2)  that  knowing  them 
they  would  refuse  to  produce  at  a loss.  Neither  of  these  supposi- 
tions is  entirely  true.  Probably  the  greater  part  of  the  milk 
reaching  the  market  is  produced  by  dairymen  who  have  little  or 
no  idea  of  what  it  costs  them.  If  dairymen  did  know  their  costs 
and  were  compelled  for  any  considerable  period  to  accept  less, 
the  majority  would  probably  go  out  of  the  dairy  business,  or,  at 
least,  reduce  their  dairy  operations.  There  are  a few  dairymen, 
however,  who  probably  would  continue  to  produce  at  a loss  be- 
cause they  could  do  no  better  at  any  other  work. 

INFLUENCE  OF  PRODUCTION  ON  MILK  COSTS 

This  subject  has  already  been  discussed  in  a general  way  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  average  cow  and  the  average  cost.  Pro- 
duction was  found  to  be  the  greatest  factor  influencing  costs,  the 
months  of  high  production  being  the  months  of  low  cost  and 
vice  versa,  both  for  the  individual  cow  and  for  the  herd.  Can  we 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  345 


infer  from  this  that  the  cow  producing  8,000  pounds  will  do  so  at 
a lower  cost  per  hundredweight  than  will  a cow  producing  6,000 
pounds?  In  other  words,  how  do  cows  of  varying  production 
influence  milk  costs? 

In  an  attempt  to  throw  some  light  on  this  question  the  24  herds 
were  arranged  in  the  order  of  their  average  milk  production  per 
cow.  The  herds  were  then  divided  into  three  equal  groups  called 
Group  I,  Group  II,  and  Group  III.  Group  I contained  the  8 
herds  of  lowest  average  production,  Group  II  the  herds  of  me- 
dium productoin,  and  Group  III  the  herds  of  highest  average  pro- 
duction per  cow.  A detailed  study  from  the  standpoint  of  rela- 
tive economy  was  then  made,  the  results  of  which  are  shown  in 
the  following  tables. 

The  average  production  of  each  of  the  lots  is  shown  in  Table 
VI  (see  p.  24).  Group  I averaged  5,554  pounds,  Group  II, 
7,130  pounds,  and  Group  III,  8,622  pounds.  The  difference 
between  each  group  is  about  1,500  pounds. 

The  requirements  per  cow  for  the  various  groups,  Table  VII 
(see  p.  24)  show  that  in  general  the  roughage  requirements 
were  about  the  same.  The  concentrate  requirements  were  pro- 
portional to  the  milk  yield.  In  other  words,  the  higher  produc- 
ing cows  did  not  get  any  more  silage  and  hay  than  did  the  low 
producing  ones,  but  did  obtain  a more  liberal  feeding  of  the 
grain  ration.  The  pasture  days,  pounds  of  bedding,  and  hours 
of  labor  show  no  very  significant  variations,  as  these  factors 
are  largely  independent  of  production. 

When  the  yearly  requirements  for  these  groups  are  reduced  to 
the  requirements  for  100  pounds  of  milk,  however,  very  signifi- 
cant variations  are  noted,  the  higher  producing  cows  showing 
marked  economy  in  all  items  except  concentrates.  Table  VIII 
(see  p.  24)  shows  that  the  requirements  per  hundred  pounds  of 
milk  for  cows  in  Group  III  are  less  than  those  in  Group  I by 
the  following  amounts : 3.6  pounds  of  concentrates,  28.6 

pounds  of  silage,  26.4  pounds  of  hay,  1.2  pasture  days,  4.8 
pounds  of  bedding,  and  .7  hours  of  labor.  The  ratio  of  concen- 
trates to  milk  produced  varies  but  slightly  for  the  different 
groups.  The  ratio  was  1 to  4.06  for  Group  I and  1 to  4.76  for 
Group  III.  The  total  difference  in  cost  of  feed,  bedding,  and 
labor,  using  average  prices  for  the  year,  amounted  to  88  cents 
per  hundred  pounds.  There  was  also  a difference  in  “other 
costs”  in  favor  of  Group  III  of  30  cents,  making  the  total  dif- 


Why  Costs  of  Milk  Vary 


19 


ference  between  the  highest  producing  and  the  lowest  produc- 
ing group  $1.18  per  hundred — a considerable  saving.  Group 
II  produced  milk  81  cents  per  hundred  cheaper  than  Group  I. 

These  results  are  as  should  be  expected,  because  most  of 
the  expenses  of  milk  production  are  as  large  for  the  low 
as  for  the  high  producing  cows.  It  takes  as  good  a barn  to  house 
one  as  the  other,  just  as  much  labor,  bedding,  days  on  pasture, 
and  almost  as  much  for  other  costs.  The  economy  of  the  higher 
producer  lies  in  the  fact  that  this  expense  is  divided  into  a larger 
volume  of  milk,  making  the  cost  per  hundred  pounds  less. 

The  economy  of  milk  production,  then,  lies  largely  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  individual  cow.  This  fact  should  emphasize  the 
prime  importance  of  breeding,  selecting  and  testing  for  produc- 
tion, and  for  the  vigorous  weeding  out  of  all  cows  unable  to  meet 
a fair  production  requirement. 

QUANTITY  OF  GRAIN  TO  FEED 

The  quantity  of  grain  in  the  ration  is  closely  related  to  any  dis- 
cussion of  production.  If  production  is  the  largest  factor  of  milk 
costs,  to  what  extent  will  it  pay  a dairyman  to  feed  for  produc- 
tion? How  much  grain  should  he  feed,  and  will  forced  feeding 
pay?  Cost  figures  obtained  by  milk-testing  cost  associations  will 
aid  the  dairyman  in  answering  these  questions  by  making  pos- 
sible a comparison  of  his  own  unit  requirements  with  those  of  the 
average  for  his  neighborhood. 

From  Table  VII  it  is  seen  that  Group  Ill’s  grain  requirement 
per  cow  is  318  pounds  greater  and  that  its  cow  cost  is  $13.30 
greater  than  are  those  of  Group  II.  Did  the  heavier  feeding  pay? 

Table  VIII,  which  is  Table  VII  reduced  to  the  one  hundred 
pound  basis,  shows  that  Group  III,  in  spite  of  heavier  feeding 
and  added  costs  per  cow,  produced  milk  cheaper  by  37  cents  a 
hundredweight  than  did  Group  II.  This  was  made  possible  by 
his  increased  production  that  effected  economies  in  all  cost  items 
except  concentrates.  The  heavier  feeding  of  grain  was  justified 
in  this  case  because  of  decreased  cost  per  hundredweight  of  milk 
produced. 

Will  it  pay  Group  III  to  feed  still  heavier?  This  will  depend 
on  the  degree  to  which  these  cows  will  respond  to  extra  feed,  and 
also  to  the  existing  production  costs  for  feed,  labor,  and  other 
items.  The  only  method  of  determining  this  is  by  experimenting, 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  345 


and  interpreting  results  from  milk  cost  data.  From  Table  VIII 
we  find  that  Group  Ill’s  grain  requirement  per  hundred  pounds 
of  milk  is  almost  the  same  as  Group  II.  In  other  words,  Group 
III  gave  proportionately  as  much  milk  for  grain  fed  as  did  Group 
II  and  therefore  so  long  as  any  added  grain  will  yield  the  same 
proportionate  increase  in  milk,  the  extra  feeding  will  pay.  This 
is  clear,  because  each  increase  would  add  nothing  to  Group  Ill’s 
grain  cost  per  hundredweight  of  milk  and  would  mean  increased 
economies  in  all  other  cost  items.  As  long  as  Group  III  can  ob- 
tain proportionate  increases  in  milk,  this  group  is  decreasing  its 
production  costs. 

The  next  question  is,  to  what  extent  will  it  pay  to  feed  beyond 
this  point?  It  is  true  that  as  soon  as  added  grain  brings  diminish- 
ing returns  in  milk,  the  grain  requirement  per  hundred  pounds  of 
milk  will  increase  and  will  add  to  the  production  costs.  But  it 
is  true  also  that  for  every  ircrease  in  milk  flow  resulting  from  the 
heavier  feeding,  there  will  be  savings  in  all  other  costs.  These 
economies  will  make  it  profitable  to  feed  somewhat  past  the  be- 
ginning of  diminishing  returns  for.  grain.  The  concentrate  ration 
could  profitably  be  increased  to  that  point  where  the  cost  of  the 
last  increase  of  grain  would  just  equal  the  saving  on  the  fixed 
charges  such  as  roughage,  labor,  and  housing  due  to  the  increased 
milk  flow.  To  feed  more  would  be  to  increase  costs. 


Why  Costs  of  Milk  Vary 


21 


TABLE  I —DISTRIBUTION  OF  COSTS  PER  COW. 
(SIX  WINTER  OR  BARN-FEEDING  MONTHS.) 


Yearly 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

Winter 

Months 

Production 

Milk 

Fat 

Test,  per  cent 

pounds 

7115.2 

268.7 

3.78 

pounds 

521.7 

19.9 

3.82 

pounds 

556.9 

21.2 

3.80 

pounds 

601.4 

23.1 

3.85 

pounds 

620.4 

23.9 

3.85 

pounds 

710.6 

26.9 

3.79 

pounds 

732.3 

26.7 

3.64 

pounds 

3746.0 

141.7 

3.78 

Items  of  expense 

Feed  and  bedding 

Labor 

Interest 

Taxes,  insurance,  repairs. 
Net  herd  decrease 

$116.66 

56.00 

21.12 

4.79 

$ 13.15 
5.10 
1.79 
.34 

$ 13.45 
5.37 
1.69 
.39 

$ 13.68 
5.41 
1.78 
.30 

$ 11.43 
4.89 
1.77 
.30 

$ 12.38 
5.34 
1.77 
.31 
1.24 

.76 

1.28 

2.85 
$ 25.93 

$ 10.27 
5.14 
1.76 
.30 

$ 74.35 
31.24 
10.56 
1.94 

Bldgs,  and  equip,  depre- 
ciation   

Miscellaneous 

Managerial  wage,  risks, 

etc 

Total  

5.09 

17.14 

27.04 

$247.84 

.30 

1.53 

2.53 
$ 24.74 

.47 

1.50 

2.70 
$ 25.57 

.73 

1.19 

2.96 
$ 26.05 

2.83 

2.57 
$ 23.79 

.74 

1.33 

2.29 
$ 21.83 

2.05 

9.66 

15.90 

$145.70 

Returns  not  milk 

Net  increase 

Miscellaneous 

$ 8.15 
.06 
24.38 

$ 1.69 

$ 1.60 
.02 
2.05 

$ 2.20 

$ .26 

$ 1.33 

$ 5.83 
.04 
12.42 

Manure 

Bldgs,  and  equip,  apprecia- 
tion  

2.09 

2.07 

.96 

2.05 

2.05 

Total 

$ 32.59 

$ 3.82 

$ 3.67 

$ 4.29 

$ 3.29 

$ 2.05 

$ 3.38 

$ 18.29 

Net  cost 

Net  cost  of  milk  per  cwt 

Net  cost  of  butterfat  per  lb.. 

$215.25 

3.02 

.80 

$ 20.92 
4.01 
1.05 

$ 21.90 

3.93 

1.03 

$ 21.76 
3.60 
.94 

$ 20.50 
3.30 
.83 

$ 23.88 
3.36 
.89 

$ 18.45 
2.52 
.69 

$127.41 

3.40 

.90 

(SIX  SUMMER  OR  PASTURE-FEEDING  MONTHS) 


May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Summe 

Months 

Production 

Milk  

pounds 

784.3 

pounds 

699.9 

pounds 

516.1 

pounds 

464.3 

pounds 

412.8 

16.4 

pounds 

491.7 

18.8 

pounds 

3369.1 

127.0 

3.77 

Fat 

29.0 

26.0 

19.2 

17.7 

Test,  percent 

3.71 

3.72 

3.80 

3.97 

3.83 

Items  of  expense 

Feed  and  bedding 

$ 6.78 

$ 5.20 

$ 6.22 

$ 5.89 

$ 7.66 
4.43 
1.79 

$ 10.58 
4.98 
1.80 
.33 

$ 42.31 
24.76 
10.56 
2.85 

Uahor  

4.26 

3.81 

3.64 

3.64 

Interest 

1.76 

1.75 

1.73 

1.73 

Taxes,  insurance,  repairs 

.55 

.31 

.62 

.30 

.73 

Net  herd  decrease 

.49 

1.97 

Bldgs,  and  equip,  depreciation 

.75 

.59 

.49 

.74 

.61 

3.04 

7.48 

11.14 

Miscellaneous 

1.36 

1.32 

.94 

.87 

1.68 

1.32 

Managerial  wage,  risks,  etc 

1.92 

1.72 

1.64 

1.66 

1.93 

2.26 

Total 

$ 17.38 

$ 15.19 

$ 15.28 

$ 16.80 

$ 18.22 

$ 21.88 

$102.14 

Returns  not  milk 

Net  increase 

$ .56 

$ .11 

$ 1.72 

$ 2.40 

$ 2.32 
.02 
11.96 

Miscellaneous 

.02 

Manure 

2.04 

$ 1.95 

1.93 

$ 1.90 

2.05 

2.08 

Bldgs,  and  equip,  appreciation 

.15 

Total 

$ 2.60 

$ 1.95 

$ 2.04 

$ 1.90 

$ 3.92 

$ 4.50 

$ 14.30 

Net  cost 

$ 14.78 

1.88 

$ 13.24 
1.89 
.51 

$ 13.24 
2.57 
.69 

$ 14.90 

$ 14.30 
3.46 
.87 

$ 17  38 

$ 87.84 
2.61 
.69 

Net  cost  of  milk  per  cwt 

3^21 

.84 

3!  54 
.92 

Net  cost  of  butterfat  per  lb 

.51 

22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  345 


TABLE  II— FEED  AND  LABOR  REQUIREMENTS  PER  COW 
(SIX  WINTER  OR  BARN-FEEDING  MONTHS) 


Yearly 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

March 

April 

Winter 

Months 

Concentrates,  lbs 

1555.2 

148.0 

170.3 

181.6 

171.3 

202.4 

199.3 

1073.0 

Succulent  roughage,  lbs 

8430.0 

946.8 

998.2 

1023.9 

983.9 

1009.0 

942.7 

5904.5 

Dry  roughage,  lbs 

Pasture,  days 

2866.7 

168 

399.0 

455.2 

430.5 

356.8 

395.5 

367.1 

2404.1 

Bedding,  lbs 

883.2 

103.7 

133.6 

157.0 

135.8 

135.6 

131.7 

797.4 

Labor,  hours 

149.2 

13.5 

14.2 

14.5 

13.1 

14.4 

13.9 

83.6 

Per  cent  of  net  cost 

79.8 

87.0 

86.0 

87.5 

79.7 

74.1 

83.7 

82.9 

(SIX  SUMMER  OR  PASTURE-FEEDING  MONTHS) 


May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Summer 

Months 

Concentrates  lbs 

126.0 

65.4 

54.6 

55.1 

59.8 

121.4 

482.3 

Succulent  roughage,  lbs 

438.1 

189.7 

416.1 

388.7 

451.4 

641.5 

2525.5 

Dry  roughage,  lbs 

140.1 

46.7 

55.4 

52.7 

45.3 

122.4 

462.6 

Pasture,  days 

17.0 

30.0 

31.0 

31.0 

30.0 

29.0 

168.0 

Bedding,  lbs 

57.2 

11.7 

8.4 

8.5 

85.8 

Labor,  hours 

11.5 

10.2 

9.8 

9.7 

11.4 

13.0 

65.6 

Per  cent  of  net  cost 

73.9 

68.2 

74.7 

64.2 

84.4 

89.3 

76.6 

TABLE  III— DISTRIBUTION  OF  COSTS  PER  HUNDREDWEIGHT  OF  MILK 
(SIX  SUMMER  OR  PASTURE-FEEDING  MONTHS) 


May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Summer 

Months 

Items  of  expense 

Feed  and  bedding 

Labor 

Interest 

Taxes,  insurance,  repairs 

Net  herd  decrease 

$ .84 

.55 
.22 
.07 

$ .74 

.55 
.25 
.04 
.07 
.08 
.19 
.25 

$ 1.21 
.71 
.33 
.12 

$ 1.28 
.78 
.37 
.06 
.43 
.16 
.19 
.35 

$ 1.85 
1.07 
.43 
.18 

$ 2.15 

1.01 

.37 

.07 

8 1.26 
.74 
.31 
.08 

Bldgs,  and  equip,  depreciation 

Miscellaneous 

Managerial  wage,  risks,  etc 

Total 

.io 

.17 

.24 

.10 

.18 

.32 

.41 

.47 

.12 

.27 

.46 

.09 

.22 

.33 

$ 2.21 

$ 2.17 

$ 2.97 

$ 3.62 

$ 4.41 

8 4.45 

8 3.03 

Returns  not  milk 

Net  herd  increase 

Miscellaneous 

$ .07 

$ .02 

8 .41 

$ .49 

8 .07 

Manure 

Bldgs,  and  equip,  appreciation 

.26 

.28 

.38 

.41 

.50 

.04 

.42 

.35 

Total 

.33 

.28 

.40 

.41 

.95 

.91 

.42 

Net  cost  of  milk  per  cwt 

$ 1.88 

$ 1.89 

8 2.57 

$ 3.21 

$ 3.46 

8 3.54 

8 2.61 

Why  Costs  of  Milk  Vary 


23 


TABLE  III— SIX  WINTER  OR  BARN-FEEDING  MONTHS 


Yearly' 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

March 

April 

Winter 

Months 

Items  of  expense 

1.63  $ 
.78 
.30 
.07 

2.52  $ 
.97 
.34 
.06 

2.42  t 
.96 
.30 
.07 

2.26  f 
.89 
.29 
.05 

1.84  $ 
.79 
.28 
.05 

1.74  $ 
.75 
.25 
.04 
.17 

.11 

.18 

.40 

1.41  $ 
.70 
.24 
.04 

1.98  $ 
.84 
.28 
.05 

Taxes,  insurance,  repairs. 
Net  herd  decrease 

Bldgs,  and  equip,  depre- 
ciation  

.07 

.24 

.38 

.06 

.30 

.49 

.08 

.28 

.48 

.12 

.20 

.49 

.10 

.18 

.31 

.06 

.26 

.42 

Miscellaneous 

.46 

.41 

Managerial  wage,  risks, 
etc  

Total  

$ 3.47 

$ 4.74 

S 4.59 

$ 4.30 

$ 3.83 

$ 3.64 

$ 2.98 

$ 3.89 

Returns  not  milk 

Net.  Vierrl  increase  . . . 

$ .11 

$ .32 

S .29 

$ .36 

$ .04 

$ .18 

$ .16 

Miscellaneous  ...  . 

Manure 

.34 

.41 

.37 

.34 

.34 

.15 

.28 

.28 

.33 

Bldgs,  and  equip,  appreci- 

Total 

$ .45 

$ .73 

$ .66 

$ .70 

$ .53 

$ .28 

$ .46 

$ .49 

Net  cost  of  milk  per  cwt 

$ 3.02 

$ 4.01 

$ 3.93 

$ 3.60 

$ 3.30 

$ 3.36 

$ 2.52 

$ 3.40 

TABLE  IV— FEED  AND  LABOR  REQUIREMENTS  PER  HUNDREDWEIGHT  OF  MILK 
(SIX  WINTER  OR  BARN-FEEDING  MONTHS) 


Yearly 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb.  . 

March 

April 

Winter 

Months 

Concentrates,  lbs 

21.9 

28.4 

30.6 

30.1 

27.6 

28.5 

27.2 

28.6 

Succulent  roughage,  lbs 

118.5 

181.5 

179.2 

169.5 

158.6 

142.0 

128.7 

157.6 

Dry  roughage,  lbs 

Pasture,  days 

40.3 

2.4 

76.5 

81.7 

71.3 

57.5 

55.7 

50.2 

64.2 

Bedding,  lbs 

Labor,  hours 

12.4 

19.9 

24.0 

26.0 

21.9 

19.1 

18.0 

21.3 

2.1 

2.6 

2.6 

2.4 

2.1 

2.0 

1.9 

2.2 

Per  cent  of  net  cost 

79.8 

87.0 

86.0 

87.5 

79.7 

74.1 

83.7 

82.9 

(SIX  SUMMER  OR  PASTURE-FEEDING  MONTHS) 


May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct. 

Summer 

Months 

Concentrates,  lbs 

16.1 

9.3 

10.6 

11.9 

14.5 

24.7 

14.3 

Succulent  roughage,  lbs 

55.8 

27.1 

80.6 

83.7 

109.3 

130.5 

75.0 

Dry  roughage,  lbs 

17.9 

6.7 

10.7 

11.3 

11.0 

24.9 

13.7 

Pasture,  days 

2.4 

4.1 

5.6 

6.2 

7.6 

6.6 

5.0 

Bedding,  lbs 

7.3 

1.7 

1.6 

1.8 

2 6 

Labor,  hours 

1.5 

1.5 

1.9 

2.1 

2.2 

2.6 

2.0 

Per  cent  of  net  cost 

73.9 

68.2 

74.7 

64.2 

84.4 

89.3 

76.6 

24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  345 


TABLE  V— RANGE  IN  COSTS  PER  HUNDREDWEIGHT  OF  MILK 


Cost  per 
100  lbs. 

Quantity 
produced  at 
given  cost 

Percentage  of 
total  production 

Cumulative 

percentage 

Pounds 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

$2.19 

208,847 

7.45 

7.45 

2.33 

133,360 

4.76 

12.21 

2.39 

136,198 

4.86 

17.07 

2.49 

195,658 

6.98 

24.05 

2.53 

88,930 

3.17 

27.22 

2.72 

227,774 

8.13 

35.35 

2.81 

115,698 

4.13 

39.48 

2.91 

114,806 

4.10 

43.58 

2.92 

103,136 

3.68 

47.26 

2.97 

150,784 

5.38 

52.64 

2.99 

139,450 

4.97 

57.61 

*3.02 

173,792 

6.20 

63.81 

3.06 

125,412 

4.47 

68.28 

3.11 

160,221 

5.72 

74.00 

3.49 

117,488 

4.19 

78.19 

3.53 

107,652 

3.84 

82.03 

3.57 

85,799 

3.06 

85.09 

3.83 

72,464 

2.59 

87.68 

3.95 

88,115 

3.14 

90.82 

4.03 

56,338 

2.01 

92.83 

4.04 

67,444 

2.41 

95.24 

4.24 

76,674 

2.74 

97.98 

4.67 

57,316 

2.02 

100.00 

* Average  cost  of  milk  per  hundredweight. 


TABLE  VI —PRODUCTION  STATEMENT  OF  HERDS 


Number 
of  herds 

Average 
size  of 
farms 

Average 
no.  cows 
per  farm 

Average 

production 

milk 

Average 

production 

fat 

Average 

test 

percentage 

Acres 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Per  cent 

GROUP  I 

8 

153 

15.4 

5554. 

225.5 

4.06 

GROUP  II 

8 

125 

18.1 

7130. 

268.1 

3.76 

GROUP  III 

8 

99 

15.8 

8622. 

312.1 

3.62 

TABLE  VII— YEARLY  FEED  AND  LABOR  REQUIREMENTS  PER  COW 


Concen- 

trates 

Succulent 

roughage 

Dry 

roughage 

Pasture 

Bedding 

Man 

labor 

Total 
costs  per 
cow 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Days 

Pounds 

Hours 

GROUP  I 

1,367 

7,333 

3,229 

174 

846 

144 

$204.06 

GROUP  II 

1,493 

8,936 

2,662 

163 

899 

143 

214.13 

GROUP  III 

1,811 

8,918 

2,740 

169 

901 

163 

227.43 

TABLE  VIII— FEED  AND  LABOR  REQUIREMENTS  PER  HUNDREDWEIGHT  OF  MILK 


Concen- 

trates 

Succulent 

roughage 

Dry 

roughage 

Pasture 

Bedding 

Man 

labor 

Cost  per 
100  !bs. 
milk 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Days 

Pounds 

Hours 

GROUP  I 

24.6 

132.0 

58.1 

3.1 

15.2 

2.6 

$3.82 

GROUP  II 

21.0 

125.3 

37.4 

2.3 

12.6 

2.0 

3.01 

GROUP  III 

21.0 

103.4 

31.8 

2.0 

10.4 

1.9 

2.64 

Bulletin  346  January,  1923 

v Of  11; 

MAR  9 

Marketing 

by 

Cooperative  Sales 
Companies 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
MADISON 


DIGEST 


Success  in  the  cooperative  marketing  movement  depends  upon  ren- 
dering better  service  at  lower  cost.  Pages  4-6 

Cooperation  does  not  guarantee  making  profits.  Efficiency  must  be 

developed  by  a cooperative  system  if  profits  are  to  be  secured. 

Pages  5-6 

Better  service  in  storing  and  distributing  cheese  is  needed  to  sta- 
bilize prices  in  order  to  reduce  hazards  of  cheese  production. 

Pages  7-8,  20-21 

Price  fluctuation  is  largely  caused  by  the  universal  practice  of 
farmers  in  dumping  their  products  on  the  market  without  regard  for 
the  demand.  Page  9 

The  marketing  margin  received  by  cheese  dealers  has  been  reduced 
more  than  one-half  by  cooperative  effort.  Pages  10-11,  26-27 

Volume  of  business  is  necessary  for  a Cheese  Federation  to  render 
storing  services  that  will  stabilize  prices.  Page  13 

Paying  the  best  cheesemakers  more  and  giving  them  larger  volume 
of  milk  reduces  cost  of  making  cheese  and  improves  the  price.  This 
must  be  accompanied  by  doing  away  with  small  factories  and  poor 
makers.  Pages  16-18 

The  cheesemaker  is  not  a salesman  and  cannot  do  this  work  prop- 
erly whether  trained  or  not.  His  time  is  too  short  and  he  has  not 

enough  cheese  to  sell.  Pages  18-19 

Cheese  Boards  cannot  solve  cheese  marketing  problems  because  they 
cannot  enable  farmers  to  wait  until  the  proper  time  of  selling  to  dispose 
of  their  output.  Page  20 

The  service  of  district  exchanges  is  essential  to  permit  farmers  to 
hold  their  cheese  until  the  right  time  to  sell.  The  district  warehouse 
is  necessary  to  handle  cheese  least  expensively.  Pages  21-23 

District  groups  of  cheese  factories  cannot  sell  cheese  to  advantage. 

They  have  too  small  a volume  of  cheese  to  do  this  task  well. 

Pages  23-24 

Best  merchandising  of  cheese  requires  a national  cheese  sales  or- 
ganization. Many  district  groups  must  join  in  order  to  provide  suffi- 
cient business  to  make  it  worth  while.  Pages  24-25 

The  greatest  results  to  be  gained  by  cooperative  cheese  marketing, 
namely,  improved  marketing  service,  are  still  ahead.  Page  27 

Volume  of  business  is  the  foundation  for  the  development  of  the 
best  service  and  hence  the  largest  benefits  of  cooperative  effort. 

Page  29 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales 
Companies 

Theodore  Macklin 

The  GREATEST  improvements  in  marketing  during 
recent  years  have  come  through  the  establishment  and 
operation  of  sales  companies  doing  their  work  with 
minimum  expense  and  rendering  better  service  than  was  pre- 
viously available. 

Although  Wisconsin  is  noted  for  the  development  of  co- 
operative enterprises  by  farmers,  mostly  of  a local  character, 
as  shown  by  creameries,  cheese  factories,  livestock  shipping 
associations  and  similar  enterprises,  yet  not  until  recently  has 
the  state  accomplished  much  in  real  cooperative  sales  organi- 
zations. While  the  attention  of  farmers  has  been  called  re- 
peatedly to  the  cooperative  marketing  companies  of  California, 
Canada  and  other  countries,  few  people  in  the  state  have  realized 
that  within  her  borders  there  were  at  least  two  important  enter- 
prises— The  Wisconsin  Cheese  Producers’  Federation  and  The 
Wisconsin  Cranberry  Sales  Company — worthy  of  the  name  of 
cooperative  sales  companies. 

Wisconsin  cheese  has  been  successfully  marketed  cooperatively 
more  than  eight  years,  and  cranberries  for  a longer  time.  This 
definitely  shows  that  Wisconsin  farmers  who  wish  to  co-operate 
may  successfully  do  so  if  they  earnestly  and  persistently  follow 
sound  plans.  Numerous  farmers  are  determined  to  bring  about 
better  conditions  in  marketing  by  means  of  cooperation.  It  is 
timely  to  inquire  what  these  farmers  believe  cooperation  is  able 
to  accomplish  in  marketing  and  under  what  conditions  it  bids 
fair  to  meet  their  expectations.  As  an  example  that  will  be  most 
widely  understood,  take  the  cheese  industry.  What  do  cheese 
producers  expect  to  gain  by  cooperation  in  marketing  their  prod- 
uct and  what  must  be  done  to  gain  success?  What  may  be  wise 
in  marketing  cheese  cooperatively  may  be  equally  advisable  for 
those  interested  in  marketing  butter,  tobacco,  livestock,  or  other 
farm  products. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


Possibility  for  Cooperation 

Cooperation  enables  a group  of  farmers  to  assume  responsibil- 
ity for  having  their  products  marketed.  In  other  words,  it 
enables  a group  to  employ  management,  other  workers  and  equip- 
ment needed  for  doing  the  work  of  delivering  products,  which 
are  on  the  farm  today  in  the  shape  of  raw  materials,  to  the  con- 
sumer tomorrow  in  the  form  of  finished  articles  that  consumers 
can  use.  This  work,  in  the  absence  of  cooperative  marketing 
companies,  is  accomplished  by  private  marketing  companies. 

It  so  happens  that  most  of  the  marketing  work  of  the  present 
day  is  done  by  private  companies  and  not  by  cooperatives.  The 


FIG.  1.— WISCONSIN’S  OUTPUT  OF  AMERICAN  CHEESE 

More  than  235,000,000  pounds  of  American  cheese  and  almost  70.000,000 
pounds  of  brick,  swiss  and  limburger  cheese  were  produced  in  the  state 
during  1919.  Cheese  is  a leading  Wisconsin  product  and  its  marketing 
should  be  the  most  efficient  possible. 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies 


'5 


reason  is  that  individuals  have  organized  private  corporations, 
partnerships  or  individual  enterprises,  supported  these  concerns 
with  their  financial  resources  and  personal  services  and  then  have 
gone  out  after  business.  This  has  meant  the  securing  of  cheese 
in  one  way  or  another  from  cheese  factories  and  from  other  deal- 
ers. Once  they  had  the  cheese  their  next  problem  was  to  dispose 
of  it  advantageously.  This  meant  that  the  cheese  had  to  be 
moved  from  the  factory  to  that  state  or  city  in  which  consumers 
would  pay  the  most  satisfactory  prices  during  the  year. 

Marketing  Causes  Expense 

It  not  only  costs  money  to  send  cheese  from  Wisconsin  to  all 
of  the  various  states,  but  moreover,  it  takes  a vast  amount  of 
accurate  information  coupled  with  keen  judgment  to  be  sure  that 
in  sending  a carload  of  cheese  to  Tampa,  Florida,  better  results 
would  not  have  been  obtained  by  sending  it  to  Los  Angeles,  Cali- 
fornia. To  employ  salesmanship  that  may  be  relied  upon  to  dis- 
pose of  cheese  to  advantage  is  expensive.  Furthermore,  to  as- 
semble cheese  at  a central  plant  from  numerous  local  cheese  fac- 
tories so  that  it  may  be  paraffined,  graded,  branded,  stored  if 
necessary,  loaded  into  cars  and  sent  on  its  way  to  48  states  also 
involves  the  purchase  of  supplies,  the  hiring  of  labor  and  the 
rental  of  warehouses  and  cold  storages.  All  this  results  in  fur- 
ther expense.  No  middleman  who  ignores  the  question  of  so 
controlling  expenses  of  all  kinds  as  to  get  the  most  work  done 
for  the  least  money  is  likely  to  be  successful. 

The  work  of  cheese  marketing,  therefore,  is  to  secure  a volume 
of  business,  operate  the  business  at  the  lowest  possible  expense 
per  pound,  and  sell  the  goods  at  the  best  prices  obtainable.  In 
these  particulars  the  cooperative  marketing  company  does  not 
differ  at  all  from  the  private.  The  work  of  marketing  is  funda- 
mentally the  same  whether  the  farmer,  a private  middleman,  or 
a cooperative  middleman  or  the  consumer  does  it.  The  impor- 
tant questions  are  whether  better  service  is  realized  one  way  or 
another,  whether  it  costs  more  to  do  it  one  way  or  another,  and 
whether  the  profits  gained  by  doing  the  work  of  marketing  effi- 
ciently go  to  the  farmer  or  to  someone  else. 

Does  Cooperation  Insure  Profits? 

The  mere  change  of  a private  into  a co-operative  business  by 
no  means  insures  that  profits  will  be  made.  All  that  cooperation 
guarantees  is  that  if  the  work  of  marketing  is  efficiently  done 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


and  if  profits  are  thereby  earned,  these  profits  will  go  to  the 
farmer  cooperators  who  now  own  the  business  instead  of  as 
formerly  to  one  or  more  non-farmer  middlemen  who  formerly 
owned  the  business.  The  most  important  questions  are:  (1)  How 
may  the  cooperative  marketing  company  render  better  service 
than  the  private  company,  and  (2)  How  may  the  cooperative 
marketing  company  operate  with  lower  expenses  than  the  private 
company.  If  these  two  great  objects  are  attained  then  only  has 
cooperation  met  the  full  hopes  of  the  cooperators.  If  coopera- 
tion does  not  achieve  these  purposes  then  it  has  made  no  financial 
improvements  over  the  private  marketing  concern. 


FIG.  2. — LOCATION  OF  COOPERATIVE  CHEESE  MARKETING  SYSTEM 


Local  cheese  factories,  numbering  168  shown  by  the  black  dots  and 
organized  into  district  groups  each  surrounding  a warehouse  form  the 
federation  which  supports  the  sales  company  known  as  the  Wisconsin 
Cheese  Producers  Federation.  (See  Figs.  3 and  5.) 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies 


7 


Need  for  Better  Service 

Without  thoroughly  examining  all  causes  for  their  predicament 
cheese  producers  generally  affirm  that  one  of  their  greatest  hard- 
ships is  caused  by  the  fluctuation  in  cheese  prices.  They  reason 
this  way:  if  the  price  of  cheese  is  18  cents  a pound  then  wise 
plans  for  production  justify  the  development  of  a herd  of  a cer- 
tain number,  say,  ten  cows.  This,  in  order  to  care  for  the  herd 
properly,  requires  a certain  quantity  of  feed  and  of  labor  at  given 
prices.  Assuming  that  the  income  from  this  herd  will  be  a given 
figure  because  cheese  is  18  cents  a pound,  then  they  can  afford  to 
pay  a given  price  for  the  needed  feed  and  labor.  After  making 
plans  on  this  basis,  however,  the  seasonal  decline  in  price  upsets 
all  reasonable  calculations  and  changes  the  paper  profit  to  an 
actual  loss.  This  loss  the  farmer  believes  to  be  the  result  of 
premeditated  efforts  on  the  part  of  middlemen  whose  success,  it  is 
thought,  can  come  from  no  other  source  than  the  farmers’  loss. 

Consequently,  the  farmers’  ills  are  laid  directly  to  the  middle- 
man and  the  latter’s  efforts  to  buy  what  he  wants  at  the  lowest 
possible  prices.  According  to  this  reasoning  the  solution  logically 
follows  that  to  improve  the  farmer’s  condition  requires  either  the 
abolition  of  the  middlemen  or  else  the  change  from  private  mid- 
dlemen to  some  sort  of  cooperative  scheme.  It  rarely  occurs  to 
the  cheese  producer  that  the  weakness  in  the  present  marketing 
system  is  due  primarily  to : ( 1 ) service  which  is  inexcusably 
poor;  (2)  higher  cost  in  marketing  than  is  necessary. 

Marketing  Needlessly  Poor 

The  work  which  must  be  done  by  the  marketing  system  in 
taking  milk  from  the  farm  and  placing  it  as  cheese  with  the  final 
consumer  may  be  briefly  classified  into  eight  distinct  kinds  of 
service : 

1.  Assembling. 

2.  Grading  and  standardizing. 

3.  Packaging. 

4.  Processing. 

5.  Transporting 

6.  Storing. 

7.  Financing. 

8.  Distributing. 

These  services  in  some  manner  or  other  have  to  be  rendered 
if  products  are  to  reach  consumers  and  hence  if  farmers  are  to 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


succeed  in  disposing  of  their  commodities.  This  is  true  no  matter 
whether  the  work  is  done  by  cooperative  or  by  private  middle- 
men. The  real  questions  of  whether  marketing  should  be  con- 
tinued under  private  companies  or  whether  cooperative  com- 
panies should  be  established  to  do  a part  or  all  of  it  hinges  upon 
which  of  the  two  will  render  the  best  service  at  the  lowest  cost. 

While  there  are  weaknesses  and  hence  wastes  in  rendering 
each  of  these  eight  services,  by  far  the  greatest  weakness  (or, 
stated  in  another  way,  the  largest  possibility  for  improvement), 
has  to  do  with  storing  and  distributing  farm  products.  In  these 
two  services  the  private  system  of  marketing  is  least  helpful  to 
the  farmer.  The  fault  is  inherent  in  the  system.  Private  effort 
subdivides  volume  of  business  to  such  an  extreme  that  small 
volume  of  business  per  company  rules.  Small  volume  of  business 
means  high  expense  as  proved  by  numerous  investigations  of 
marketing  enterprises.  To  avoid  large  overhead  expense  small 
concerns  do  not  install  the  equipment  necessary  to  proper  han- 
dling and  storing  of  the  product.  Neither  do  these  dwarfed  en- 
terprises attract  the  type  of  expert  efficient  management  that  is 
necessary  to  do  the  marketing  work  well. 


FIG.  3 — A LOCAL  CHEESE  FACTORY 

Farmers  while  appreciating  the  service  of  a local  factory  do  not  as 
yet  realize  the  necessity  of  large  volume  of  business  per  factory  if  It 
is  to  be  operated  at  minimum  cost.  The  ideal  is  to  have  the  average 
factory  turn  out  more  cheese  of  a better  sort  that  will  bring  more 
money.  Attracting  the  best  cheese  makers  and  joining  the  cooperative 
cheese  marketing  system  will  bring  improvement. 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies 


9 


Causes  of  Price  Fluctuation 

Because  of  poor  storing  and  distributing  services  the 
private  marketing  companies  are  unable  to  prevent  needless 
price  fluctuation.  On  the  contrary  wherever  local  coopera- 
tive associations  have  established  a successful  market-wide 
sales  agency  these  services  of  storing  and  distributing  have 
been  so  handled  as  to  “feed”  the  market.  That  is,  the  farmers’ 
products  have  been  fed  to  the  market  instead  of  being  season- 
ally dumped  on  it  in  such  vast  quantities  that  the  market 
could  not  absorb  them  without  a declining  or  sacrifice  price. 
As  a consequence  of  extending  the  period  of  marketing 
from  a few  months  or  from  certain  months  of  oversupply  and 
others  of  undersupply  to  a longer  period  whereby  sales  by 
farmers  through  their  marketing  companies  occurred  about  in 
proportion  to  purchases  by  consumers,  prices  have  been  rela- 
tively stabilized. 

A comparison  of  conditions  preceding  the  establishment  of 
successful  cooperative  sales  systems  with  conditions  afterward 
reveals  that  they  have  rendered*  better  service  in  storing  and 
distributing  them  than  did  their  private  predecessors.  For  Wis- 
consin’s cheese  industry  as  well  as  for  her  butter  industry  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  poorer  service  is  given  in  storing  and  distribut- 


FIG.  4.— CHEESE  MAKING  ROOM 

The  cheese  maker  Is  an  expert  who  converts  milk  into  cheese  He  is 
not  a salesman.  Hire  him  to  make  cheese  but  not  to  sell  it. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


ing  than  is  possible  to  supply  through  a successful  cooperative 
sales  system. 

Cooperative  Marketing  Reduces  Operating  Margin 

It  was  found  by  an  investigation  in  1912  that  when  cheese 
was  selling  on  the  cheese  boards  at  11  or  12  cents  a pound  the 
cheese  dealer’s  margin  was  from  .75  cents  to  1.5  per  pound.1 
This  was  a margin  of  from  6.25  cents  to  12.5  cents  on  each 
dollar  of  sales.  It  was  in  protest  to  this  wide  margin  received 
by  cheese  dealers  that  the  Wisconsin  Cheese  Producers  Federa- 
tion was  started  by  farmers  on  the  cooperative  basis  to  reduce 
the  cost  of  doing  business  and  to  improve  the  marketing  serv- 
ices. 

In  the  most  expensive  year  of  operation  the  Wisconsin  Cheese 
Producers  Federation  (see  table  V)  took  a total  margin  of  only 
3.43  cents  per  dollar  of  sales.  This  was  only  half  the  former 
minimum  margin  of  the  private  cheese  dealers.  It  represents 
for  the  cooperative  dealer  a margin  of  only  .6  cents  per  pound 
for  cheese  that  sold  at  18  cents^per  pound,  whereas  in  1912  the 
private  dealer  secured  a margin  varying  from  .75  cents  to  1.5 
cents  per  pound  for  cheese  that  sold  at  11  to  12  cents  a pound. 

Thus  a cooperative  marketing  company  has  already  cut  in 
half  the  relative  margin  secured  by  dealers  in  handling  cheese. 
That  a concern  handling  only  6 or  7 per  cent  of  the  state’s  out- 
put of  cheese  should  be  expected  to  do  more  than  this,  namely 
to  stabilize  prices  by  market  feeding  when  it  has  so  little  of  the 
total  cheese  to  store  and  distribute  is  expecting  the  impossible. 
Before  it  can  improve  on  these  services  as  successfully  as  it  has 
reduced  the  marketing  margin  it  must  be  increased  in  size  to 
handle  the  bulk  of  the  cheese  of  the  state. 

What  the  Cheese  Federation  Is 

The  Wisconsin  Cheese  Producers  Federation  is  a cooperative 
national  sales  company.2  It  is  owned  by  farmers  and  operated 
by  expert  management  engaged  by  the  board  of  directors,  in 
behalf  of  the  4,368  or  more  farmers  who  are  patrons  of  the 
168  local  cheese  factories  holding  membership  in.  1921.  As 
with  all  sales  companies  it  faces  in  two  directions.  On  the  one 
hand  it  comprises  a line  of  organization  from  the  farmer  to 
the  warehouse  where  cheese  is  assembled  and  paraffined.  On 


’Wis.  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  231,  The  Marketing  of  Wisconsin  Cheese,  p.  30. 

2For  its  article  of  cooperative  association  and  by-laws  see  pages  29-32. 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies  11 

Table  I. — Growth  of  Wisconsin  Cheese  Federation  Shown  by 
Cheese  Handled  Yearly 


Year 

Number  of 
factories 

Pounds  of  cheese 
received  from 
factories 

Pounds  of  cheese  received 
from  factories  each  year  for 
every  100  pounds  received  in 
1914 

1914 

| 45 

6,125,480 

100.0 

1915 

43 

7,558,796 

123.4 

1916 

45 

7,490,020 

122.3 

1917 

56 

8,981,308 

146.6 

1918 

63 

8,522,509 

139.1 

1919 

120 

14,098,021 

230.1 

1920 

125 

13,982,817 

228.3 

1921 

140 

15,564,414 

254.9 

1922 

145 

*8,480,690 

Total 

— - 

90,804,050 

♦Corresponding  figure  for  first  six  months  of  1921  is  7,237,511.  Increase  of  1922 
over  1921  for  same  period  was  17  per  cent. 


the  other  hand  it  maintains  a sales  organization  which  dis- 
tributes cheese  from  its  six  district  warehouses  to  buyers  in 
most  of  the  states.  In  1919  it  sold  and  delivered  cheese  in  37 
states.  Figures  1 to  10  and  tables  I to  VIII  give  an  idea  of  the 
organization  and  how  it  handles  cheese. 

Growth  of  the  Federation 

In  spite  of  obstacles,  the  Cheese  Federation  has  made  sub- 
stantial growth.  During  1921  it  handled  15,564,414  pounds,  or 
more  than  6 per  cent  of  the  American  cheese  produced  in  Wis- 
consin. Far  more  important  than  volume  of  business,  it  has 
shown  that  Wisconsin  farmers  can  unite  their  local  associa 


Table  II. — Increase  in  Value  of  Federation’s  Business  Shown  by 
Total  Annual  Payments  to  Factories 


Year 

Dollars  paid  to 
factories  for 
cheese 

Dollars  paid  to  fac- 
tories each  year  for 
each  dollar  paid  in 
1914 

Net  price  per 
Dound  for  cheese 
paid  to  factories 

Per  cent 
price  increase 
over  year 
1914 

Dollars 

Dollars 

Cents 

Per  cent 

1914 

855,328.64 

$ 1.00 

14.302 

1915 

' 1,115,795.20 

1.30 

15.085 

~5~4 

1916 

1,300,520.24 

1.53 

17.567 

22.8 

1917 

2,144,005.05 

2.51 

24.087 

68.4 

1918 

2,258,163.73 

2.64 

27.052 

89.1 

1919 

4,243,938.56 

4.96 

30.108 

115.4 

1920 

3,640,608.49 

4.25 

25.71 

80.0 

1921 

2,851,546.13 

3.34 

18.02 

26.0 

1922 

*1,421,749.21 

— - 

17.42 

21.8 

Total 

$19,831,655.25 

.... 

First  six  months. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


tions.  It  has  proved  that  such  federations  can  hire  experts 
who  will  efficiently  sell  products  in  consuming  markets.  Further- 
more, it  has  made  Wisconsin  farmers  think  in  terms  of  compre- 
hensive marketing  systems.  While  this  undertaking  has  not 
done  all  that  farmers  want  to  accomplish,  yet  it  has  gone  as 
far  as  its  volume  of  business  permits.  To  do  more  necessitates 
the  support  of  more  farmers.  It  needs  ten  times  the  present 
membership  and  volume  of  business  to  render  the  best  service. 


FIG.  5. — COOPERATIVE  CHEESE  MARKETING  WAREHOUSES 

Each  of  the  above  six  warehouses  forms  the  center  of  a district  ex- 
change. As  shown  in  Fig-.  2 six  of  these  district  groups  unite  to  main- 
tain the  national  cheese  sales  company.  These  plants  are  located 
respectively  as  follows:  A — Plymouth,  B — Spring  Green,  C — Pine 

Island,  Minnesota,  D — Wausau,  E — Green  Bay,  F — New  Richmond. 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies 


13 


Storage  of  Cheese  Surplus 

As  yet  the  federation  has  not  tried  to  hold  over  the  seasonal 
surplus  of  cheese.  First,  it  markets  too  small  a fraction  of  the 
cheese  of  the  state  to  be  able  to  feed  the  market  and  thereby 
stabilize  prices.  Therd  is  but  one  answer  to  the  farmers’  ques- 
tion, “Why  doesn’t  the  Federation  prevent  low  prices?”  Before 
it  can  do  this,  the  Federation  must  be  large  enough  to  keep  the 
surplus  cheese  of  the  flush  season  off  the  speculator’s  market 
and  hold  it  for  the  effective  consumers’  market  during  the  rest 
of  the  year.  That  is,  if  farmers  hope  to  do  away  with  the  drop 
in  cheese  prices  that  usually  occurs  annually  they  must  have 
a federation  so  large  that  it  can  prevent  the  temporary  glutting 
of  any  market  by  holding  the  surplus  cheese  for  a better  time 
of  selling.  A large  part,  or  even  all,  of  this  surplus  is  being 
stored  at  present  by  private  agencies.  The  farmers  contend 
that  there  is  manipulation  to  get  this  cheese  at  low  prices.  As 
a matter  of  fact,  if  prices  were  not  relatively  low  these  specu- 
lators would  not  buy  cheese  to  be  held  over  for  winter  sale. 
It  is  the  great  surplus  during  the  flush  producing  season,  out  of 
all  proportion  to  current  use,  which  gives  the  speculator  his 
chance.  The  only  remedy  worth  considering  by  farmers  is  for 
them  to  retain  ownership  of  the  surplus  until  consumers  need  it. 
This  in  turn  can  be  done  only  through  a large,  powerful  fed- 
eration which  really  feeds  the  market.  At  present  the  very 
lack  of  this  organization  makes  it  unavoidable  for  farmers  to 
glut  and  starve  the  cheese  markets  periodically.  For  the  same 
reason,  the  markets  for  other  farm  products  are  periodically 
either  oversupplied  or  undersupplied. 

Although  the  Cheese  Federation,  during  its  almost  nine  years 
of  operation,  has  not  solved  all  the  problems  of  cheese  mar- 
keting, it  has  built  a firm  foundation  for  future  growth.  Sinfilar 
early  stages  of  growth  must  be  passed  through  by  any  new  sales 
company  designed  to  market  other  products.  A brief  survey 
of  its  progress  toward  successively  lower  operating  costs  will 
surprise  those  who  have  been  too  hasty  in  criticism.  It  will 
emphasize  that  the  growth  of  successful  cooperative  marketing 
companies  is  gradual  and  that  too  much  should  not  be  expected 
of  cooperation  in  a day. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


Steady  Growth  of  Federation’s  Business 

.When  the  Federation  started  business  on  April  1,  1914,  cheese 
began  coming  in  from  45  local  cheese  factories  in  and  about 
Sheboygan  County.  During  the  first  nine  months  of  operation 
6,125,480  pounds  of  cheese  were  received.  The  cheese  pro- 
ducers marketed  $855,328  worth  of  their  product.  During  the 
following  two  years  the  Federation  held  its  own  in  spite  of 


FIG.  6.— PARAFFINING  CHEESE 

Cheese  must  be  paraffined  or  otherwise  packaged  before  it  is  fit  to 
ship.  This  is  done  at  central  points  where  grading,  branding,  holding 
in  cold  storage,  and  loading  into  cars  are  also  done  at  minimum  cost 
per  pound. 

many  difficulties;  and  in  1917  a period  of  substantial  growth 
began.  By  1921,  as  Table  I indicates,  the  quantity  of  cheese 
handled  had  more  than  doubled,  while  the  value  of  the  business 
had  more  than  trebled.  The  number  of  factories  sending  cheese 
had  increased  from  45  to  140.  As  the  Federation  expanded 
and  therefore  had  to  handle  not  only  more  cheese  but  was  re- 
ceiving it  from  many  more  counties,  warehouses  at  Spring 
Green,  Pine  Island,  Minnesota,  Wausau,  Green  Bay,  and  New 
Richmond  became  necessary.  The  map  (Fig.  2),  shows  the 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies 


15 


location  of  each  of  the  140  factories  sending  cheese  to  the  Fed- 
eration during  1921  and  includes  the  twenty-eight  new  factories 
joining  up  to  September,  1922.  The  local  cheese  factories  vary 
from  50,000  to  300,000  pounds  of  cheese  annually.  The  average 
factory  sold  more  than  111,000  pounds  of  cheese  through  the 
Cheese  Federation  during  1921.  % 

Distribution  of  Sales 

When  most  of  the  business  of  the  Federation  came  from 
farmers  in  Sheboygan  county,  all  of  the  cheese  was  assembled 
at  the  Plymouth  warehouse.  The  expansion  which  has  taken 
place  in  eight  years  of  growth  has  added  to  the  system  five  new 
warehouses  in  as  many  different  districts.  In  the  future,  as 
the  expansion  spreads  to  other  parts  of  the  state  more  ware- 
houses will  be  operated  to  facilitate  efficient  paraffining  and 
shipping  of  cheese.  In  fact  the  interest  in  the  Federation  in 
other  sections  of  the  state  is  constantly  crystalizing  in  the  form 
of  starting  new  district  groups  several  of  which  are  on  the  point 
of  opening  warehouses.  Cheese  is  shipped  from  these  ware- 
houses to  various  parts  of  the  United  States  on  orders  given 
by  the  sales  manager.  During  1919  over  14  million  pounds 
of  cheese  were  sold  in  37  states.  Table  IV  shows  that  more 
than  100,000  pounds  were  shipped  to  each  of  22  states. 

Operating  Costs  Are  Small 

Wisconsin  farmers,  planning  to  establish  other  federated 
sales  companies  will  find  their  greatest  encouragement  in  the 
efficiency  of  this  one.  Being  owned  by  farmers,  the  Federa- 
tion pays  all  its  receipts,  less  expenses,  to  the  account  of  the 
local  cheese  factories.  The  deduction  for  expenses  has  amounted 
to  the  very  small  item  of  1.2  cents  to  3.43  cents  out  of  every 
dollar  received  for  cheese  marketed.  Table  VI  shows  that  actual 
expenses  have  increased  since  1917.  This  has  been  due  en- 
tirely to  the  high  cost  of  supplies,  to  increased  wages,  to 
enormously  increased  freight  rates  and  to  necessary  activities  for 
expanding  the  size  of  the  organization.  In  spite  of  increased 
costs,  board  prices  or  better  on  an  average  have  been  paid  to 
the  account  of  local  cheese  factories. 

Form  of  Organization 

The  organization  is  made  up  of  three  essential  parts.  First 
are  the  local  cooperative  cheese  factories  or  associations.  Second 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


are  the  district  exchanges  with  their  cold  storage  warehouses 
and  equipment  for  paraffining  cheese.  Third  is  the  sales  or- 
ganization now  so  well  known  as  the  Wisconsin  Cheese  Pro- 
ducers Federation.  Each  of  these  parts  of?  this  cooperative 
system  have  specialized  duties  to  perform  in  making  the  whole 
enterprise  a success. 

Service  of  the  Local  Unit 

The  importance  of  the  local  cheese  factory  where  an  expert 
converts  milk  into  cheese  is  too  well  known  to  need  emphasis. 
Here  it  is  that  the  usual  cheesemaker  receives  the  milk  from  an 
average  of  26  patrons  for  each  of  the  168  or  more  factories  be- 
longing to  the  Wisconsin  Cheese  Producers  Federation.  Dur- 
ing 1919  factories  belonging  to  the  Federation  produced  an 
average  output  of  a little  less  than  120,000  pounds  of  cheese. 
For  1921  a larger  number  of  factories  averaged  about  111,000 
pounds  of  cheese. 

• 

Table  III. — Sources  And  Volume  of  Cheese  Handled  by 
Federation  Warehouses,  1921. 


1. 

Pounds  of  cheese 

Number  of  local 

State 

County 

Warehouse  at 

received 

cheese  factories 

Wisconsin 

1 Sheboygan  

Outagamie 

1 Oalumet. 

Brown 

Manitnwne 

Washington  

Winnehagn 

Plymouth 

12,323,70* 

64 

Wanpaea 

Fond  du  Lac..  ._ 
Kewaunee .. 

Marinette 

Oconto  I 

Ozaukee  1 

Sauk  1 

Iowa  ... 

Dane  .[ 

Vernon 

Crawford  J 

Spring  Green.. - 

2,539,059 

16 

Marathon | 

Wausau 

(i) 

25 

Shawano  j 

Minnesota __ 

Pine  Island  _ 

701,660(2) 

26 

Goodhue \ 

Total.. 

15,564,423 

161 

U)  No  cheese  received  at  Wausau  in  1921  as  the  warehouse  was  not  opened  for 
business  until  February  1,  1922. 


(2)  Represents  the  volume  of  business  for  September  to  December.  1921.  covering 
the  period  since  joining  the  eentral  sales  organization. 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies 


17 


No  careful  investigation  has  recently  been  undertaken  in  Wis- 
consin to  show  what  is  the  complete  cost  of  cheese  making. 
In  selected  instances,  however,  the  cost  varied  from  as  low  as 
3.4  cents  to  4.1  cents  per  pound.* * 3  The  Wisconsin  Department 
of  Markets  in  a published  estimate  of  the  cost  of  making  cheese 
presents  items  totaling  3.93  cents  per  pound.  On  the  other  hand 
the  most  comprehensive  investigation  yet  made  of  local  cheese 
factory  operating  costs,  the  recent  study  made  in  the  Province 
of  Ontario,  Canada,4  shows  total  expenses  varying  from  1.58 
cents  per  pound  in  the  largest  factories  to  4.03  cents  in  the 
smallest  factories.  Perhaps  Wisconsin  cheese  factories  are  less 
efficient  than  those  of  Ontario,  but  this  is  to  be  doubted.  It 
is  more  likely  that  few,  if  any,  persons  know  the  total  costs 
of  making  cheese  in  Wisconsin’s  cheese  factories. 

If  the  cost  of  cheese  factory  operation  be  assumed  as  ap- 
proximately 4 cents  per  pound  (See  publicity  of  Wisconsin 
Dairy  Protective  Association)  during  a period  when  cheese 
prices  averaged  18  cents  a pound  then  this  part  of  the  work 
of  marketing  handled  by  local  factories  costs  22.2  cents  out 
of  each  dollar’s  worth  of  cheese  sold  at  wholesale.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  Wisconsin  cheese  factories  are  as  efficient  as  those 
of  Ontario  where  three-fourths  of  the  cheese  is  made  at  a cost 
of  less  than  2.5  cents  a pound,  it  is  worth  while  knowing  that 
efficient  local  cheese  factory  operation  permits  farmers  to  secure 
this  valuable  service  at  less  than  14  cents  out  of  the  dollar’s 
worth  of  cheese  sold  at  wholesale  instead  of  for  a cost  of  22 
cents.  The  most  efficient  local  cheese  factories  in  Ontario,  and 
doubtless  the  same  would  be  true  of  Wisconsin’s  best  factories, 
made  one  quarter  of  Ontario’s  total  cheese  output  at  a cost  of 
less  than  two  cents  per  pound,  or  only  11  cents  out  of  each 
dollar’s  worth  of  cheese  sold  at  wholesale.  Thus  it  costs  twice 
as  much  to  make  cheese  in  an  inefficient  instead  of  an  efficient 
local  factory.  From  a practical  standpoint  Wisconsin  farmers 
in  many  sections  can  reduce  the  cost  of  cheese  making  by  con- 
solidating small  duplicating  factories  and  by  employing  the 
best  cheesemakers  only  to  operate  these  larger  local  enterprises. 
A saving  of  10  per  cent  of  the  price  which  they  now  receive 
is  a handsome  addition  to  the  income  which  farmers  of  many 

8 Report  of  Frostville  Cheese  Factory,  Spring,  Wis.,  Sheboygan  County 

News,  Feb.  9,  1921.  Report  of  East  Wrightstown  Factory.  Sheboygan  Coun- 

ty News , Feb.  9,  1921. 

4 The  Farmers  Advocate,  June  15,  1922.  p R29 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


regions  may  take  advantage  of  by  successfully  developing  ef- 
ficient local  cooperative  cheese  factories. 

It  cannot  be  overemphasized,  that  expert  cheesemakers  are 
greatly  to  be  desired.  They  are  so  vital  to  the  success  of  the 
cheese  factory  that  higher  salaries  can  profitably  be  paid  for  the 
good  cheesemaker  than  are  now  given,  while  the  reverse  is  also 
true  that  some  cheesemakers  are  overpaid  considering  the  amount 
_of  cheese  they  can  make  and  the  low  quality  of  the  finished 
product.  Farmers  should  appreciate,  as  they  have  not  done  suf- 
ficiently in  the  past,  that  the  best  cheesemakers  can  be  attracted 
only  by  the  best  pay  just  as  the  best  farm  hand  is  secured  not 
by  bidding  the  lowest  pay  but  by  giving  the  highest. 

In  actual  practice  the  best  paid  men  are  costing  the  least 
per  pound  of  cheese  or  per  dollar  of  sales  because  they  make 
more  and  better  cheese  than  the  poorer  makers  and  because 
their  superior  product  brings  a premium  or  higher  price. 


Cheesemaker  Not  a Salesman 

No  matter  how  expert  a cheesemaker  may  be  it  is  certain 
that  to  make  good  cheese  in  a proper  sized  factory  takes  all  his 
time  and  energy.  He  is  employed  because  of  his  ability  as  a 
cheesemaker.  He  is  not  employed  to  be  a cheese  salesman.  To 
expect  of  a properly  trained  and  experienced  cheesemaker  ability 
and  experience  also  in  selling  cheese  is  simply  expecting  more 
than  one  man  can  do. 

Cheesemaking  and  real  salesmanship  are  very  different  things. 
It  is  vastly  more  difficult  to  sell  cheese  well  than  to  make  good 
cheese.  Wherever  cheesemakers  are  compelled  to  sell  cheese  it 
should  not  be  forgotten  that  most  of  the  effort  goes  into  the 
making  side  and  the  least  time  and  effort  is  put  on  selling.  It 
could  not  be  otherwise  so  long  as  farmers  permit  cheese  to  be 
sold  for  each  little  factory  separately.  The  cheese  from  a single 
factory  is  by  no  means  a merchantable  quantity.  It  is  less  than 
enough  to  justify  the  employment  of  a real  salesman.  This  is 
why  the  selling  job  is  loaded  upon  the  cheesemaker  on  top  of 
his  cheesemaking  duties.  Conditions  will  never  be  satisfactory 
while  important  main  line  work  is  done  as  a side  line  by  some- 
one who  already  has  another  main  line  job. 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies 


19 


Table  IV. — Primary  Shipments  by  Wisconsin  Cheese  Producers’ 
Federation  to  Various  States — 1919  O 


States  to  which  100,000  pounds  or  more  of  cheese 
were  shipped 

Pounds  of  cheese 

Per  cent 

Illinois 

3,178,912 

22.64 

New  York  - __  

1,381,285 

9.84 

Pennsylvania 

1,287,235 

9.17 

Indiana _ __  --  - 

783,591 

6.58 

Maryland 

626,862 

4.46 

Virginia 

557 , 124 

8.97 

Wisconsin 

536,830 

3.82 

Michigan 

Missouri 

510,679 

3.64 

487,381 

3.47 

Iowa  - --_  — 

468,189 

3.33 

Massachusetts - 

455,855 

3.25 

West  Virginia  - - — 

452,050 

3.22 

Tennessee 

395,435 

2.82 

Louisiana 

363,781 

2.59 

Georgia — _ - 

321,725 

2.29 

South  Carolina  _ - - 

198,736 

1.42 

California.-  - - _ _ 

176,388 

1.26 

Florida _ 

165,975 

1.18 

Texas  __  _ _-  ___  - 

163,423 

1.16 

Alabama  _ __ 

130,750 

.93 

North  Carolina  __  _ _ _ 

124,594 

.89 

Ohio --  __  

108,691 

.77 

To  above  22  states _ - . 

12,875,491 

91.70 

To  other  15  states,  District  of  Columbia  and 
miscellaneous  

1,160,800 

14,036,291 

8.30 

Grand  total  

100.00 

C1)  Tabulation  of  1921  shipments  has  not  been  made,  but  this  1919  tabulation  gives 
an  approximately  correct  idea  of  1921  primary  shipments. 


Because  the  selling  side  of  the  cheese  industry  is  just  as  im- 
portant as  the  making  sic^  it  is  not  surprising  that  cheese  mar- 
keting is  so  unsatisfactory  when  we  consider  that  farmers  have 
been  having  cheese  made  in  their  behalf  by  trained  makers, 
but  have  overlooked  the  equally  important  matter  of  having  it 
marketed  in  their  behalf  by  trained  and  experienced  salesmen. 
Cheese,  so  far  as  the  farmer  is  concerned,  has  not  been  marketed 
at  all.  It  has  been  dumped  by  the  cheesemaker  because  he  was 
blind  on  the  problem  of  selling.  If  cheese  were  made  as  poorly 
by  the  cheesemaker  as  it  is  sold  by  him  there  would  be  no  cheese 
industry  at  all.  Consumers  would  not  use  the  article. 

Here  then  is  the  problem  of  the  local  cheese  factory  associa- 
tion. The  farmers  in  the  local  association  bring  together  a 
makable  quantity  of  milk.  By  this  is  meant  that  they  deliver 
at  the  factory  enough  milk  to  keep  a man  fully  occupied  in 
making  it  into  cheese.  But  when  it  comes  to  marketing,  the 
output  of  one  cheese  factory  of  the  usual  size  is  altogether  too 
small  to  be  a marketable  quantity.  Yet  farmers  have  left  to 
the  cheesemaker,  who  is  not  a salesman,  the  task  of  marketing 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


an  unmarketable  quantity.  A more  impossible  task  could  not 
be  imagined. 


Boards  Cannot  Solve  Cheese  Marketing 

The  results  of  having  cheese  sold  in  this  inefficient  manner 
are  serious.  Yet  just  as  farmers  joined  to  patronize  or  operate 
local  cheese  factories  so  as  to  have  better  cheese  made  at  lower 
cost  so  also  local  cheese  factories  may  join  or  federate  to  have 
better  selling  of  cheese  made  possible  at  lower  cost.  The  penalty 
of  selling  cheese  by  each  local  factory  individually  is  the  an- 
nually recurring  seasonal  fluctuation  in  prices'.  Few  if  any 
local  factories  have  storage  rooms  for  holding  more  than  a 
week’s  make  of  cheese.  As  a result  cheese  is  disposed  of  at 
least  once  a week.  Many  factories  operate  only  eight  or  nine 


Per  cent 


Price 

3375 


37 


31.50 


29.25 


27.00 


24J5 


22  50 


20.25 


13.50 


li.25 


4.50 


2.25 


> JAN  FEB  MAR  APR  MAY  JUNE  JULY  AUG  SEPT  OCT  NOV  DEC 

< 1921 


FIG.  7.— FLUCTUATION  IN  CHEESE  PRODUCTION  AND  PRICES 

Local  factories  flood  the  wholesale  cheese  market  part  of  the  time 
and  starve  it  the  rest  of  the  year.  Under  these  conditions  prices  In- 
evitably fluctuate  and  no  kind  of  cheese  boards  could  stabilize  them. 
The  solution  is  for  farmers  to  organize  so  that  they  may  sell  cheese 
systematically  at  the  right  instead  of  the  wrong  time.  See  text, 
pages  7-9,  13,  20-25. 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies 


21 


months  of  the  year,  omitting  the  winter  months.  Others  which 
receive  milk  the  year  round  make  from  two  to  three  times  as 
much  cheese  in  the  months  of  May  and  June  as  in  November 
and  December.  This  means  that  the  factories  place  more  than 
four  times  as  much  cheese  on  the  market  in  June  as  they  do 
in  January.  Yet  consumers  eat  about  as  much  cheese  in  one 
month  as  another.  If  there  is  any  appreciable  variation  doubt- 
' less  more  is  eaten  in  winter.  Hence  local  factories  dispose  of 
most  of  the  cheese  when  there  is  the  least  consumer  demand. 

In  failing  to  understand  the  principles  and  practice  of  ef- 
ficient salesmanship  or  merchandizing  farmers  are  not  able  to 
understand  why  cheese  boards  cannot  solve  the  cheese  marketing 
problem.  All  that  these  boards  can  do  at  best  is  to  register 
the  supply  of  cheese  and  the  demand  for  it  and  to  record  the 
resulting  price.  As  long  as  local  factories  dump  great  over- 
supplies of  cheese  on  the  boards  during  part  of  the  year  the 
price  is  bound  to  go  down  no  matter  how  perfect  the  board 
may  be  in  its  organization  and  operation.  The  problem  which 
the  board  cannot  tackle  and  is  not  designed  to  solve  is  the  fact 
that  too  much  cheese  is  offered  for  sale  at  certain  times  and 
too  little  at  other  times. 


Table  V. — Per  Cent  Distribution  of  Money  Received  by  the 
Federation  for  Cheese — 1914  to  1921 


Year 

Payments  direct 
to  member 
factories 

Cost  of  freight 
to  Federation 

Actual  expenses 
of  Federation 

Savings  or 
profits 

Cents 

Cents 

Cents 

Cents 

1914 

97.6 

.4 

1.6 

.4 

1915 

97.5 

.3 

1.5 

.7 

1916 

97.5 

.3 

1.4 

.8 

1917 

97.7 

.2 

1.2 

.9 

1918 

97.0 

.3 

1.4 

1.3 

1919 

97.7 

.4 

1.4 

.5 

1920 

97.4 

.41 

1.94 

.25 

1921 

95.8 

.77 

3.43 

.0 

1922(6  mo.) 

95.65 

.79 

3.183 

.377 

Note:  In  each  year  shown  the  number  of  cents  or  fractional  cents  indicated  was 
paid  out  of  every  dollar  taken  in  by  the  Federation  for  cheese  sold. 


District  Organization  and  Warehouse  Essential 

To  make  this  dumping  of  cheese  unnecessary  during  the  flush 
season  requires  that  the  surplus  cheese  be  held  over  by  farmers 
for  sale  at  a later  time  instead  of  selling  at  once  in  a flooded 
market  for  ruinously  low  prices.  Adequate  and  suitable  cold 
storages  to  hold  this  cheese  are  possible  in  connection  with  the 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


warehouses  in  which  cheese  is  received  for  paraffining  and  load- 
ing into  cars.  It  is  at  each  of  many  central  points  to  which 
groups  of  25  to  150  local  factories  each  can  conveniently  and 
cheaply  deliver  their  fresh  cheese  that  warehouses  and  cold 
storages  are  needed.  No  local  factory  alone  can  afford  to  have 
these  marketing  facilities.  Yet  these  facilities  are  fundamental. 
They  are  being  operated  by  private  dealers  wherever  the  co- 
operative system  is  not  operating.  Without  them  cheese  cannot 
be  efficiently  marketed.  To  provide  these  facilities  requires 
that  a number  of  local  factories  band  together  cooperatively, 
that  is  federate,  to  raise  capital,  install  the  warehouse  and  pro- 
vide management  and  labor  to  receive  cheese  and  operate  this 
district  marketing  organization. 


FIG.  8.— COOPERATIVE  CHEESE  SALES  PLAN 

Cheese  to  be  marketed  inexpensively  must  be  shipped  in  carloads. 
Wholesalers  who  can  handle  carloads  are  located  all  over  the  United 
States.  They  cannot  deal  with  small  cheese  factories  as  their  supply 
is  too  uncertain  in  kind,  quantity  and  quality.  But  they  can  deal  with 
the  representatives  of  a large  number  of  factories.  Hence  they  send 
orders  to  the  General  Sales  Office  of  the  cooperative  system  from  which 
orders  go  to  the  nearest  district  warehouse  to  ship  the  cheese  direct 
over  the  shortest  route. 


During  the  past  eight  years  the  cost  of  freight  pa’d  on  cheese 
sent  by  local  factories  to  district  warehouses  has  varied  from  .3 
cent  to  .79  cent  per  dollar  of  cheese  sold  at  wholesale.  The 
cost  of  operating  the  district  warehouses  during  the  same  period 
has  varied  from  .7  cent  to  1.9  cent  per  dollar  of  cheese  sold. 
Roughly  speaking  it  costs  less  than  one-tenth  as  much  per  pound 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies  23 

of  cheese  to  operate  a district  warehouse  as  to  operate  the  local 
cheese  factory.  Yet  the  service  rendered  by  the  district  ware- 
house is  just  as  necessary  to  satisfactory  marketing  of  cheese 
as  the  local  factory  is  in  making  it. 


Table  VI. — Trend  of  Warehouse  Expenses  1914  to  1921 


Year 

Wages 

Supplies  and  other 
expenses 

Total  warehouse 
expense 

Cents 

Cents 

Cents 

1914 

.40 

.50 

.90 

1915 

.40 

.50 

.90 

1916 

.40 

.40 

.80 

1917 

.30 

.40 

.70 

1918 

.30 

.60 

.90 

1919 

.36 

.60 

.96 

1920 

.46 

.70 

1.16 

1921 

.87 

1.03 

. 1.90 

1922(six  months) 

.98 

.891 

1.871 

Note:  In  each  year  shown  the  fraction  of  a cent  indicated  was  paid  out  of  every 
dollar  taken  in  by  the  Federation  for  cheese  sold. 


A fact  not  to  be  forgotten  at  this  point  is  that  while  26  farmers 
may  provide  a makable  quantity  of  milk  at  a local  factory,  and 
while  25  to  150  local  factories  may  provide  a suitable  quantity 
of  cheese  to  operate  an  economical  district  warehouse,  no  dis- 
trict warehouse  organization  alone  has  enough  cheese  to  repre- 
sent a merchandizable  quantity.  That  is  to  say,  a single  ware- 
house district  has  too  small  a volume  of  cheese  by  itself  to 
permit  the  establishment  and  operation  of  an  expert  and  ef- 
ficient selling  system. 

District  Organization  Too  Small  to  Advertise 

For  example,  the  large  cooperative  sales  companies  that  have 
successfully  developed  national  advertising  campaigns  have  spent 
from  .25  of  1 per  cent  to  3 per  cent  of  sales  in  support  of  their 
campaigns.  In  terms  of  18  cent  cheese  this  is  from  .05  to  .5  of 
a cent  per  pound.  The  average  advertising  program  cost  about 
1 per  cent  of  sales  or  for  18  cent  cheese  about  .2  cent  per  pound. 
The  Wisconsin  Cheese  Producers  Federation  with  the  15.5 
million  pounds  of  cheese  marketed  in  1921  would  have  had  an 
advertising  expense  of  1.125  cents  a pound  had  it  attempted 
national  advertising,  because  such  a campaign  was  estimated  at 
$175,000  for  the  first  year.  To  be  able  to  conduct  a campaign 
of  this  kind  at  a reasonable  expense  of  .5  cent  per  pound  dowi 
to  .2  cent  per  pound  would  require  from  35,000,000  to  87,000 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


000  pounds.  In  other  words  the  Cheese  Federation  would  need 
to  handle  from  two  to  six  times  its  present  volume  of  cheese. 
The  cheese  handled  in  1921  came  from  four  district  exchanges. 
From  six  to  twenty  district  exchanges,  depending  upon  their 
size,  may  be  necessary  to  provide  adequate  cheese  for  success- 
ful inexpensive  advertising. 

Service  of  the  Sales  Organization 

Just  as  any  one  district  organization  alone  has  too  little  cheese 
to  advertise  nationally  so  also  it  has  too  little  to  meet  the  ex- 
pense of  developing  an  expert  sales  organization  with  all  that 
the  word  implies.  The  purpose  and  place  of  the  central  sales 


This  cooperative  marketing  system  is  built  upon  the  commodity  prin- 
ciple, namely  that  cheese  is  the  finished  product  which  retailers  must 
have  on  their  shelves  to  meet  consumer  demands. 

Farmers  numbering  4,368  cluster  around  a local  cheese  factory  in 
groups  averaging  26  per  factory.  They  deliver  milk  to  168  factories 
which  then  deliver  cheese  to  6 district  warehouses.  From  these  ware- 
houses cheese  is  then  ready  to  go  to  wholesale  buyers  after  they  are 
found.  The  central  sales  organization  is  maintained  by  the  6 district 
groups  to  do  the  work  of  getting  orders  for  all  the  cheese  that  the  168 
factories  turn  out.  Note  that  the  cheese  moves  direct  as  far  as  possi- 
ble to  buyers  instead  of  going  in  round-about  ways  looking  for  them 
The  central  sales  office  makes  this  possible. 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies 


25 


organization  is  to  bring  together  a large  enough  number  of 
district  organizations  to  provide  the  volume  of  cheese  needed 
to  justify  its  existence. 

Improvement  in  the  services  of  marketing,  particularly  storing 
and  market  feeding  coupled  with  active  salesmanship  and  ad- 


FIG.  10. — FEDERATION  MARKETED  CHEESE  THROUGHOUT  THE 
UNITED  STATES 


Each  of  22  states  received  more  than  100,000  pounds  of  cheese  from 
Wisconsin  factories  through  their  selling  organization — the  Federation. 
About  3,200,000  pounds  went  to  Illinois;  780,000  pounds  to  Indiana;  and 
108,000  pounds  to  Ohio.  See  Table  IV. 

vertising  cannot  be  brought  about  without  a central  sales  com- 
pany. Moreover  such  a company  with  its  possibilities  for  im- 
proving marketing  conditions  cannot  be  established  without  im- 
mense volume  of  business.  For  small  industries  as  the  cranberry 
or  walnut  industry  most  of  the  output  of  the  industry  is  needed 


Table  VII. — Trend  of  Federation  Management  Costs — 1914  to  1921 


Year 

Salaries 

Other  office  and 
general  expenses 

Total  management 
expenses 

Cents 

Cents 

Cents 

1914 

.50 

.20 

.70 

1915 

.40 

.20 

.60 

1916 

.30 

.30 

.60 

1917 

.30 

.20 

.50 

1918 

.30 

.20 

.50 

1919 

.27 

.17 

.44 

1920 

.47 

.30 

.77 

1921 

.80 

.76 

1.56 

1922(six  months) 

.68 

.632 

1.312 

Note:  In  each  year  shown  the  fraction  of  a cent  indicated  was  paid  out  of  every 
dollar  taken  in  by  the  Federation  for  cheese  sold. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


for  success.  In  other  lines  a smaller  proportion  may  permit 
successful  operation.  The  main  point  is  that  there  must  be  suf- 
ficient volume  to  bear  the  expenses  of  the  sales  organization 
without  making  the  cost  per  pound  of  cheese  burdensome. 

In  the  past  the  costs  of  operating  the  Cheese  Federation’s 
Sales  System  has  ranged  from  .44  of  a cent  to  1.56  cents  per 
dollar’s  worth  of  cheese  sold  at  wholesale.  The  main  task  in 
keeping  sales  costs  low  is  to  have  an  abundance  of  cheese  to 
sell.  The  problem  of  securing  volume  is  to  gain  numerous  loyal 
district  organizations  as  members,  and  for  each  of  these  district 
organizations  to  secure  the  largest  possible  number  of  local 
cheese  factories  as  their  members.  Obviously  the  larger  these 
individual  cheese  factories  are,  by  virtue  of  a large  farmer  mem- 
bership all  producing  milk  for  cheese  making,  the  more  volume 
of  cheese  each  warehouse  will  receive. 

How  the  Federation  Has  Benefited  Farmers 

Everyone  who  considers  the  Cheese  Federation  of  course  won- 
ders what  it  has  accomplished  for  its  members,  for  farmers  in 
general,  and  for  the  state  at  large.  For  its  members  it  has 
marketed  (up  to  July  1,  1922)  90,804,050  pounds  of  cheese,  pay- 
ing them  on  an  average  Plymouth  Cheese  Board  Prices.  In  addi- 
tion it  has  paid  to  its  members  in  patronage  dividends  more  than 
$75,000,  and  has  on  hand  a property,  the  Plymouth  warehouse, 
worth  not  less  than  $75,000.  These  combined  patronage 
dividends  and  savings  in  property  amount  to  .125  of  a cent  per 
pound  on  all  of  the  cheese  sold  by  the  Federation  since  it  opened 
its  doors  for  business. 

Patronage  Profits  and  Savings  to  Members 

More  important  than  the  services  rendered  to  the  4,200  farmer 
members  whose  cheese  had  been  marketed,  is  the  effect  which 
its  operation  has  had  upon  competitive  conditions.  The  Cheese 
Federation,  by  its  existence  and  competition  with  private  dealers 
throughout  Wisconsin,  has  narrowed  the  cheese  dealers’  margin 
from  the  former  figure  of  .75  of  a cent  to  1.5  cents  taken  when 
cheese  sold  at  11  cents  to  12  cents  a pound  down  to  .6  of  a cent 
taken  on  18  cent  cheese.  It  has  by  its  competition  reduced  a 
margin  averaging  at  least  8 cents  on  each  dollar  of  sales  to  less 
than  4 cents  on  the  dollar  of  sales. 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies 


27 


Reduced  Margin  Benefits  Cheese  Industry 

This  saving  of  4 cents  on  each  dollar’s  worth  of  cheese  sold 
at  wholesale  means  $2,000,000  a year  to  the  industry.  It  goes 
to  the  cheese  producers  of  the  state  because  there  is  a farmers 
cheese  marketing  company  influencing  the  competitive  system 
by  cooperative  principles.  While  the  members  of  the  organiza- 
tion have  gotten  slightly  more  for  their  cheese  up  to  this  time, 
a worthwhile  thing  in  itself,  the  great  financial  benefit  of  the 
Federation  has  been  diffused  throughout  the  industry.  All 
cheese  producers  have  benefited  as  a result  of  the  patience,  faith 
and  loyalty  of  some  4,000  members  to  their  cooperative  enter- 
prise. 


Cooperative  Idea  Benefits  State 

More  important  even  than  the  reduced  cost  of  doing  business 
and  what  this  saves  the  farmers  of  the  state,  is  the  proof  which 
the  Wisconsin  Cheese  Producers  Federation  has  made  that  Wis- 
consin farmers  can  succeed  if  they  will  be  loyal  to  sane  and 
wisely  formulated  cooperative  plans  and  ideals.  This  organ- 
ization seeks  success  by  rendering  necessary  services  better  than 
they  were  previously  rendered  and  by  reducing  the  costs  of 
doing  business.  It  claims  no  monopoly  powers,  nor  does  it  want 
them.  Even  if  attainable,  monopoly  efforts  would  only  result 
in  legal  difficulties  and  costs  and  in  ultimate  suppression.  That 
a group  of  farmers  has  been  able  to  build  a sales  company  operat- 
ing throughout  the  state  of  Wisconsin  during  a period  of  less 
than  nine  years  and  during  all  this  time  has  been  able  to  meet 
the  competitive  test  and  continue  to  grow  is  a demonstration 
that  is  educationally  helpful  not  alone  to  cheese  producers  but 
to  the  producers  of  other  important  Wisconsin  farm  products. 
It  is  an  object  lesson  invaluable  for  those  seeking  understand- 
ing through  the  extension  and  other  educational  systems  in 
the  state. 

Largest  Benefits  of  Federation  Still  Ahead 

By  far  the  most  important  results  of  cooperative  cheese  mar- 
keting still  lie  ahead  of  the  organization.  In  1921  (See  Fig.  7) 
cheese  prices  fluctuated  from  above  24  cents  to  below  14  cents 
a pound.  The  average  price  was  about  18  cents.  During  two 
months  of  flush  production  25  per  cent  of  the  year’s  cheese  was 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


dumped  on  the  markets  by  the  local  factories.  An  orderly 
movement  of  cheese  during  these  two  months  would  have  been 
17  per  cent  of  the  year’s  output.  The  excess  movement  of 
cheese  in  this  period,  amounting  to  8 per  cent  of  the  year’s  out- 
put, was  responsible  for  a depression  of  4 cents  per  pound  be- 
low the  average  price  for  the  year  and  below  the  average  price 
in  April  and  in  July.  Cheese  dumped  by  factories  during  May 
and  June  at  a sacrifice  of  4 cents  a pound  sold  later  above  19 
cents.  To  so  store  and  feed  cheese  to  the  market  that  this  prac- 
tice of  dumping  could  no  longer  seasonally  oversupply  markets 
at  one  time  and  starve  them  later  should  at  least  result  in  a 
saving  of  1 cent  a pound.  It  might  accomplish  more  than  this. 


Table  VIII. — Variation  in  Monthly  Receipts  of  Cheese  by  the 
Federation,  1921 


Month 

Pounds  of  cheese 
received  at 
Plymouth 
warehouse 

Pounds  of  cheese 
received  at 
Spring  Green 
warehouse 

Total  pounds 
of  cheeseC1) 

Per  cent 

January 

454,019.50 

47,938.25 

501,957.75 

3.38 

February 

561,088.00 

49,251.25 

610,339.25 

4.11 

March 

909,687.00 

80,337.25 

990,024.25 

6.66 

April 

1,216,531.75 

177,710.00 

1,394,241.75 

9.38 

May 

1,326,337.25 

298,296.75 

1,624,634.00 

10.93 

June 

1,709,891.75 

406,422.75 

2,116,314.50 

14.24 

July 

1,289,397.00 

329,466.75 

1,618,863.75 

10.90 

August 

1,204,136.00 

328,345.25 

1,532,481.25 

10.31 

September 

1,207,530.50 

301,910.50 

1,509,441.00 

10.15 

October 

1,036,066.75 

260,394.00 

1,296,460.75 

8.72 

November 

711,733.00 

156,980.50 

868,753.50 

5.84 

December 

697,242.00 

102,006.00 

799,248.00 

5.38 

Year 

12,323,703.50 

2,539,059.25 

14,862,759.75 

100.00 

C1)  Excludes  701,660  pounds  of  cheese  received  at  Pine  Island,  Minnesota,  warehouse 
because  it  was  in  operation  as  a part  of  the  central  organization  only  the  latter  four 
months  of  the  year.  Incorporation  of  these  figures  would  obliterate  the  seasonal 
tendency  of  cheese  production. 


A further  saving  of  1 cent  per  pound  is  equal  to  5 cents  on 
the  dollar’s  worth  of  cheese  at  20  cents  a pound.  It  amounts 
to  more  than  the  dealer’s  profit  three  or  four  times  over.  It 
also  amounts  to  more  than  it  has  been  possible  to  reduce  the 
cost  of  doing  business.  That  it  is  an  amply  worthwhile  object 
no  one  can  deny.  It  is  a goal  ahead  of  the  Cheese  Federation 
which  can  be  reached  in  all  practical  reason,  provided  that 
Wisconsin  cheese  producers  supply  it  with  the  volume  of  busi- 
ness which  would  make  these  objects  attainable. 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies 


29 


Volume  Essential  to  Big  Results 

To  feed  the  market  requires  that  the  seasonal  surplus  be  kept 
by  farmers  until  the  time  when  its  release  upon  the  market  will 
not  cause  flooding.  This  is  a simple  proposition.  The  difficult 
task  is  to  have  a large  enough  part  of  the  cheese  producers  act 
together  to  see  that  the  surplus  does  not  reach  the  market  until 
the  right  time.  Farmers  cannot  hope  to  act  successfully  on  the 
marketing  of  a product  as  individuals.  It  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion— impractical.  To  render  these  services — namely  storing 
and  distributing — which  will  place  the  seasonal  surplus  on  the 
market  when  it  will  sell  to  advantage  requires  large  volume  of 
business  in  the  hands  of  a single  sales  organization.  It  is  to 
provide  this  necessary  size  of  business  as  a basis  for  rendering 
better  marketing  service  and  hence  of  giving  farmers  larger 
returns  from  cheese  that  the  Wisconsin  Cheese  Producers  Fed- 
eration merits  the  state-wide  support  of  all  thinking  cheese 
producers. 

The  following  copy  of  the  revised  articles  of  Cooperative  As- 
sociation, drawn  up  for  adoption  by  the  Cheese  Federation  con- 
stituency, will  give  interested  persons  the  latest  information  about 
the  organization  of  cooperative  sales  companies  in  Wisconsin : 

For  further  information  consult  or  write  to  any  of  the  following: 
Wisconsin  Cheese  Producers’  Federation,  Plymouth,  Wisconsin;  Depart- 
ment of  Agricultural  Economics,  College  of  Agriculture,  Madison,  Wis- 
consin; Wisconsin  Department  of  Markets,  State  Capitol.  Madison. 


ARTICLES  OF  COOPERATIVE  ASSOCIATION 


Know  All  Men  By  These  Presents, 
That  the  undersigned  have  asso- 
ciated and  do  hereby  associate 
themselves  together  for  the  pur- 
pose of  forming  a Cooperative  As- 
sociation under  sections  1786e — 1 
to  1786e — 17,  inclusive,  of  the  Wis- 
consin statutes,  and  do  hereby 
make,  sign,  and  agree  to  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Articles  of  Incorporation 
Article  I 

The  name  of  this  Association 
shall  he  Wisconsin  Cheese  Pro- 
ducers’ Federation,  and  its  prin- 
cipal place  of  business  shall  be  in 
the  city  of  Plymouth,  County  of 


Sheboygan,  State  of  Wisconsin, 
P.  O.  address,  Plymouth,  Wiscon- 
sin. 

Article  II 

The  business  and  purpose  of 
this  association  shall  be  to  buy 
and  sell,  or  act  as  agent  to  buy  or 
sell,  cheese  and  by-products;  to 
manufacture  cheese  and  by-pro- 
ducts; to  buy  and  sell,  or  act  as 
agent  to  buy  or  sell,  cheese  factory 
and  creamery  equipment  and  sup- 
plies; to  manufacture  cheese  fac- 
tory and  creamery  equipment  and 
supplies;  to  own  and  operate  ware- 
houses and  cold  storages;  to  own 
and  hold  stock  in  any  corporation 
or  cooperative  association  within 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


the  limits  prescribed  by  law;  to 
buy,  lease,  own,  sell,  exchange,  and 
deal  in  all  forms  of  property  neces- 
sary or  incident  to  the  transaction 
of  the  business  of  this  association; 
and  to  do  all  other  things  neces- 
sary or  incident  to  the  transaction 
of  the  business  of  this  association. 

Article  III 

The  capital  stock  of  this  associa- 
tion shall  be  

dollars,  which  shall  be  di- 
vided into  

shares  of  the  par  value  of 

dollars  each. 


Article  IV 

The  shares  of  capital  stock  of 
the  association  are  non-assessable. 

Article  V 

The  affairs  of  the  association 
shall  be  managed  by  a board  of 
seven  directors.  The  directors 
shall  be  elected  by  the  stockhold- 
ers of  the  association  at  such  time 
and  for  such  term  of  office  as  the 
by-laws  may  prescribe. 

Article  VI 

The  names  and  residences  of  the 
persons  forming  this  association 
are: 


BY-LAWS  OF  THE  WISCONSIN  CHEESE  PRODUCERS’ 
FEDERATION 


Article  I 

The  regular  annual  meeting  of 
the  stockholders  shall  be  held  on 
the  second  Thursday  of  February 
of  each  year.  The  president  of  the 
board  of  directors  may  call  spe- 
cial meetings  of  the  stockholders 
upon  ten  days’  previous  notice 
thereof  to  each  stockholder  by  pub- 
lication or  by  personal  service. 

The  president  of  this  association 
shall  call  a district  meeting  at 
each  warehouse  point  not  more 
than  thirty  days  prior  to  any  an- 
nual or  special  meeting  of  this  as- 
sociation. At  each  district  meet- 
ing the  stockholders  shipping  to 
such  warehouse  point  may  elect 
one  delegate  for  each  ten  stock- 
holders or  for  any  lesser  number 
and  one  delegate  for  the  remaining 
fraction  of  the  whole  number  of 
stockholders.  Each  delegate  at  the 
stockholders’  meeting  (or  his  ap- 
pointee in  his  absence)  shall  be  en- 
titled to  cast  one  vote  for  every 
stockholder  represented  by  him; 
provided,  that  no  delegate  shall 
represent  more  than  ten  stock- 
holders. 

Voting  by  proxy  in  this  associa- 
tion shall  not  be  permitted  except 
as  provided  herein. 

Article  II 

The  directors  shall  be  elected 
annually  at  the  regular  annual 
meeting  of  the  stockholders  and 


shall  hold  their  offices  for  one  year 
or  until  their  successors  are  elect- 
ed and  qualified.  Every  warehouse 
point  shall  be  represented  by  at 
least  one  director.  No  person  shall 
be  a director  unless  he  is  or  has 
been  a milk  producer  and  a mem- 
ber of  a cooperative  cheese  pro- 
ducers’ association. 

The  regular  meeting  of  the  board 
of  directors  shall  be  held  within 
ten  days  after  the  regular  annual 
meeting  of  the  stockholders.  The 
secretary  of  the  board  shall  call 
special  meetings  thereof  upon  or- 
der of  the  president  or  of  any  three 
directors,  but  notice  of  any  spe- 
cial meeting  shall  be  given  to  all 
directors  not  joining  in  the  call 
therefor.  Every  meeting  of  the 
board  of  directors  shall  be  open  to 
the  Director  of  the  Division  of 
Markets  and  notice  of  every  such 
meeting  shall  be  given  by  the 
board  of  directors  to  said  Director 
of  the  Division  of  Markets. 

The  directors  shall  elect  from 
their  number  a president,  vice- 
president,  secretary  and  a treas- 
urer, and  shall  employ  such  sales- 
men, inspectors  and  other  em- 
ployes as  may  be  necessary  and 
shall  fix  the  compensation  of  all 
officers  and  employes. 

The  directors  shall  require  any 
officer  or  employe  to  whom  funds 
of  the  association  are  entrusted  to 
furnish  bond. 

A majority  of  the  board  of  direct- 
ors shall  constitute  a quorum  for 


Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies 


31 


the  transaction  of  business,  but  a 
less  number  may  adjourn  from  day 
to  day  giving  notice  to  absent 
members  of  said  board  of  such 
adjournment.  Any  vacancy  oc- 
curring in  the  board  of  directors 
shall  be  filled  by  the  remaining 
members  thereof. 

Article  III 

The  officers  of  this  association 
shall  be  a president,  vice-presi- 
dent, secretary  and  treasurer.  The 
duties  of  secretary  and  of  treasurer 
may  be  performed  by  one  and  the 
same  person,  who,  in  .such  case, 
shall  be  known  as  secretary-treas- 
urer. 

The  principal  duties  of  the  pres- 
ident shall  be  to  preside  at  all 
meetings  of  the  stockholders  and 
of  the  board  of  directors  and  with 
said  board  to  have  general  super- 
vision of  the  affairs  of  the  asso- 
ciation. He  shall  sign  all  certifi- 
cates of  stock  and  all  contracts 
and  other  instruments;  provided 
that  the  board  of  directors  may  au- 
thorize any  officer  or  agent  of  the 
association  to  perform  this  duty 
unless  prohibited  by  law. 

The  principal  duties  of  the  vice- 
president  shall  be  to  discharge  the 
duties  of  the  president  in  the  event 
of  the  absence  or  disability  of  the 
latter. 

The  principal  duties  of  the  sec- 
retary shall  be  to  keep  a true  and 
correct  record  of  the  proceedings 
of  the  board  of  directors,  and  to 
safely  and  systematically  keep  all 
books,  papers,  records,  and  docu- 
ments belonging  to  the  association 
or  pertaining  to  the  business 
thereof.  He  shall  countersign  and 
affix  the  seal  of  the  corporation  to 
such  papers  and  documents  as 
shall  be  required  to  be  counter- 
signed or  sealed;  ^provided  that 
the  board  of  directors  may  author- 
ize any  officer  or  agent  of  the  as- 
sociation to  perform  this  duty,  un- 
less prohibited  by  law. 

The  principal  duties  of  the  treas- 
urer shall  be  to  safely  keep  and 
account  for  all  moneys  and  other 
property  of  the  association  which 
shall  come  into  his  hands,  and  to 
keep  an  accurate  account  of  all 
moneys  received  and  disbursed  by 
him  and  to  retain  proper  vouchers 


for  all  moneys  disbursed  and  to 
render  such  accounts,  statements 
and  inventories  as  may  be  required 
by  the  board  of  directors. 

The  officers  of  the  association 
shall  perform  such  additional 
duties  as  may  from  time  to  time 
be  imposed  by  the  board  of  direct- 
ors or  as  may  from  time  to  time 
be  prescribed  by  the  by-laws. 

Article  IV 

The  term  of  office  of  all  officers 
of  this  association  shall  be  one 
year  (unless  the  office  be  declared 
vacant  before  the  expiration  of  the 
year)  or  until  a successor  has  been 
elected  or  appointed. 

The  board  of  directors  shall 
have  authority  to  remove  any  of- 
ficer for  cause  or  any  employe  at 
any  time,  and  shall  fill  any  vacancy 
caused  by  any  such  removal. 

Article  V 

The  directors  shall  apportion  the 
earnings  by  first  paying  dividends 
on  the  paid-up  capital  at  a rate 
not  to  exceed  six  per  cent,  an- 
nually, and  then  setting  aside  ten 
per  cent  of  the  net  profits  for  a 
reserve  fund  until  an  amount  has 
accumulated  in  the  reserve  fund 
equal  to  one  hundred  per  cent  of 
the  paid-up  capital  stock.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  net  profits  shall  be 
distributed  as  required  by  law. 

Article  VI 

The  board  of  directors  shall  have 
authority  to  issue  shares  of  stock 
or  the  promissory  notes  of  this  as- 
sociation, in  payment  of  patronage 
dividends  to  stockholders  and  to 
provide  for  a method  of  rotating 
capital  based  upon  the  tonnage 
of  cheese  marketed  by  the  stock- 
holders through  this  association. 

Article  VII 

(Note — Article  VII  was  exclud- 
ed by  the  vote  of  the  annual  meet- 
ing in  1920.) 

Every  stockholder  of  this  asso- 
ciation shall  enter  into  a contract 
to  sell  to  this  association  all  of  the 
cheese  produced  by  or  for  such 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  346 


stockholder,  or  such  part  thereof 
as  this  association  may  .require, 
which  contract  shall  be  of  two 
years’  duration,  continuing  there- 
after from  year  to  year  subject  to 
the  right  of  the  stockholders  to 
terminate  liability  under  such  con- 
tract at  the  end  of  any  year  after 
giving  notice  to  the  board  of  di- 
rectors of  this  association  at  least 
thirty  days  before  the  expiration 
of  such  year  and  affording  to  the 
board  of  directors  of  this  associa- 
tion a hearing  before  the  stock- 
holder in  this  matter.  The  require- 
ments of  the  contract  herein  shall 
not  affect  the  right  of  a stock- 
holder to  dispose  of  cheese  to  its 
members  for  their  individual  use. 

Any  stockholder  violating  the 
agreement  to  sell  its  cheese,  as 
provided  herein,  shall  pay  to  this 
association — as  liquidated  damages 
— a sum  equal  to  one  cent  per 
pound  for  each  pound  of  cheese  pro- 
duced but  not  delivered  by  it  ac- 
cording to  the  provisions  contained 
herein;  and  said  sum  may  be  de- 
ducted from  any  money  due  from 
this  association  to  the  stockholder. 

Article  VIII 

Each  cooperative  association  or 
corporation,  which  owns  stock  in 
this  association,  shall  conform  to 
all  lawful  rules  and  regulations 
adopted  by  this  association  for  the 
manufacture  and  preparation  for 
shipment  of  cheese  and  by- 
products. 

Article  IX 

Stock  in  this  association  shall  be 
transferred  by  the  owner  or  its 
agent  only  on  the  books  of  this 
association. 

Article  X 

No  stockholder  shall  sell  or 
otherwise  alienate  its  stock  in 


this  association  except  after  de- 
positing it  with  the  secretary 
thereof,  who  shall  have  the  author- 
ity, if  exercised  within  thirty  days, 
to  sell  or  otherwise  dispose  of  the 
stock  as  the  board  of  directors  may 
approve,  paying  to  the  owner  of 
the  stock  the  par  value  thereof, 
after  deducting  any  amount  due 
from  the  stockholder  to  this  asso- 
ciation. In  the  event  that  the  sec- 
retary does  not  exercise  the  option 
to  sell  the  shareholder’s  stock 
within  thirty  days  after  the  share- 
holder has  deposited  said  stock 
with  the  .secretary,  the  secretary 
shall  return  the  stock  to  the  share- 
holder who  may  then  sell  or  other- 
wise alienate  it  in  any  manner  not 
prohibited  by  law. 


Article  XI 

The  board  of  directors  shall  have 
authority,  upon  giving  ten  days’ 
notice  in  writing,  to  call  in  the 
stock  of  any  stockholder  upon  pay- 
ment of  its  par  value,  after  de- 
duction of  any  amount  due  from 
the  stockholder  to  the  association; 
provided,  that  not  more  than  ten 
per  cent  of  the  paid-up  capital 
stock  shall  be  thus  called  in  during 
the  period  intervening  between  any 
two  annual  stockholders’  meetings, 
unless  authorized  by  a vote  of  the 
stockholders  in  the  same  manner 
as  is  prescribed  for  amendment  of 
these  by-laws. 


Article  XII 

These  by-laws  may  be  amended 
by  a vote  of  the  majority  of  the 
stockholders  at  any  regular  or  spe- 
cial meeting;  provided  that  notice 
proposing  to  amend  the  by-laws  at 
a special  meeting  shall  be  given  in 
the  call  thereof. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
MADISON 


DIGEST 


Surface  drainage  is  important  and  is  one  of  the  first  things 
to  consider  in  farming  heavy  silt  loam.  Plowing  in  narrow 
lands  with  dead  furrows  connected  with  good  outlets  is  rec- 
ommended. Page  7 

Plowing  to  a depth  of  6 inches  in  the  fall  has  been  found) 
most  desirable,  with  the  possible  exception  of  corn,  where 
spring  plowing  has  given  best  yields.  Neither  subsoiling,  deep 
tilling  nor  deep  plowing  have  been  found  profitable  for  the 
crops  grown  in  the  rotation.  Page  12 

Lodging  of  oats  causes  serious  losses,  due  primarily  to  un- 
balanced soil  conditions.  Early  maturing  varieties  and  others 
adapted  to  this  soil  type  should  be  grown.  Applying  manure 
on  second-year  hay  instead  of  the  corn  crop,  and  planting 
corn  after  corn  have  been  found  helpful  practices  to  reduce 
losses  from  lodging.  Page  20 

The  heavy  silt  loam  is  acid,  and  requires  about  2 
tons  of  limestone  per  acre.  Limestone  furnishes  plant  food 
as  well  as  overcoming  acidity  of  the  soil.  Page  22 

Clover  is  the  best  general  legume  crop  to  grow.  Soybeans 

are  also  excellent  forage  crops  and  yield  good  tonnage.  Page  23 

Dairy  products  and  livestock  are  the  principal  sources  of 
income  of  farmers  in  the  heavy  silt  loam  region.  Where  only 
a limited  amount  of  millstuffs  is  fed,  the  use  of  phosphate  fer- 
tilizers supplementing  stable  manure  is  advised.  Page  27 

In  applying  fertilizers,  all  the  crops  grown  in  the  rotation 
should  be  considered.  Broadcasting  is,  therefore,  recom- 
mended. Applying  small  amounts  of  fertilizer  in  the  row  or 
hill  is  justified  in  the  case  of  corn  in  order  to  hasten  growth, 
but  the  bulk  of  the  fertilizer  should  be  applied  broadcast. 

Page  33 


The  cover  photograph  is  an  aeroplane  view  of  part  of  the 
Marshfield  Experiment  Station  Farm.  Some  of  the  experimental 
plots  are  shown  in  the  foreground. 


Farming  the  Heavy  Silt  Loams  of 
Central  Wisconsin 

F.  L.  Musbach 

HEAVY  SILT  LOAM  is  the  most  important  soil  type  in 
central  Wisconsin.  It  occupies  an  area  between  5,000 
and  6,000  square  miles  in  the  heart  of  the  state— an 
area  equal  to  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island  combined.* 

The  soil  is  adapted  to  a wide  range  of  crops  and  when  prop- 
erly managed  excellent  yields  are  obtained.  The  soil  is  close 
textured  and  retains  moisture  to  a marked  extent,  so  that  sur- 
face drainage  is  of  first  importance.  The  silt  loams  have  a 
high  degree  of  native  fertility  and  when  the  plant  food  supply 
is  maintained,  big  yields  may  be  expected.  The  growing  of 
legume  crops,  use  of  ground  limestone,  and  supplementing  the 
manure  with  phosphate  fertilizers  makes  a combination  that 
means  permanent  fertility  as  well  as  profitable  crop  yields. 

How  Climate  Affects  Crops 

The  influence  of  climate  on  crop  production  is  generally  rec- 
ognized. Rainfall  and  temperature  are  especially  important. 
The  relation  of  the  soil  itself  to  rainfall  and  temperature  is  an- 
other important  factor.  Heavy  silt  loams,  for  example,  hold 
moisture  especially  well  and  where  drainage  is  not  ample  the 
soil  remains  cold  and  is  considered  backward.  The  im- 
portance of  having  a soil  in  good  fertile  condition,  therefore, 
cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized.  This  applies  particularly 
to  the  corn  crop,  which  requires  a warm  soil  and  responds 
especially  well  either  to  stable  manure  or  commercial  fer- 
tilizer. 

The  rainfall,  as  a rule,  is  ample  in  central  Wisconsin,  and 
the  distribution  is  also  ideal.  Spring  is  sometimes  late,  but 
usually  the  temperature  conditions  are  excellent  for  crop  ger- 
mination. At  the  Marshfield  Station,  temperature  and  rainfall 
records  were  maintained  since  1913.  (See  Table  I.) 

•The  management  of  this  type  of  soil  brings  up  problems  of  special 
interest  to  farmers  now  in  the  area  as  well  as  to  the  new  settler.  The 
Marshfield  Experiment  Station  was  established  in  1912  and  the  results 
of  the  nine  years’  work  are  briefly  given  in  this  bulletin. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


8/otieio 


[DOUGLAS 


WASHBURN 


SAWYER 


FOREST 


FLORENCE 


BARRON 


LANGLADE  I 


lOCONTO 


CHIPPEWA! 


^MARATHto 


eauolaire’ 


WHmEi 


Itrempe- 


OUTAGAMIE 


AlEAU 


JACKSON-! 


WAUSHARA 


H CROSSE 


MARQUETTE]  GREEN 
} LAKE 


JEFFERSON  [WAUKESHA 


GREEN 


LA  FAYETTE 


PIG.  1.— AREA  OF  HEAVY  SILT  LOAM  SOIL  IN  CENTRAL  WISCONSIN 

This  soil  comprises  a section  equal  to  approximately  one-tenth  of  the 
entire  state. 


Table  I. — Rainfall  Record  in  Inches  at  Marshfield  Station. 

1913-1921 


Year 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May 

June 

July 

Aug. 

Sept. 

f 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

1913_ 

.88 

.86 

3.30 

2.48 

6.22 

2.70 

3.50 

3.88 

3.13 

2.31 

1.33 

.24 

1914 

1.56 

.69 

1.12 

3.09 

2.23 

10.17 

2.27 

3.56 

5.04 

2.32 

.83 

.92 

1915 

1.69 

1.61 

.70 

.51 

5.36 

3.84 

6.38 

3.20 

2.40 

2.91 

4.86 

1.09 

1916 

2.18 

1.19 

1.85 

2.47 

4.61 

6.31 

2.52 

3.53 

5.44 

3.04 

2.00 

.87 

1917 

2.97 

.55 

1.10 

2.24 

2.14 

4.21 

6.05 

8.41 

1.33 

3.00 

.15 

.48 

1918 

1.05 

.75 

.75 

2.85 

7.97 

3.02 

2.81 

2.19 

1.17 

2.40 

2.16 

1.64 

1919 

.41 

1.09 

2.20 

4.11 

3.02 

4.71 

5.96 

4.70 

2.11 

3.64 

3.59 

.81 

1920 

1.76 

.40 

2.23 

2.13 

3.65 

: 4.92 

1.02 

1 52 

1.74 

3.55 

2.63 

2.45 

1921 

.15 

.60 

1.60 

4.52 

3.11 

1 3.30 

3.32 

1.21 

3.12 

1.16 

1.40 

2.43 

Nine  year 
average 

1.40 

.86 

1.65 

, 2.71 

4.25 

4.79 

3.76 

3.58 

2.83 

2.70 

2.11 

1.21 

Total 


30. 

33. 

34. 
36. 
32. 
28. 
36. 
28. 
25. 


31.86 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  5 

On  the  average  for  nine  years  the  heaviest  rainfall  came  dur- 
ing the  growing  season — May,  June  and  July.  During  this  pe- 
riod, 12.70  inches,  or  practically  40  per  cent  of  the  total  rainfall, 
comes.  The  average  annual  rainfall  for  nine  years  is  31.86 
inches. 

The  length  of  the  growing  season  averages  128  days,  based 
upon  the  records  for  nine  years  at  the  Marshfield  Experiment 
Station,  as  shown  by  Table  II. 

Table  II. — Dates  of  Last  Frost  in  Spring  and  First  in  Autumn 


Tear 

Last  in  spring 

First  in  autumn 

1Q13 

June  10 
May  15 
May  17 
May  2 
May  24 
May  1 
April  29 
May  14 
May  16 

Sept.  22 
Sept.  9 
Aug.  27 
Sept.  15 
Sept.  10 
Sept.  10 
Oct.  11 
Sept.  30 
Oct.  4 

1914 ■ 

191K  ...... 

1916  

1917  

1918 

1919 

1920  — _ 

1921 . 

In  Table  II  30°  F.  was  taken  as  the  temperature  determin- 
ing date  of  frost.  Only  twice  during  the  nine  years  has  the 
temperature  reached  30°  F.  after  May  20.  As  a rule,  little  or  no 
injury  is  incurred  in  late  spring  frosts. 

Autumn  frosts  are  more  liable  to  cause  injury,  especially  to 
corn.  For  several  years  soft  corn  was  harvested  during  the 
period  of  1913  to  1921.  In  part  this  was  due  to  early  fall  frosts 
and  in  part  to  unfavorable  growing  weather  during  June  and 
July.  The  crop  grown  on  well-drained,  fertile  soil  matures 
earlier  and  is,  of  course,  less  liable  to  suffer  from  these  un- 
favorable conditions. 

Soil  Made  Up  of  Silt  and  Clay 

The  surface  soil  is  essentially  a uniform  greyish  colored  silt 
loam,  containing  a large  proportion  of  fine  earth  particles  called 
silt,  hence  the  name,  silt  loam.  In  texture  it  is  somewhat  between 
a loam  and  a clay  loam. 

The  subsoil  varies  somewhat  in  texture  and  color.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  district,  the  subsoil  to  a depth  of  18  to  30 
inches  is  a light  gravelly  and  sandy  material.  In  the  southern 
portion,  the  area  is  underlain  by  a heavier  subsoil,  frequently 
spoken  of  as  “hard  pan/’  chiefly  because  this  layer  does  not  per- 
mit the  rapid  downward  movement  of  water. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


FIG.  2.— EXPERIMENTAL  PLOTS  AT  MARSHFIELD  STATION 


Several  hundred  similar  plots  are  devoted  to  experimentation  in  variety 
tests,  use  of  fertilizer,  methods  of  tillage,  and  drainage. 

When  the  soil  is  sifted  into  its  various  separates  based  upon 
size,  it  is  found  that  silt  and  clay  make  up  a large  part  of  the  total 
soil  particles.  (See  Table  III.) 


Table  III. — Mechanical  Analyses  of  Typical  Silt  Loam  Soil 


Depth 

Fine 

gravel 

Coarse 

sand 

Medium 

sand 

Fine 

sand 

Very  fine 
sand 

Silt 

Clay 

0"-  8" 

.2, 

3.5 

2.6 

4.0 

5.7 

70.3 

13  6 

8"- 20" 

.3 

3.5 

j 3.7 

5.8 

7.0 

64.3 

15.4 

20"-36" 

.4 

7.2 

8.5 

14.8 

11.5 

34.9 

22.9 

DRAINAGE  OF  SILT  LOAM 

The  surface  is  generally  slightly  rolling  with  many  nearly  level 
areas  which  suffer  from  lack  of  drainage  during  some  seasons. 
The  greater  part  is  rolling  enough  to  afford  good  surface  drain- 
age for  most  crops.  Tile  drainage,  however,  on  a considerable 
area  will  be  found  profitable  to  insure  best  yields. 

The  peculiar  composition  of  the  soil  in  size  of  particles  makes 
quick  passage  of  water  through  it  somewhat  difficult.  The  high 
proportion  of  silt  is  largely  responsible  for  this.  The  soil  for  this 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  7 


reason  does  not  check  nor  crack  upon  drying  out,  so  that  water 
courses  are  not  readily  established.  Surface  drainage  is,  there- 
fore, of  importance.  The  internal  drainage  of  soil  is  less  easily 
remedied. 

Surface  Drains  Important 

Providing  ample  surface  drains  is  the  first  question  to  which 
the  farmer  should  give  his  attention.  This  simple  process  should 
be  considered  at  plowing  time.  As  a rule,  land  should  be  plowed 
in  the  direction  of  the  slope  and  not  at  right  angles  to  it.  The 
field  should  be  plowed  in  narrow  “lands”  with  dead  furrows 
about  20  paces  apart.  This  distance  is  especially  important  on 
land  that  has  only  gentle  slopes,  but  on  the  more  rolling  areas, 
dead  furrows  may  be  farther  apart.  It  is  more  logical  to  keep  wa- 
ter out  of  soil  than  to  remove  it  after  it  soaks  in. 

These  dead  furrows  should  be  provided  with  good  outlets  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  field.  Oftentimes  these  outlets  may  be 
brought  together  and  in  turn  emptied  into  a large  surface 
ditch.  The  ditch  should  be  shallow,  12  inches  at  the  deepest 
part,  and  16  feet  wide,  with  graded  slopes,  that  permit  driving 
over  with  tools  and  machinery.  A ditch  of  this  kind  may  be 
easily  built,  using  a road  grader  and  plow.  It  is  important  to 
keep  this  run-way  seeded  and  permanent  unless  it  is  neces- 
sary to  move  the  location. 

The  use  of  a reversible  or  side  hill  plow  is,  therefore,  not  rec- 
ommended unless  dead  furrows  are  afterwards  plowed  out. 
While  considerable  losses  occur  in  poor  yields  in  the  dead  fur- 
rows, they  are  very  much  less  than  the  losses  which  occur  when 
the  entire  field  suffers  from  lack  of  drainage.  Then,  too,  the  well 
drained  land  may  be  worked  earlier  in  the  spring.  Much  time  is 
required  for  the  water  to  escape  by  evaporation  and  by  seepage, 
thus  delaying  planting.  Besides,  the  poorly  drained  soil  remains 
colder  and  this  retards  the  germination  of  the  grain. 

In  order  to  study  the  differences  in  temperature  of  soil,  ther- 
mometers were  placed  at  a depth  of  \y2  inches  directly  over  tile 
lines  and  also  at  the  same  depth  2 rods  distant  from  the  tile. 
Frequently  the  soil  over  the  tile  was  found  to  be  as  much  as 
5°  F.  warmer  than  that  2 rods  from  the  tile  line. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


Tile  Drainage  Beneficial  on  Silt  Loam 

The  first  essential,  that  of  surface  drainage,  has  already  been 
discussed.  The  soil,  however,  has  a peculiar  property  of  hold- 
ing water  tenaciously,  so  that  while  surface  water  is  removed, 
yet  the  ground  remains  wet.  Ten  years  ago  when  the  Marsh- 


FIG.  3.— A STUDY  IN  DRAINAGE  EFFECTS  ON  SOIL  CHECKING 

This  view  represents  a plot  not  satisfactorily  drained.  Cracks  nearly 
one  inch  in  width  and  10  to  12  inches  deep  are  common. 


field  Branch  Station  was  established,  an  experiment  in  the 
profitableness  of  tiling  the  silt  loam  was  undertaken.  The 
question  whether  the  tile  would  heave  out  of  line  was  also  an 
interesting  one  on  which  to  get  observations. 

The  field  tiled  in  1912  consisted  of  nearly  four  acres  (3.85 
acres)  and  a system  of  drainage  was  installed.  The  laterals 
were  4 rods  apart  and  4-inch  tile  were  used.  The  main  is 
5-inch  and  at  the  lower  end  of  the  system  larger  sizes  are  nec- 
essarily required.  The  laterals  vary  in  depth  from  a little  less 
than  30  inches  to  36  inches.  The  tile  are  laid  to  a grade  of  2 
to  3 inches  for  each  100  feet. 

Five  years  ago  manholes  were  installed  into  which  the  tile 
discharge.  These  were  put  in  in  order  to  study  the  discharge 
during  the  season  and  other  important  matters. 

During  the  ten  years  no  trouble  has  been  experienced  with 
the  tile  heaving  out  of  line  or  otherwise  breaking.  The  sys- 
tem is  apparently  becoming  more  efficient,  as  indicated  by  a 
study  of  the  discharge  during  the  past  five  years. 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  9 


The  heaviest  discharge  of  the  tile  comes  during  the  spring 
months — March,  April  and  May,  when  the  tile  system  on  the 
four-acre  tract  discharges  at  the  rate  of  2,000  barrels  of  water 
in  24  hours.  This  is  the  maximum  and  occurred  in  March, 
1920.  A surprising  amount  of  water  is  removed  during  the 


FIG.  4.— THIS  PLOT  HAS  GOOD  UNDERDRAINAGE 


Note  difference  in  checking-.  Compare  with  Fig.  3. 

early  part  of  the  season,  before  crops  and  evaporation  make 
heavy  draughts  on  the  water  supply.  Table  IV  gives  the 
amount  of  rainfall  and  the  approximate  discharge  from  the 
system. 

Table  IV. — Rainfall  and  Discharge  from  Tile  During  Spring 

of  1920 


Rainfall 

Tile  discharge 

Per  cent  discharged 
in  tile 

Inches 

Gallons 

Inches 

Gallons 

March 

. 2.23 

232,528 

2.280 

237,832 

102.2 

April 

2.13 

222,100 

.494 

51,912 

23.3 

May __  

3.65 

382,554 

.016 

16,518 

4.3 

June 

4.92 

513,020 

.029 

3,091 

.0 

The  discharge  is  heaviest  early  in  the  season  and  gradually 
decreases  as  the  season  advances.  The  March  discharge  in 
the  tile  indicates  a greater  amount  than  came  in  the  total  rain- 
fall. This  is  due  in  part  to  melting  snow  that  fell  during  the 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


previous  month,  and  also  to  some  water  coming  from  higher 
lying  land  that  is  picked  up  by  the  tile  as  seepage  water.  Again 
the  readings  of  tile  discharge  were  taken  twice  daily  in  the  man- 
holes, by  taking  duplicate  readings  of  the  time  required  to  fill  a 


Tiled  field  in  the  foreground — the  location  of  the  tile  lines  4 rods  apart 
can  be  seen  by  the  light  colored  bands  of  soil  extending  across  the  field. 

container  of  known  volume.  This  is,  of  course,  a rather  crude 
method  and  subject  to  error. 

The  effect  of  tile  on  the  land  is  also  quite  marked  in  the 
spring.  As  a rule,  the  soil  may  be  worked  earlier  and  dries 
out  sooner  after  heavy  rains  than  it  otherwise  would. 

Six  years  ago  another  field  was  tiled  in  a way  to  permit 
yields  being  obtained  from  small  plots  at  different  distances 
from  the  tile  line.  The  rotation  consists  of  barley,  alfalfa  (3 
years),  potatoes  and  corn.  (See  Table  V.) 

Table  V. — Average  Results  of  Tiling 
(Acre  Yields  for  Varying  Periods) 


Distance  of  plot  from  tile 

Corn 
3-yr.  av. 

Barley 
4-yr.  av. 

Potatoes 
6-yr.  av. 

Alfalfa 

1st  yr.  2nd.  yr. 

4-yr.  av.  3-yr.  av. 

Rods 

Bushels 

Bushels 

Bushels 

: Pounds 

1 Pounds 

4 

51.22 

28.26 

154.11 

3,243 

3,087 

3 

57.21 

29.02 

162.79 

3,387 

3,046 

2 

57.22 

29.89 

172.44 

3,587 

3,297 

1 

58.66 

30.15 

192.88 

3,818 

3,327 

Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  11 


Since  the  manurial  treatment  and  liming  were  the  same  on 
all  plots,  the  increased  yields  were  due  to  better  drainage. 

Substantial  increases  were  obtained  notably  on  the  plots 
near  the  tile  compared  to  those  four  rods  distant,  especially 


FIG.  6. — CORN  ADJACENT  TO  TILE  LINES  BETWEEN  THE  TWO 

PLOTS 

Note  the  full  stand  and  thrifty  growth.  Tile  are  laid  2%  to  3 feet 
deep.  Compare  with  Fig.  7. 

with  potatoes  and  corn.  Alfalfa  has  not  made  big  yields,  yet 
tiling  has  been  helpful  in  increasing  fields.  June  grass  was 
troublesome,  especially  after  the  second  year,  and  this  was  one 
reason  for  the  reduced  tonnage. 

The  cost  of  tiling  (1915)  averaged  about  $35.00  per  acre 
where  tile  are  placed  30  to  36  inches  deep  and  laterals  4 rods 
apart.  The  increased  yields  paid  a handsome  return  on  the 
investment. 

TILLAGE  METHODS  ARE  IMPORTANT 

How  deep  should  heavy  silt  loam  be  plowed?  Is  spring 
plowing  advisable?  What  about  subsoiling,  especially  in  sec- 
tions where  subsoil  is  tight?  These  are  a few  of  the  ques- 
tions about  tillage  methods  that  the  farmer  wants  answered. 

The  depth  of  plowing  is  important.  Many  prefer  plowing 
to  a depth  of  8 to  9 inches  in  the  fall  of  the  year,  others  say 
subsoiling  or  deep  tilling  is  more  profitable.  In  order  to  an- 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


swer  these  questions,  a four-acre  field  was  set  aside  at  the 
Marshfield  Experiment  Station  and  various  tillage  methods  studied. 
The  rotation  included  corn,  oats,  clover  and  timothy,  and  timothy. 
(See  Table  VI.) 

Table  VI. — Results  Obtained  With  Various  Tillage  Methods 
(Average  Acre  Yields  for  Varying  Periods) 


Method 

Com 
6-yr.  ay. 

Oats 

9-yr.  av. 

] 

Clover  and  timothy 

Timothy 
5-yr.  av. 

- 

1st  cut 

2d  cut 

Bushels 

Bushels 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Fall  plowed  6* 

58.67 

52.30 

4,411 

1,825 

4,097 

Fall  plowed  3" 

56.33 

51.22 

4,193 

1,770 

4,096 

Fall  plowed  8" 

59.02 

50.71 

4,491 

1,816 

4,305 

Fall  subsoiled  16" 

58.11 

51.90 

4,349 

1,632  ' 

1 4,252 

Fall  deep  tilled  16" 

56.15 

48.81 

4,143 

1,854 

i 4,360 

Spring  plowed  6"__. 

60.68 

53.29 

4,290 

1,528 

4,182 

FIG.  7. — CORN  ON  TWO  PLOTS  FOUR  RODS  FROM  TILE  LINE 
The  missing  hills  and  poor  growth  should  be  compared  with  tiled  plots. 


The  important  features  standing  out  in  the  results  are  that 
shallow  plowing  (3  inches)  gives  poor  yields  for  each  crop 
grown,  and  that  subsoiling  and  deep  tillage  treatments  are 
unprofitable.  Some  increases  in  the  case  of  timothy  hay  are 
to  be  noted  due  to  the  deep  tillage  treatments.  Both  subsoil- 
ing and  deep  tilling  treatments,  however,  more  than  double 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  13 

the  cost  of  plowing.  In  fact,  a tractor  should  be  employed  if 
either  a subsoil  plow  or  deep  tiller  is  used  extensively. 

Deep  plowing  (8  inches)  increased  yields  over  6-inch  fall 
plowing  in  all  cases  except  oats.  The  increases,  however,  are 
not  marked  and  would  barely  cover  the  cost  of  extra  horse 
power  needed  to  turn  over  the  additional  two  inches  of  soil. 

Spring  Plowing  Best  for  Corn 

Spring  plowing  produced  the  best  yield  on  the  corn  crop. 
The  sod  land  for  corn  is  usually  plowed  ten  days  or  so  before 
planting.  Oats  likewise  yields  best  on  spring  plowing  for  a 
nine-year  average.  The  first  clover  and  timothy  cutting  following 
oats,  however,  yields  lowest  on  spring  plowing.  Spring  plow- 
ing, however,  on  account  of  the  busy  season,  is  not  recom- 
mended for  any  crop  except  possibly  corn.  This  is  the  prac- 
tice of  many  farmers  who  invariably  report  good  results.  Sod 
land  is  a good  place  on  which  to  put  manure  in  early  fall  and 
winter  or  in  the  spring.  The  young  grass  can  then  make 
quick  growth  by  utilizing  the  plant  food  before  both  the  ma- 
nure and  green  material  are  plowed  under,  which  makes  ideal 
conditions  for  the  corn  crop.  On  old  timothy  sod,  however, 
fall  plowing  helps  to  prevent  trouble  with  cut  worms  and 
grubs. 

With  root  crops  it  is  probable  that  deeper  plowing  or  stir- 
ring up  the  subsoil  may  prove  profitable,  although  deep  tillage 
results  with  grain,  corn  and  hay  show  no  benefit.  It  is  the 
aim  to  try  out  rutabagas  and  other  root  crops  in  the  near  fu- 
ture, but  there  is  sufficient  evidence  to  show  that  for  ordinary 
farm  crops  plowing  to  an  average  depth  of  about  6 inches  in 
the  fall  of  the  year  is  sound  practice.  The  corn  crop  is  the 
possible  exception. 

Preparing  Seed  Bed 

The  silt  loam  soil  works  up  easily  and,  as  a rule,  there  is  no 
trouble  in  preparing  a good  seed  bed  in  the  spring.  In  fact, 
there  is  danger  of  working  the  soil  too  much.  Frequently,  if 
a deep  seed  bed  is  disked  up  and  heavy  rains  follow,  soil  pack- 
ing results,  which  is  difficult  to  overcome.  This  is  especially 
serious  on  small  grain  where  the  ground  cannot  be  pulverized 
after  seeding.  Cultivation  may  be  resorted  to  with  corn,  but 
even  then  it  is  difficult  to  restore  the  good  tilth  necessary  for 
best  results. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


Lodging  of  oats  must  be  considered  on  the  average  farm. 
While  there  are  no  direct  experimental  results,  considerable 
observation  shows  that  on  fairly  fertile  land,  lodging  may  be 
more  serious  on  soil  that  has  been  thoroughly  and  deeply  pul- 
verized. The  deep  cultivation  permits  air  to  enter  and  fur- 
nishes ideal  bacterial  conditions  for  releasing  plant  food,  espe- 
cially nitrates.  An  excessive  amount  of  nitrates  produces  a 
rank  growth  of  straw  that  lodges,  easily. 

Careless  work  is,  of  course,  not  recommended,  yet  where 
lodging  is  a serious  question,  shallow  preparation  either  by 
means  of  a disc  harrow  with  the  gangs  set  straight,  or  even  a 
spike  tooth  harrow,  is  advisable. 

CROP  ROTATION  BENEFICIAL 

In  Roman  agriculture  2,000  years  ago  the  beneficial  effects  of 
crop  rotation  were  well  understood.  One  writer  puts  it,  “The  land 
must  rest  every  second  year,  or  be  sown  with  light  kinds  of  seeds, 
which  prove  less  exhausting  to  the  soil.”  Again,  “Some  of  the 
leguminous  plants  manure  the  soil.”  The  reasons  underlying  the 
effects  of  rotation  and  benefits  of  legumes  were  not  understood,  yet 
the  practice  was  followed  then  as  well  as  now. 

In  discussing  rotations,  farm  crops  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes : 

1.  Grain  crops — generally  shallow  feeders,  add  little  humus 
or  organic  matter,  and  tend  to  weediness. 

2.  Hay  crops — legumes,  timothy,  etc.  Legumes  have  exten- 
sive root  systems,  tap  roots,  add  organic  matter  or  humus 
and  also  plant  food  (nitrogen).  They  also  improve  the  phys- 
ical condition  of  the  soil. 

3.  Cultivated  crops — Corn,  potatoes,  etc.,  conserve  mois- 
ture, favor  decomposition  of  organic  matter,  and  destroy 
weeds.  Some  are  deep  feeders,  as  corn,  while  root  crops  are 
shallow  feeders. 

A good  rotation  should  necessarily  include  crops  belonging 
to  each  of  these  three  classes.  The  value  of  such  practice  is 
apparent  in  its  effect  on  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  on 
weediness,  on  organic  matter  supply,  on  plant  diseases,  and 
on  nitrogen  supply  of  the  soil.  Better  yields  are,  therefore, 
obtained  when  crops  are  rotated  than  when  a single  cropping 
system  is  followed. 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  15 


FIG.  8— “STATION  DAY”  IS  AN  ANNUAL  AFFAIR 

A group  of  interested  farmers  inspecting  the  crops  on  the  Marshfield 
Experiment  Station  Farm.  Farmers  and  their  families  from  Central 
Wisconsin  counties  enjoy  their  visits  to  the  Farm. 


Again,  crop  rotation  permits  raising  livestock  and  means 
diversified  farming.  No  one  will  deny  the  benefits  of  this 
type  of  farming  in  stabilizing  farm  business  and  making  best 
use  of  labor  and  equipment  the  year  around. 

It  should  not  be  understood,  however,  that  crop  rotation 
means  maintaining  the  supply  of  plant  food  better  than  where 
a single  cropping  system  is  practiced.  In  fact,  quite  the  con- 
trary is  the  case. 

The  Illinois  Experiment  Station  furnishes  some  interesting 
data  on  crop  yields.  Crops  were  grown  continuously  on  some 
plots,  while  on  others  a three-year  or  a five-year  rotation  was 
followed.  None  of  the  plots  received  manure  or  commercial 
fertilizer  for  forty  years. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


FIG.  9.— SOIL  FROM  PLOT  WHERE  ROTATION  IS  PRACTICED 

The  rotation  included  legumes.  Note  the  mellow  condition  of  soil, 
also  the  vegetable  matter  present.  (Courtesy  of  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station.) 


Table  VII. — Yields  for  Ten-Year  Periods  from  1888  to  1917 


First  ten  years— (188&-1897)— 
Second  ten  years— (1898-1907). 
Third  ten  years— (1908-1917).-. 


2-yr.  rotation 

3-yr.  rotation 

Corn  every 
year 

Corn 

Oats 

Corn  Oats 

Clover 

40.9 

42.5 

41.6 

52.1  45.3 

2.34 

82.9 

42.4 

37.5 

55.7  48.4 

f Crop 
| failure 

28.3 

37.6 

38.6 

40.7  42.4  ! 

[as  rule 

The  corn  yields  in  the  early  years  averaged  about  70  bush- 
els per  acre  on  all  plots.  The  plots  are  located  on  heavy  silt 
loam  soil  of  the  corn  belt  prairie  of  Illinois. 

The  yields  of  corn  where  grown  every  year  show  a steady 
decline,  and  this  is  likewise  true  of  the  two-year  rotation.  In 
the  three-year  rotation,  the  last  ten-year  period  showed  a 
marked  drop  in  yield  over  the  preceding  period.  In  a large 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  17 

measure  this  is  due  to  clover  failures  which  occurred  during 
the  last  two  ten-year  periods,  when  only  two  clover  crops 
were  obtained. 

Soybeans  were  used  as  a substitute  crop,  but  are  much  less 
efficient  than  clover  in  supplying  organic  matter  and  nitrogen 
to  the  soil  in  roots  and  stubble.  The  heavier  crops  likewise 
remove  larger  quantities  of  plant  food — phosphorus,  nitrogen, 
potassium,  etc.  In  other  words,  rotating  crops  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  get  larger  yields  and  this  involves  the  removal  of 
larger  amounts  of  plant  food. 

The  clover  crops  have  built  up  the  supply  of  nitrogen  and 
organic  matter.  Chemical  analysis  would  indicate  higher  con- 
tent of  both  in  the  three-year  rotation  plot  than  in  either  of 
the  other  two.  In  fact,  the  increased  yields  are  in  a large 
measure  due  to  the  organic  matter  and  nitrogen  contributed 
by  the  hay  crops  that  have  made  possible  the  increases.  Of 


FIG.  10.— WHERE  CORN  IS  GROWN  CONTINUOUSLY  THE  SOIL  TENDS 

TO  BAKE 

Note  absence  of  organic  matter  and  cloddy  conditions.  (Courtesy  of 
Minnesota  Experiment  Station.) 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


course,  this  should  not  be  taken  as  an  argument  against  rota- 
tion. But  no  farmer  should  think  that  because  rotation  of 
crops  makes  productive  yields  possible  temporarily,  it,  there- 
fore, maintains  the  supply  of  plant  food  elements  in  the  soil. 
(The  exception  is,  of  course,  nitrogen  if  legumes  are  main- 
tained in  the  rotation.) 

It  is  often  said  that  certain  crops  are  “hard’’  on  the  soil  in 
the  sense  that  they  remove  more  plant  food  than  other  crops. 
In  part  that  is  true,  but  a more  important  difference  is  that 
some  plants  remove  more  of  certain  elements  than  others. 
Again,  a crop  like  corn,  because  of  its  root  development  and 
length  of  growing  season,  may  utilize  plant  food  that  is  less 
soluble.  (See  Table  VIII.) 


Table  VIII. — Plant  Food  Required  by  Average  Farm  Crops 


Crops 

Phosphorus 

Potassium 

Nitrogen 

Calcium 

[Total 

Corn  

60  bu. 

10.2 

13.3 

60. 

.47 

Corn  stover 

3 T. 

6.0 

52.0 

29. 

30.4 

Total  

16.2 

65.3 

89. 

30.87 

201.4 

Oats  

50  bu. 

7.0 

7.3 

33. 

1.8 

Oats  straw 

Eh 

g 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3.0 

31.2 

19. 

6.8 

Total  

10. 

38.5 

52. 

8.6 

109.1 

Barley  

30  bu. 

5.2 

6.0 

19.2 

.6 

Barley  straw 

1.5  T. 

2.0 

21.5 

13.0 

5.7 

Total  

7.2 

27.5 

32.2 

6.3 

73  2 

Wheat  

5.1 

7.08 

28.4 

.67 

Wheat  straw 

1.5  T. 

2.4 

25.0 

15.0 

6.51 

Total  

7.5 

32.08 

43.4 

7.18 

90.16 

Rye  

30  bu. 

6.6 

8.1 

31.5 

.75 

Rye  straw 

2 T. 

3.2 

26.0 

18.4 

4.40 

Total  

9.8 

34.1 

49.9 

5.15 

98.95 

Red  clover 

2 T. 

7.3 

73.6 

80.0 

49.4 

210.3 

Alfalfa  

4 T. 

19.0 

66.5 

200.0 

90.4 

375.9 

Soybean  hay 

9.5 

71.0 

93.0 

55.0 

228.5 

Timothy  

2 T. 

4.5 

22.5 

34.0 

7.0 

68.0 

Millet  

2 T. 

6.6 

51.0 

25.5  j 

12.4 

95.5 

Potatoes  

200  bu. 

9.0 

60.0 

22.0  ! 

3.2 

94.2 

Rutabagas  

10  T. 

10.4 

81.0 

38.0  | 

3.0 

132.4 

Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  19 


Potatoes  require  relatively  more  potassium ; corn  draws 
heavily  on  nitrogen ; while  legumes  are  heavy  feeders  of  lime 
(calcium)  and  also  require  large  amounts  of  phosphorus,  po- 
tassium and  nitrogen  (some  of  which  may  be  extracted  from 
the  air  in  the  soil) . Again,  grain  crops  and  roots  require  plant  food 
that  is  readily  available, , while  corn  is  less  particular  in  this  respect. 

By  properly  rotating  crops,  therefore,  the  soil  is  subjected 
to  these  different  “feeding  characteristics.”  One  crop  com- 
pensates for  the  other,  and  there  is  maintained  more  nearly  a 
balanced  condition  than  with  the  single  crop  system. 

There  is  no  one  best  system  of  rotation  for  the  silt  loam 
soils.  The  rotation  depends  on  the  system  of  farming,  and 
this  depends  largely  on  the  personal  choice  of  the  farmer,  for 
some  prefer  one  system  and  some  another.  It  is  highly  de- 
sirable to  rotate  crops,  but  a serious  mistake  to  think  that  ro- 
tation takes  the  place  of  other  equally  sound  practices,  such 
as  liming  and  fertilizing. 

The  silt  loam  area  of  central  Wisconsin  is  noted  as  a diver- 
sified farm  section.  Dairying  and  livestock  raising  are  the 
principal  sources  of  income.  The  crops  grown  must,  there- 
fore, include  succulence,  silage  or  root  crops,  grain  crops,  and 
forage  crops — clover  and  other  legumes. 

Succulent  Crops  Needed 

Corn  is,  no  doubt,  the  best  all  around  silage  crop.  Sunflow- 
ers have  been  tried,  and  while  the  tonnage  exceeds  that  of 
corn,  yet  this  does  not  overcome  many  of  its  undesirable  fea- 
tures. Wisconsin  No.  8 and  Golden  Glow  have  produced  12 
to  14  tons  per  acre,  and  with  favorable  seasons  can  always  be 
depended  upon  to  make  excellent  silage.  Root  crops  have 
also  found  favor,  especially  in  the  newer  sections  where  frost 
is  more  serious  than  on  the  older  more  developed  areas.  At 
the  Conrath  Demonstration  Farm  the  average  yield  for  five 
years  has  been  23  tons  per  acre  of  rutabagas  (Hurst’s  Mon- 
arch). The  roots  are  drilled-in  in  rows,  thinned  and  culti- 
vated the  same  as  corn  is  drilled  in  rows. 

Oats  and  rye  are  two  dependable  small  grain  crops.  Barley 
yields  well,  though  the  crop  is  not  as  certain  as  the  other  two. 
Wheat  is  subject  to  rust  and  is  not  grown  to  any  extent. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


Lodging  Is  Serious  Problem 

During  the  past  ten  years  lodging  of  oats  has  become  a se- 
rious problem,  especially  detrimental  in  many  cases  on  ac- 
count of  the  bad  effect  on  clover  seeding.  If  the  heavy  oats 
nurse  crop  does  not  smother  out  the  clover  completely,  it  re- 


FIG.  11 —LODGING  IS  A SERIOUS  PROBLEM 


Lodging  is  frequent  on  many  farms  on  the  heavy  silt  loam.  The 
weather,  soil  conditions,  and  variety  of  oats  are  factors  influencing 
lodging. 

duces  its  vitality  so  that  after  the  oat  crop  is  removed,  only 
favorable  distribution  of  rainfall  will  enable  the  clover  crop 
to  make  thrifty,  vigorous  growth  before  winter.  At  the 
Marshfield  Station  in  1920  a reasonably  fertile  field  produced 
a heavy  crop  that  lodged  before  harvesting.  Within  a month 
after  the  oats  were  harvested,  the  entire  new  seeding  had  dis- 
appeared except  in  two  foot  strips  where  no  nurse  crop  was 
seeded. 

Lodging  is  due  to  a number  of  causes,  over  some  of  which 
there  is  no  control.  The  primary  cause  of  lodging  is  an  un- 
balanced soil ; that  is,  a soil  relatively  high  in  nitrogen  and 
humus,  or  organic  matter.  The  crop  grown  on  a soil  in  which 
nitrates  (compound  of  nitrogen)  are  available  in  abundance, 
produces  a weak  straw  lacking  in  stiffness  and  easily  broken 
down  in  unfavorable  weather.  Early  maturing  varieties  of 
oats  have  the  advantage  in  that  they  ripen  earlier  and  thus 
avoid  the  bad  weather  conditions  that  frequently  come  later 
in  the  summer. 

State’s  Pride  or  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  7,  an  early  oats  of 
the  Kherson  stock,  has  suffered  less  from  lodging  and  its  at- 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  21 

tendant  bad  effects  on  clover  seeding  than  has  heavier  Swed- 
ish Select,  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  5.  In  point  of  yield  the 
Pedigree  No  7 has  also  maintained  its  own,  outyielding  in  some 
years  the  heavier  strawed  oats.  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  1 is 
another  variety  that,  while  heavy  in  straw,  stands  up  better  than 
other  late  maturing  varieties. 

Frequently  the  farmer  with  poor  native  pasture  is  forced  to 
pasture  new  seeding  in  the  fall.  This  is  a bad  practice,  as  it 
reduces  the  chances  of  having  any  clover  hay  the  following 
season. 

Barley  and  rye  are  better  nurse  crops.  Both  come  off  early 
and  are  not  subject  to  lodging.  Fall  rye  should  be  grown 
more  generally,  because  it  is  a safe  crop  and  thus  far  little,  if 
any,  trouble  has  been  experienced  in  getting  good  clover 


FIG.  12.— THE  MOST  IMPORTANT  LEGUME  FOR  THE  HEAVY  SILT 

LOAM 

Timothy  is  a more  common  crop  than  clover  in  many  sections. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


stand  with  rye  as  a nurse  crop.  The  usual  practice  is  to  seed 
red  clover  early  in  the  spring  before  the  frost  is  out  of  the 
ground.  A good  rate  of  seeding  is  10  to  12  pounds  per  acre, 
with  some  timothy  seed.  The  alternate  freezing  and  thawing 
will  furnish  cover,  so  that  on  the  silt  loam  soil  no  harrowing 
is  necessary  to  cover  the  seed. 

Clover  or  Timothy  for  Forage 

The  silt  loam  soil  of  Central  Wisconsin  has  been  called 
“Clover  Land.”  The  name  may  still  be  used  on  the  newer 
lands  opened  for  farming  purposes.  On  the  older  cropped 
lands,  however,  clover  failures  are  common.  Clover  here  has 
been  replaced  to  a marked  extent  by  timothy.  In  some  areas 
farmers  have  given  up  the  growing  of  clover  entirely  and  de- 
pend, instead,  on  the  timothy,  which  is  so  much  more  easily 
grown  and  which  returns  good  yields  for  three  to  six  years 
or  even  longer  if  top  dressing  is  resorted  to. 

The  dairy  farmer,  however,  finds  timothy  a poor  substitute 
for  clover  in  compounding  his  dairy  ration.  Not  only  is  the 
protein  content  much  less,  but  minerals  also  are  woefully 
lacking  in  timothy.  (See  Table  VIII  and  compare  calcium 
content  of  clover,  alfalfa,  and  soybeans  with  timothy.) 

Silt  Loams  Are  Acid 

The  silt  loams,  even  in  the  virgin  condition,  are  acid. 
Analyses  made  at  this  Experiment  Station,  however,  show 
that  the  soil  on  old  cropped  land  contains  a good  supply  of 
calcium,  though  not  in  an  available  condition.  Land  just 
broken  up  is  certain  to  contain  more  available  lime  on  account 
of  easily  decomposing  humus  found  invariably  in  new  soil. 
No  doubt  this  is  one  important  reason  why  qlover  does  so 
much  better  on  new  land.  The  phosphorus  supply,  too,  on  the 
newer  soil  is  more  readily  available.  Legume  crops,  as  a 
whole,  are  exceptionally  heavy  feeders  of  lime,  and  also  draw 
heavily  on  the  phosphorus  supply.  (See  Table  VIII.) 

Liming  silt  loam  soils  has  been  found  good  practice,  not 
only  to  furnish  readily  available  lime  for  the  legumes,  but 
also  to  better  conditions  for  the  development  of  the  legume 
bacteria. 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  23 


Alfalfa  also  requires  an  abundance  of  lime,  and  thus  far  it 
has  not  been  found  a profitable  crop  on  silt  loam  soil.  Alfalfa 
may  be  grown,  but  should  be  seeded  on  well-drained  land  only 
— preferably  rolling  to  hilly  land. 

Where  clover  fails,  several  good  substitutes  that  have  been 
tried  out  successfully  may  be  used.  It  should  be  understood, 
however,  that  these  are  substitutes,  not  in  any  case  as  good 
as  clover. 


FIG.  13.— CORN  AND  SOYBEANS 


This  is  an' excellent  succulent  combination  for  silage. 

Soybeans  are  a splendid  crop  for  the  silt  loams.  The  crop 
may  be  grown  for  hay,  or  silage  with  corn,  or  for  seed.  For 
hay,  broadcasting  or  drilling  in  solid  drills  has  been  found 
satisfactory.  A good  plan  is  to  drill  a mixture  of  sudan  grass 
with  soys  at  about  corn  planting  time.  The  mixture  cures 
better  than  soys  alone.  In  curing  the  hay,  make  medium  sized 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


haycocks  after  the  leaves  are  thoroughly  wilted,  and  allow  it 
to  stand  for  four  or  five  days,  or  longer  if  weather  is  unfavor- 
able. The  crop  is  then  turned  over  to  dry  out  and  hauled  in. 

Oats  and  peas  also  make  excellent  combination  hay  and 
good  yields  are  obtained.  One  and  one-half  bushel  of  each 
per  acre  is  an  average  rate  of  seeding. 

Rotation  for  Silt  Loams 


The  following  four-year  rotation  is  used  quite  extensively 
by  the  average  farmer: 

Table  IX. — Four-year  Rotation  for  Heavy  Silt  Loam 


Kind  of  crop 

For  home  con- 
sumption 

Cash  crops 

Substituted 

crops 

First  year 

Cultivated 

Com— rutabagas 
Oats— barley  ___ 

Clover 

Potatoes,  etc._ 
Rye — canning 
peas 

Second  year 

Small  grain 

Third  year 

Fnra.gR  . 

Soybeans  for 
hay 

Sudan  grass  or 
millet 

Fourth  year 

Forage  or  pas- 
ture . 

Clover  and  tim- 
othy 

TTay 

Frequently  the  rotation  is  lengthened  by  permitting  hay  to 
remain  one  or  more  years  longer.  As  a general  rule,  that  is 
poor  practice  and  should  not  be  resorted  to  unless  necessary. 

The  ideal  arrangement,  according  to  the  rotation  outlined, 
would  be  to  divide  the  farm  into  fields  of  about  equal  area. 
On  the  average  farm  of  80  acres,  about  60  acres  are  under 
plow.  This  would  mean  15  acres  in  cultivated  crops,  and  the 
same  acreage  in  grain,  clover,  and  mixed  hay.  This  division, 
however,  is  seldom  followed.  The  records  of  a large  number 
of  farms  showed  that  the  cultivated  crops  seldom  occupy  one- 
fourth  of  the  land  unless  cash  crops,  as  potatoes  or  cabbage,  are 
important.  The  hay  crops,  as  a rule,  occupy  50  per  cent  of 
the  land,  small  grains  30  per  cent  and  corn  20  per  cent.  In 
this  arrangement,  sufficient  silage  may  be  grown  to  supply 
about  twenty  cows,  and  also  enough  small  grain  to  furnish 
feed  for  the  stock  with  some  surplus  to  sell,  especially  hay. 

Cash  crops  in  addition  to  hay  should  also  be  mentioned  in 
the  general  rotation  outlined.  The  soil  is  adapted  to  consid- 
erable range  of  crops.  The  farmer  who  has  cash  crops  to 
market  is  enabled  to  use  the  returns  to  advantage  in  purchas- 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  25 

ing  high  powered  proteins  needed  to  properly  balance  his 
dairy  ration. 

Oats  are  the  principal  small  grain  crop  grown.  Rye  and 
peas,  however,  are  excellent  cash  crops,  and  may  occupy  a 
part  of  the  “area  allotted  to  grains.  Rye  may  be  disked  in  fol- 
lowing corn  and  does  well  following  a cultivated  crop.  Dur- 
ing the  past  few  years,  pea  canneries  have  been  established  in 
a number  of  localities,  and  farmers  have  found  it  profitable  to 
grow  canning  peas. 

In  the  rotation  scheme,  provision  is  also  made  for  substi- 
tute crops  when  new  seeding  fails.  Oats  and  peas,  or  soys 
and  sudan  grass,  have  been  indicated  in  the  table.  Clover  seeding 
is  not  dependable,  however,  with  soys  and  sudan  grass  but  will  be 
fairly  safe  with  oats  and  peas  when  used  for  hay. 

METHODS  OF  FERTILIZING 

Manure  should  be  handled  so  as  to  reduce  losses  of  plant 
food  to  the  least  possible  amount.  Ordinarily,  this  may  be 
done  by  hauling  directly  from  the  stable  to  the  field.  This 
practice  would  fit  in  well  with  the  four-year  rotation  indicated 
above  by  applying  either  on  the  field  in  second  year  hay,  or 
to  the  sod  land  which  is  to  go  into  corn.  Very  little  losses 
occur  in  either  method  unless  the  land  is  quite  hilly  and  sub- 
jected to  considerable  erosion.  In  either  case,  10  tons  per 
acre  makes  a good  application.  Heavier  applications  should 
be  avoided.  It  is  only  in  farms  well  stocked,  and  with  small 
clearings  that  there  is  any  danger  of  having  more  than  ten  tons 
per  acre  available  once  in  the  rotation  period  of  four  years. 
If  the  corn  land  receives  the  manure  application,  it  neces- 
sitates spring  plowing  of  the  sod  land.  The  good  results  of 
spring  plowing  have  already  been  pointed  out  (except  in  case 
of  old  timothy  seed),  so  this  plan  has  found  many  advocates. 

The  chief  objection  to  applying  manure  to  corn  ground  is 
that  the  small  grains  which  follow  corn  are  more  liable  to 
lodge.  To  overcome  this  difficulty  in  a measure,  the  plan  of 
manuring  for  the  second  year  hay  crop  is  suggested.  The 
corn  then  receives  little  or  no  manure  except  the  residual  ef- 
fects. 

The  average  dairy  farm  will  find  a phosphate  fertilizer  prof- 
itable, not  only  to  offset  the  losses  of  phosphorus  in  the  sale 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


of  products,  but  also  to  increase  crop  yields  and  hasten  ma- 
turity. 

Manuring  New  Seeding 

The  clover  seeding  has  not  been  given  much  attention  until 
recently.  In  fact,  it  was  unnecessary  until  recent  years.  The  im- 
portance of  maintaining  clover  or  other  legumes  cannot  be  too 
strongly  emphasized.  The  farmers,  too,  begin  to  realize  this  fact. 
A helpful  practice  is  that  of  top  dressing  new*  seeding  in  the 
late  fall  with  manure  that  has  accumulated  in  yards  and  old 
straw  piles.  Even  though  the  application  is  only  a light  one 
of  three  to  four  loads  per  acre,  this  top  dressing  will  do  much 
to  protect  the  young  plants.  Where  straw  is  available,  there 
is  no  better  place  for  it  than  on  the  new  seeding.  Straw  at- 
tachments are  now  made  to  fit  standard  manure  spreaders. 

Maintaining  the  Plant  Food  Supply 

Does  the  average  dairy  farmer  maintain  the  supply  of  plant 
food  in  his  soil?  Although  he  may  answer  “yes,”  yet  he  fre- 
quently overlooks  the  fact  that  maintaining  the  supply  of 
plant  food  and  keeping  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil  are  not  nec- 
essarily the  same.  A fertile  soil  is  one  that  has  the  ability 
to  produce  good  crops.  It  is  not  concerned  alone  with  the 
supply  of  plant  food,  nor  with  drainage,  nor  tillage,  nor  crop 
rotation,  but  with  all  of  these  factors. 

During  the  past  fifty  years  much  has  been  learned  • about 
better  tillage  methods  and  tillage  implements.  The  horse  hoe 
and  the  seed  drill  were  the  results  of  Jethro  Tull’s  efiForts  in 
England  early  in  the  18th  century.  Underground  drainage  and 
crop  rotations  are  practices  that  have  been  known  and  used  for 
centuries. 

These  practices — crop  rotation,  improved  tillage,  drainage, 
and  better  seeds — in  themselves  are  sound ; yet  every  one  serves 
to  remove  larger  amounts  of  plant  food,  nitrogen,  phosphorus, 
potassium,  and  lime. 

Nitrogen — This  element  may  be  brought  into  the  soil  and 
the  supply  maintained  and  even  increased  through  the  grow- 
ing of  legume  crops.  In  a general  way,  about  one-fourth  of 
the  land  under  cultivation  on  the  farm  should  be  in  one  or 
more  legumes — clover,  alfalfa,  soybeans,  or  others.  The  mill- 
stufifs  fed  by  the  dairy  farmer  furnish  another  source  of  nitro- 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  27 


gen.  Protein  feeds — oilmeal,  cotton  seed  meal,  and  others  are 
especially  high  in  their  nitrogen  content.  In  general,  there- 
fore, the  dairyman  may  depend  on  the  legume  crops  and  the 
millstuffs  to  maintain  and  even  increase  the  nitrogen  supply 
of  his  soil. 

Potassium — Approximately  three-fourths  of  the  potassium 
in  grain  crops  and  corn  is  found  in  the  straw  or  stover,  and  in 
a large  measure  is  returned  to  the  soil.  The  total  supply  in  the 
silt  loam  soil  averages  nearly  40,000  pounds  over  an  acre  to 
a depth  of  eight  inches.  Considering  this  abundant  supply  in 
the  soil,  and  the  small  losses  that  occur,  the  potassium  supply 
on  average  dairy  farms  is  ample  for  good  crop  yields  without 
buying  fertilizer  containing  it.  The  important  thing  is  to  make 
available  the  abundant  supply  now  found,  by  maintaining  organic 
matter  and  by  other  good  cultural  practices. 

Phosphorus — This  element  is  found  largely  in  the  seed  or 
kernel  of  the  crops  grown.  About  two-thirds  of  it  is  found  in 
the  grain  and  corn  and  only  one-third  in  the  straw  or  stover. 
Legume  crops  are  also  heavy  feeders  of  phosphorus.  In  feed- 
ing these  crops  to  the  dairy  animal  there  are  many  sources  of 
loss.  These  may  not  be  large  for  any  one  year,  yet  when  the 
practice  is  continued  for  a long  period  the  effect  is  shown  in 
reduced  crop  yields. 

The  losses  of  phosphorus  come  in  the  sale  of  dairy  prod- 
ucts, such  as  whole  milk,  in  the  sale  of  cash  crops,  and  in  the 
handling  of  stable  manure.  Milk  contains  considerable  amounts 
of  phosphorus,  chiefly  lime  prosphates.  For  example,  the  milk 
produced  by  a cow  averaging  5,000  pounds  per  year  when  sold 
removes  as  much  phosphorus  annually  as  is  removed  in  an  average 
wheat  crop  of  14  bushels  per  acre.  This  assumes  also  that  the 
wheat  straw  is  returned  in  the  manure  without  loss. 

The  loss  of  this  valuable  plant  food  may  be  offset  either 
through  the  purchase  of  millstuffs,  such  as  bran,  for  example, 
or  by  the  use  of  phosphate  fertilizers.  Dairymen  are  using  large 
quantities  of  millstuffs  and  in  many  cases  are  enabled  to  offset 
the  losses  that  occur  or  even  to  build  up  the  supply  in  the  soil. 

From  a careful  study  of  250  dairy  farms  in  the  state,  the 
amount  of  millstuffs  fed  was  determined.  In  the  table  is  given 
the  percentage  of  farmers  using  various  amounts  of  mill- 
stuffs. No  commercial  fertilizers  were  reported  by  any  of  the 
farmers  whose  farms  were  examined. 


28  Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 

Table  X. — Percentage  of  Farmers  Using  Millstuffs  (250  farms) 


22.6%  of  farmers  used  no  millstuffs. 
19.4%  of  farmers  used  0-2  tons 
12.0%  of  farmers  used  2-4  tons 
12.0%  of  farmers  used  4-6  tons 
9.0%  of  farmers  used  6-8  tons 
25.0%  of  farmers  used  over  8 tons 


The  herds  averaged  16  to  18  cows  per  farm.  Nearly  one- 
fourth  of  the  farmers  were  depending  upon  home  grown  feeds 
entirely;  about  one-third  were  using  up  to  4 tons;  one-fifth 
from  4 to  8 tons ; while  only  one-fourth  were  using  over  8 tons 
per  year.  It  is  safe  to  state  that,  except  in  the  last  two  groups, 
comprising  34  per  cent  of  the  farms,  the  outgo  of  phosphorus 
exceeds  the  income  for  any  one  year.  In  general,  one-half 
ton  of  wheat  bran  is  to  be  fed  per  animal  a year  in  order  to 
play  even  so  far  as  the  phosphorus  exchange  is  concerned. 
The  farmers  who  gave  these  figures  depend  principally  on 
dairy  products  and  livestock  for  their  income.  Milk  is  deliv- 
ered to  cheese  factories,  or  the  cream  to  creameries.  The  loss 


FIG.  14.— A CHECK  PLOT  ON  LAND  CROPPED  ABOUT  TWENTY 

YEARS 

The  five-year  average  yield  on  this  plot  was  45.4  bu.  No  manure  was 
put  on  this  land  for  ten  years  preceding. 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  29 


of  phosphorus  is,  of  course,  somewhat  greater  when  milk  is 
sold  to  cheese  factories  than  in  the  latter  case.  The  skim- 
milk  or  whey  is,  as  a rule,  fed  to  hogs  or  calves.  If  either  prod- 
uct is  fed  entirely  to  hogs  the  loss  of  phosphorus  is  bound  to  be 
large  on  account  of  the  way  hogs  are  raised  on  the  farm.  The 
up-to-date  hog  raiser  usually  keeps  hogs  in  pasture  lots  for 
summer  feeding  so  that  these  lots  receive  practically  all  the 
benefit  of  the  manure  produced  by  the  animals.  So  far,  there- 
fore, as  the  farm  as  a whole  is  concerned,  little  benefit  is  de- 
rived from  the  manure  produced  when  milk,  whey  and  mill- 
stuffs are  consumed.  The  pasture  lots,  therefore,  are  certain 
to  become  enriched  markedly. 

Where  the  dairy  by-product,  milk  or  whey,  is  fed  to  calves 
and  the  manure  returned  to  the  fields,  there  is  a much  better 
distribution  of  the  plant  food  over  the  farm.  The  growing 
animal,  however,  extracts  more  of  the  fertilizing  elements, 
especially  phosphorus,  than  do  the  mature  animals. 

Phosphorus  is  the  plant  food  element  about  which  the  dairy 
farmer  should  be  chiefly  concerned.  The  losses  that  come  in 
the  sale  of  products,  in  leaching,  in  surface  erosion,  and  in 
the  way  manure  is  handled,  are  important  and  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  replace  them.  In  a measure,  the  commer- 
cial fertilizers  and  millstuffs  do  offset  the  losses,  yet  the  net 
losses  during  any  one  year  for  the  entire  state  are  enormous. 
(See  Table  XI.) 

Table  XI. — Estimated  Losses  and  Gains  From  Feeding  Stuffs  and 

Fertilizers 


Loss  of  phosphorus  in  livestock  sold  in  1918 6,158,000  lbs. 

Loss  of  phosphorus  in  milk  sold  in  1918 3,622,000  lbs. 

Loss  of  phosphorus  in  crops  sold  In  1918 8,050,000  lbs. 

Loss- of  phosphorus  in  handling  manure  in  1918 _ 3,900,000  lbs. 


Total  20,730,000  lbs. 

Gain  of  phosphorus  in  millstuffs  and  fertilizers  purchased  in  1918—  7,700,000  lbs. 


Net  loss  for  the  year. 12,960,000  lbs. 


Depleting  the  soil  each  year  will  eventually  impoverish  it. 
In  several  of  the  older  counties,  the  loss  of  phosphorus  in  the 
cropped  soil  has  been  found  to  be  nearly  one-third  of  the 
total  found  in  uncropped  or  virgin  soil.  These  farms  have 
been  under  crop  for  fifty  years,  and  in  early  years  were  de- 
voted largely  to  grain  raising. 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


PIG.  15.— THIS  PLOT  RECEIVED  MANURE,  LIMESTONE  AND  PHOS- 
PHATES 

This  treatment  on  a five-year  average  has  increased  yield  15  bu.  per 
acre,  or  nearly  35  per  cent  over  check  plot,  Fig.  14. 

EXPERIMENTS  WITH  MANURE  SUPPLEMENTED 
WITH  OTHER  FERTILIZERS 

At  the  Marshfield  Station  a four-acre  field  was  set  aside  for 
fertilizer  experiments.  The  soil  is  typical  heavy  silt  loam  and 
has  been  under  crop  about  twenty  years.  The  experiments 
were  started  in  1913,  but  previous  to  that  time  the  land  had 
been  in  general  farm  crops  and  probably  received  several 
applications  of  manure. 

Phosphate  Fertilizers  with  Manure 

The  rotation  consisted  of  corn,  wheat,  oats  and  clover.  On 
account  of  black  rust,  wheat  was  dropped  in  1921  and  barley 
substituted. 

Manure  is  top  dressed  on  corn  land  at  the  rate  of  10  tons 
per  acre.  The  acid  phosphate  is  distributed  with  the  manure 
by  spreading  the  proper  amount  evenly  over  the  top  of  the 
load.  In  this  way  the  acid  phosphate  is  broadcasted  and  the 
crops  succeeding  corn  are  also  benefited.  As  a general  farm 
practice,  this  method  of  applying  fertilizer  is  recommended. 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  31 


Table  XII. — Results  of  Supplementing  Manure  With  Acid  Phosphate 


Corn,  Wheat, 
5-yr.  av.  5-yr.  av. 

Oats, 
6-yr.  av. 

Clover,  4-yr.  av. 

1st  crop  2d  crop 

10  T.  manure 

2 T.  limestone  _ _ - 

56.84  bu.  15.05  bu. 

1 

57.37  bu. 

2,886  lbs.  1,917  lbs. 

10  T.  manure _ 

1 

2 T.  limestone __  - __ 

60.41  bu.  16.21  bu. 

60.49  bu. 

3,090  lbs.  1,889  lbs. 

450  lbs.  acid  phosphate _ __  _ . 

Increase  due  to  phosphate 

3 . 57  bu . 1.16  bu. 

3.12  bu. 

204  lbs . — 28  lbs 

While  the  increases  from  the  use  of  phosphate  fertilizer 
have  not  been  large,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  land 
has  been  under  crop  but  a short  time.  Again,  the  land  has 
been  in  clover  every  fourth  year  since  1912  and  no  doubt  the 
effect  of  the  rotation  has  been  important  in  liberating  plant 
food.  Then,  too,  the  manure  used  on  all  plots  comes  from 
animals  fed  liberal  amounts  of  millstuffs,  and  thus  the  phos- 
phorus hunger  is  not  so  apparent  as  on  older  cropped  land  less 
well  supplied  with  manure  of  the  kind  used  in  this  experiment. 
The  effect  of  maintaining  clover  in  the  rotation  should  not  be  over- 
looked, for  without  question,  it  has  an  important  effect  on  all  crops 
following.  | 4 i 

The  importance  of  the  effect  of  the  rotation  is  shown  by 
yields  obtained  on  a plot  which  has  received  no  manure  nor 
fertilizer  since  1912  and  perhaps  only  one  or  two  applications 
since  the  land  was  brought  under  cultivation  twenty  years 
ago.  The  yields  are  : 


Corn  

Wheat  

Oats  

Clover — 

First  crop  .. 
Second  crop 


44.87  bushels 
10.05  bushels 
54.78  bushels 

.2070.7  pounds 
1583.2  pounds 


Applying  Fertilizers 

When  planning  his  fertilizer  program,  the  farmer  should 
keep  in  mind  all  of  the  crops  grown  in  the  rotation.  He  should 
remember  that  phosphate  fertilizers  are  not  leached  out  of 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


UNTREATED  PLOT  UNDER  CROP  ABOUT  TWENTY  YEARS 

It  has  received  no  manure  since  1912  and  perhaps  one  or  two  treatments  before  the  plots 
were  laid  out.  Yield  1921,  54.50  bu.  with  32.9  per  cent  nubbins. 


GOOD  EFFECTS  OF  MANURE  AND  LIMESTONE 

This  combination  raised  the  yield ’and  also  the  quality.  Yield  66.4  bu.  and 
nubbins  19  per  cent. 


RESULTS  OF  USE  OF  MANURE  AND  PHOSPHATE 
This  plot  produced  70.4  bu!  of  which  19.4  per  cent  was  inferior  corn. 


MANURE.  LIMESTONE  AND  PHOSPHATE 

When  manure  is  supplemented  by  phosphate  in  addition  to  limestone,  the  maximum 
yields  are  obtained — 77  bu.  with  only  10.6  per  cent  nubbins. 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  33 


the  soil,  and  that  crops  succeeding  the  one  receiving  the  treat- 
ment will  likewise  be  benefited.  This  is  brought  out  plainly 
in  the  figures  above.  Frequently  the  clover  is  in  need  of 
phosphate  and  in  that  case  broadcasting  phosphates  for  small 
grains  is  highly  desirable. 

On  the  heavy  silt  loam,  however,  the  method  of  applying  a 
light  application  of  150-175  pounds  per  acre  for  corn  along 
the  row  or  in  the  hill  is  justified.  Frequently  the  season  is 
late  and  the  soil  is  slow  in  warming  up.  Applying  fertilizers 
near  the  corn  row,  but  not  in  contact  with  the  seed,  starts 
corn  off  earlier  and  tends  to  hasten  maturity.  Either  the  acid 
phosphate  or  a mixture  known  as  2-12  may  be  used.  A fer- 
tilizer attachment  for  the  corn  planter  is  necessary. 

The  use,  therefore,  of  300  to  400  pounds  of  acid  phosphate 
broadcasted  with  manure  for  corn  or  without  manure  for  small 
grain,  and  a light  row  application  for  the  corn  crop  makes  a 
well  balanced  fertilizer  program  for  the  dairy  farmer  on  the 
heavy  silt  loam.  If,  however,  he  is  able  to  make  but  one  ap- 
plication of  fertilizer,  preference  should  be  given  broadcast- 
ing. 

Potash  Fertilizers — The  supply  of  potassium  in  the  silt  loam 
as  found  by  repeated  chemical  analyses  is  about  40,000  pounds 
per  acre  eight  inches.  The  question  whether  potassium  could 
be  used  profitably  on  dairy  farms  was  therefore  studied.  (See 
Table  XIII.) 


Table  XIII. — Results  of  Use  of  Potassium  on  Dairy  Farms 


Corn, 
5-yr.  av. 

Wheat, 
5-yr.  av. 

' 

Oats, 
'6-yr.  av. 

Clover,  4-yr.  av. 

1st  crop 

2d  crop 

10  T.  manure. 

60.41  bu. 

16.21  bu. 

60.49  bu. 

3,090  lbs. 

1,889.5  lbs. 

2 T.  limestone 

450  lbs.  acid  phosphate 

10  T.  manure 

57.98  bu. 

16.25  bu. 

56.93  bu.j 

2,919  lbs. 

1,889.7  lbs. 

2 T.  limestone _ 

450  lbs.  acid  phosphate 

200  lbs.  potash... 

Potassium  gave  negative  results  with  corn  and  oats,  and  on 
the  other  crops  in  the  rotation  the  increases  were  negligible. 
Table  XIII  does  not  indicate  the  need  for  potash,  but  this  re- 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


suit  does  not  apply  to  other  crops,  such  as  potatoes,  nor  to 
other  heavy  potash  feeders,  nor  to  other  soil  types.  Further 
study  by  means  of  trial  plots  will  be  necessary  to  find  out  the 
needs  of  these  special  crops  in  different  soils. 

Gypsum — Gypsum  or  land  plaster  has  long  been  used  for 
agricultural  purposes.  The  practice  would  flourish  for  a time 
and  then  cease  for  a decade  or  more  until  it  was  again  taken 
up  by  enthusiastic  advocates.  Recently  the  Oregon  Experi- 
ment Station  found  that  under  their  conditions  of  soil  and  cli- 
mate, gypsum  gave  very  profitable  increases. 

Gypsum  has  been  used  since  1915  and  the  results  are  shown  in 
Table  XIV. 


Table  XIV. — Results  of  Use  of  Gypsum  on  Dairy  Farms 


Corn, 
5-yr.  av. 

Wheat, 
5-yr.  av. 

Oats, 
6-yr.  av. 

Clover 

1st  cut. 

2d  cut. 

10  T.  manure  . _ 

800  lbs.  rock  phosphate 

9:  T limftstonp. 

60.51  bu. 

14.66  bu. 

59.89  bu. 

3,098  lbs. 

1,922  lbs. 
2,115  lbs. 

10  T.  manure 

800  lbs.  rock  phosphate 

2 T.  limestone-  

450  lbs.  gypsum 

59.68  bu. 

14.81  bu. 

58.56  bu. 

3,094  lbs. 

Experimental  results  show  that  the  farmer  is  not. justified  in 
investing  in  gypsum.  Clover  is  the  crop  to  which  the  material 
is  applied  at  the  rate  of  450  pounds  per  acre.  This  is  broad- 
casted in  the  spring  before  the  crop  has  made  much  growth. 
The  clover  crop,  therefore,  should  show  increases.  In  the 
second  cutting  this  amounts  to  193  pounds,  while  in  the  first 
it  is  4 pounds  less  on  the  plot  receiving  gypsum.  The  results 
do  not  justify  the  use  of  gypsum  on  the  other  crops  grown  in 
the  rotation. 

Ground  Limestone — Heavy  silt  loam  is  an  acid  soil,  but  the 
degree  of  acidity  varies  according  to  the  cropping  treatment, 
drainage,  and  length  of  time  the  land  has  been  under  plow. 

Liming  the  heavy  silt  loam  is  sound  practice  and  profitable 
yields  are  obtained  from  using  some  form  of  lime  except  pos- 


Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin  35 


1 

i 


PIG.  16.— A LIME  SOWER  IS  BEST 


There  are  a number  of  methods  of  applying  limestone  on  the  heavy 
silt  loam  soils,  but  the  best  method,  however,  is  to  apply  by  means  of  a 
lime  sower. 

sibly  on  land  that  has  been  under  plow  only  a short  time. 
Limestone  should  be  top  dressed  on  plowed  land  and  disked 
in  previous  to  seeding.  Many  farmers  make  the  mistake  of 
plowing  under  limestone  or  top  dressing  on  clover  sod,  but, 
as  a rule,  poor  results  are  obtained. 

A lime  sower  is  most  satisfactory  for  distributing  limestone, 
although  a manure  spreader  in  some  cases  can  be  made  to 
work.  The  machine  is  set  on  low  gear  and  some  manure  or 
litter  is  first  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  spreader  to  prevent 
the  limestone  from  filtering  through. 

Limestone  may  be  applied  at  any  time  and  with  any  crop, 
except  possibly  potatoes.  The  usual  method  is  to  apply  on 
the  field  to  be  seeded  to  small  grain  and  clover,  but  some 
prefer  to  use  it  on  the  corn  ground.  In  this  way  the  lime  has 
an  opportunity  to  react  with  the  soil  a year  before  the  small 
grain  and  clover,  seeded  the  year  following.  In  either  case, 
the  material  is  disked  in  thoroughly  before  planting  the  crop. 

Table  XV  gives  liming  results.  Two  tons  of  finely  ground 
limestone  are  used  once  in  the  four  years,  but  tests  indicate 


36 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


that  the  second  application  may  be  reduced  to  possibly  one 
ton  and  equally  good  results  obtained. 


Table  XV. — Results  of  Liming  Heavy  Silt  Loams 


Corn, 
5-yr.  av. 

Wheat, 
5-yr.  av. 

- Oats, 
6-yr.  av. 

Clover,  4-yr.  av. 

1st  crop 

2d  crop 

10  T.  manure 

60.51  bu. 

14.66  bu. 

59.89  bu. 

3,098  lbs. 

1,922  lbs. 

! 

1 

800  lbs.  rock  phosphate 

2 T.  limestone 

10  T.  manure - 

800  lbs.  rock  phosphate _ 

52.89  bu. 

14.79  bu. 

55.14  bu. 

2,770  lbs. 

1,756  lbs. 

Increase  due  to  liming 

7.62  bu. 

.13  bu. 

4.75  bu. 

328  lbs. 

1 66  lbs. 

The  increases  due  to  liming  have  been  consistent  each  year. 
Every  crop  in  the  rotation  except  wheat  has  shown  increases 
due  to  liming.  The  wheat  crop  has  practically  every  year 
been  seriously  injured  by  the  black  rust,  so  that  liming  as  well 
as  fertilizer  treatments  have  not  shown  any  marked  effect. 


DIGEST 


A tobacco  disease  new  to  Wisconsin  occurred  in  this  state 
during  the  season  of  1922.  This  disease,  known  as  wildfire,  has 
shown  itself  to  be  sufficiently  serious  in  other  tobacco  districts 
to  warrant  Wisconsin  growers  using  all  possible  measures  to  pre- 
vent its  occurrence  in  their  fields.  A control  campaign  is  under 
way  in  the  infested  district.  Page  3 

Wildfire  resembles  “ordinary  rust”  in  some  respects.  Care- 
ful comparison  shows,  however,  that  they  are  quite  different  in 
appearance,  but  much  more  important  is  the  fact  that  wildfire  is 
capable  of  doing  a hundred-fold  more  damage  than  “ordinary 
rust.”  Page  8 

Wildfire  is  caused  by  infections  of  the  leaves  produced  by 
certain  bacteria  (germs).  It  is,  therefore,  infectious  and  can 

spread  from  leaf  to  leaf,  plant  to  plant,  and  from  farm  to  farm. 

The  control  of  the  disease  depends  upon  preventing  an  excessive 
spread  of  these  bacteria.  Page  11 

Storms  spread  the  disease,  produce  more  or  less  wounding 
favoring  infection,  and  supply  moisture,  without  which  the  bac- 
teria are  unable  to  enter  the  leaf.  The  weather,  therefore,  has  a 
very  important  part  in  determining  the  amount  of  damage  done 
by  the  disease.  Page  18 

Practically  all  bacteria  die  out  over  winter  since  they  have 
no  living  plants  on  which  to  multiply.  A few,  however,  escape 
destruction  and  in  some  manner  reach  the  seed-beds  in  the  spring. 
The  best  possibilities  for  control  lie  in  preventing  seed-bed  infec- 
tion. Page  19 

Plants  infected  with  wildfire  should  never  be  transplanted 
to  the  field  if  it  is  at  all  possible  to  obtain  healthy  plants  else- 
where. Even  apparently  disease-free  plants  from  infected  beds 
should  preferably  not  be  used.  Page  20 

Plants  and  leaves  found  infected  in  the  field  should  be  des- 
stroved  so  far  as  practicable.  Infected  material  serves  as  a 
source  of  further  spread  in  the  field  and  aids  in  carrying  the  dis- 
ease over  into  the  following  year.  Page  20 


Tobacco  Wildfire  in  Wisconsin 


James  Johnson  and  S.  B.  Fracker* 

WILDFIRE  is  a serious  disease  of  tobacco  which  has  just 
appeared  in  Wisconsin,  although  it  has  been  known  in 
other  tobacco  districts  of  the  United  States  for  about  six 
years.  In  the  aggregate  it  has  caused  losses  amounting  to  mil- 
lions of  dollars.  Tobacco  growers  must  now  recognize  that  they 
have  a new  disease  to  contend  with  and  therefore  use  every  pre- 
caution to  prevent  their  fields  from  becoming  infested. 

Mild  cases  of  wildfire  resemble  ‘"ordinary  rust”  and  for  that 
reason  it  is  important  that  growers  learn  to  distinguish  the  dis- 
ease and  to  apply  control  measures  in  time.  Preventing  seed- 
bed infection  and  avoiding  the  use  of  plants  from  infected  seed- 
beds are  possible  means  of  control. 

The  Wisconsin  outbreak  in  1922  did  not  cause  any  considerable 
damage,  owing  largely  to  unfavorable  weather  conditions  for  its 
spread.  The  disease  did,  however,  seriously  threaten  to  destroy 
a few  crops  early  in  the  season,  indicating  its  dangerous  possibil- 
ities under  Wisconsin  conditions.  The  fact  that  wildfire  may 
cause  large  losses  to  tobacco  has  been  amply  illustrated  in  south- 
ern and  eastern  tobacco  districts.  Like  most  plant  diseases,  how- 
ever, wildfire  is  sporadic  and  while  heavy  losses  may  occur  in 
some  seasons  there  may  also  be  seasons  of  comparative  freedom 
from  it  as  has  been  the  experience  in  other  states. 

Wildfire  in  Other  Tobacco  Districts 

Wildfire  first  occurred  to  a serious  extent  in  North  Carolina 
in  1917,  so  far  as  is  definitely  known.  From  there  it  spread 
rapidly  to  other  tobacco  districts  of  the  United  States  until  now 
it  is  found  in  practically  all  the  tobacco  growing  sections,  involv- 
ing as  many  as  fourteen  states.  This  is  an  exceedingly  rapid 
spread  for  a plant  disease  in  a six-year  period  and  suggests  the 
ease  with  which  it  may  spread  from  farm  to  farm  when  once  it 
has  entered  a district.  In  these  other  tobacco  districts  the  damage 
to  infected  fields  has  varied  greatly,  ranging  from  insignificant 

*The  authors  represent  the  College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Wis- 
consin, and  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  State  Capitol,  respec- 
tively. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  348 


amounts  to  almost  complete  destruction  in  any  one  year,  and  from 
very  widespread  and  general  damage  to  hardly  any  signs  of  the 
disease  in  different  years.  The  aggregate  loss  in  the  six-year 
period  has  run,  however,  into  millions  of  dollars,  and  although 
other  tobacco  diseases  are  known  to  produce  relatively  larger 
losses  to  tobacco  in  the  United  States,  yet  the  fact  remains  that, 
in  years  especially  favorable  for  wildfire,  far  heavier  losses  than 
yet  observed  may  occur. 

Infected  Area  in  Wisconsin 

Diseased  plants  from  seed-beds  were  brought  to  the  Experi- 
ment Station  on  June  14,  1922,  from  the  town  of  Deerfield,  Dane 
county,  and  the  disease  was  soon  after  determined  to  be  wild- 
fire. While  the  original  infected  area  in  the  beds  was  a relatively 
small  spot,  the  disease  later  spread  over  most  of  the  beds  from 
which  about  twelve  acres  were  transplanted.  As  an  eradication 
measure  this  planting  was  destroyed  and  replanted  with  healthy 
plants.  No  further  signs  of  infection  were  seen  on  this  farm 
until  late  in  the  season,  when  very  slight  spotting  was  noted  in  a 
small  percentage  of  the  plants. 

About  one  week  after  the  first  case  was  reported,  a second  one 
was  found  in  the  town  of  Burke  and  a preliminary  survey  showed 
that  several  cases  existed  in  this  township.  Arrangements  were 
then  made  with  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture  to  co-operate 
in  checking  or  eradicating  the  disease.1  A conference  of  tobacco 
growers  from  the  town  of  Burke  and  vicinity  was  then  called 
and  met  with  officials  of  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture 
and  the  Experiment  Station.  A committee  of  growers  to  act 
with  the  officials  was  appointed  and  a campaign  of  control  or 
eradication  agreed  upon.  A detailed  survey  was  undertaken  to 
locate  infested  seed  beds  and  fields.  Wildfire  was  found  on 
about  ninety  farms,  situated  largely  in  the  northeastern  part  of 
Dane  county.  (Fig.  1.) 

The  largest  number  of  infected  farms  was  found  in  the  towns 
of  Burke,  Sun  Prairie  and  Windsor,  with  scattered  infections  in 
the  towns  of  Cottage  Grove,  Deerfield,  Westport,  Dunn,  Chris- 
tiana, Bristol,  Blooming  Grove,  Dunkirk,  Pleasant  Springs,  and 
Madison.  The  inspection  of  fields  outside  these  townships  was 

xThis  department  is  empowered  by  state  law  to  apply  measures  neces- 
sary for  the  control  or  eradication  of  any  new  or  dangerous  plant 
disease. 


Tobacco  Wildfire  in  Wisconsin 


5 


DANE 

COUNTY/j 

/ 

WINDSOR 

• 

• • •• 

BRISTOL 

• • 

• 

A 

• 

WESTPORT 

• • 

BURKE,  ,*j\ 

-•TV 

••• 

• GUN 
X PRAIRIE 

/ LAKE  C 
MENDOIA.  1 

MADISON  rS^Z 

• 

BLOOMING 

GROVE 

• • 

COTTAGE 

GRCVE 

• 

• 

• 

DEERFIELD 

DUNN  p*' 

• • 

PLEASANT 
S SPRINGS 

• 

CHRISTIANA 

/ 

DUNKIRK 

» 

FIG.  1.— THE  WILDFIRE  INFESTED  AREA  IN  DANE  COUNTY 
Each  dot  represents  a farm  on  which  wildfire  was  found  in  1922. 


complete  enough  to  make  reasonably  certain  that  wildfire  did  not 
occur  outside  the  area  of  these  townships.  Preliminary  surveys, 
newspaper  publicity,  letters  and  other  methods  of  inquiry  indicate 
that  all  other  tobacco-growing  counties  are  apparently  free  from 
the  disease. 

The  amount  of  infection  varied  from  only  faint  signs  of  it  to 
ten-acre  fields  in  which  practically  every  plant  was  infected  up 
to  the  fourth  or  fifth  leaf.  The  most  severely  infected  fields  bore 
no  relation,  however,  to  the  center  of  the  infected  district.  In 
practically  every  case  field  infection  was  traced  to  seed-bed  infec- 
tion. The  seed  used  by  the  various  growers  had  been  obtained 
from  widely  varying  sources  and  no  relation  of  the  seed  to  infec- 
tion could  be  established. 

On  the  basis  of  the  survey  the  campaign  of  control  and  eradi- 
cation was  started  early  in  July.  State  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture regulations  regarding  the  control  and  eradication  of  wildfire 
were  forwarded  to  owners  of  all  infected  fields.  The  first  efforts 
at  eradication  were  concerned  with  the  removal  of  infected  plants 
from  the  fields  and  replanting  with  healthy  ones  and  destroying 
infected  seed-beds.  The  most  extensive  work  was  cooperation 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  348 


with  the  growers  in  removing  and  destroying  infected  leaves  on 
farms  where  the  disease  was  found  too  late  for  replanting.  Half 
a dozen  men  were  employed  for  several  weeks  in  this  way.  After 
September  1,  attention  was  given  to  the  early  plowing  of  infected 


FIG.  2. — WILDFIRE  STARTS  IN  THE  PLANT-BEDS 

The  characteristic  sign  of  wildfire  is  the  yellow  or  bleached  area  around 
the  center  of  infection.  Watch  your  plant-beds  for  such  signs  on  the 

young  leaves. 

fields,  especially  where  infection  started  on  the  sucker  growth. 
The  control  campaign  is  expected  to  be  continued  in  1923,  par- 
ticularly the  inspecting  of  seed-beds  and  preventing  the  trans- 
planting of  infected  plants.2 

Signs  of  Wildfire  in  Plant-Beds 

Wildfire  may  attack  the  plants  at  almost  any  stage  of  growth. 
On  young  plants  it  may  resemble  bed-rot,  but  the  typical  symp- 
toms are  quite  distinct  from  other  known  diseases  of  tobacco. 
The  most  typical  symptom  in  plant  beds  as  well  as  in  the  field 
is  a round,  bleached  or  yellowish  area  (chlorotic  area  or  halo). 

2 The  survey  and  campaign  for  the  control  of  wildfire  was  officially 
conducted  by  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  Experiment  Sta- 
tion cooperating.  The  work  of  the  control  campaign  can  not  be  dis- 
cussed in  detail  here,  but  the  measures  applied  are  essentially  the  same 
as  those  discussed  under  control  measures  in  this  bulletin. 


Tobacco  Wildfire  in  Wisconsin 


7 


FIG.  3.— bud-infection  sometimes  occurs 

The  wildfire  disease  may  affect  the  whole  plant,  with  the  result  that  it 
turns  yellow  in  the  bud  and  makes  little  or  no  further  growth. 

This  symptom  seems  to  result  from  the  passage  of  toxic  products 
from  the  infected  areas  through  the  plant  to  the  bud,  resulting 
in  a bleaching  similar  to  that  characteristically  localized  in  spots 
in  older  leaves.  Plants  so  affected  fail  to  make  any  growth  or 
to  recover.  In  some  fields  as  high  as  25  per  cent  of  bud  infection 
was  noted.  In  such  cases  plowing  under  or  removal  of  diseased 
plants  and  replanting  the  entire  area  was  done.  Where  there  are 
only  a few  cases  of  bud  infection,  infected  plants  should  be 
removed  and  healthy  plants  res  : in  their  places  as  soon  as  pos- 


This  halo  is  sometimes  as  large  as  a dime  and  in  the  center  is  a 
dried  area  which  often  varies  in  size  from  a pin  point  up  to  a 
half  inch  in  diameter  (Fig.  2),  with  or  without  a distinctive  yel- 
low border,  depending  on  the  age  of  the  spot  and  other  conditions. 
The  spots  run  together  when  numerous  and  may  cause  the  whole 
leaf  to  collapse  and  dry  up.  In  some  seed-beds  noted  last  spring 
the  disease  had  practically  destroyed  all  the  leaves  on  the  plants 
in  the  beds,  leaving  only  the  bare  stems  of  the  seedlings. 

“Bud  infection”  is  another  symptom  apparently  not  character- 
istic in  other  tobacco  districts  but  fairly  common  in  Wisconsin  in 
1922.  In  this  case  the  young  leaves  surrounding  the  bud,  and 
the  bud  itself,  turned  to  a uniform  light  yellow  color.  (Fig.  3.) 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  348 


sible.  As  growers  become  acquainted  with  the  signs  of  the  dis- 
ease, however,  it  is  believed  that  infected  plants  will  not  be 
planted  at  all.  This  symptom  occurred  in  the  field  probably  only 
as  the  result  of  transplanting  badly  infected  plants. 

All  infected  areas  in  the  seed-bed  should  be  destroyed  as 
quickly  as  they  are  noticed.  It  is  quite  unsafe  to  transplant 
even  apparently  disease-free  plants  from  infected  beds,  and  this 
should  not  be  done  if  healthy  plants  can  be  obtained  elsewhere. 


Field  Signs  or  Symptoms 

Practically  all  wildfire  infection  in  the  field  is  traceable  to 
infected  plant-beds.  While  a few  cases  of  seeming  infection 
from  field  soil  have  been  observed  there  is  as  yet  no  definite 
evidence  that  such  occurs.  The  earliest  field  symptoms  on 
young  plants  are,  of  course,  about  the  same  as  those  of  the 
plant-bed,  that  is,  leaf  spots  and  bud  infection.  If  infection  has 
escaped  notice,  however,  until  the  crop  is  one-half  to  full  grown, 
some  modification  of  the  typical  plant-bed  symptoms  may  occur. 
While  the  bleached  round  spot  with  its  central  dead  area  (Fig.  4) 
is  almost  a sure  sign  of  wildfire  it  is  important  to  remember  two 
more  facts,  in  field  inspection.  One  is  that  wildfire  spots  some- 
times occur  without  any  bleached  area  surrounding  them 
(Fig.  5),  and  consequently  the  disease  is  likely  to  be  mistaken  for 
ordinary  “rust.”  The  second  is  that  at  least  one  kind  of  “rust,” 
the  true  “old-fashioned  rust”  of  Wisconsin,  also  a bacterial  dis- 
ease, may  show  a fairly  marked  yellow  area  around  the  central 
point  of  infection  when  conditions  are  very  favorable.  By  lab- 
oratory methods,  however,  all  cases  of  true  wildfire  can  be  ac- 
curately determined. 

The  bottom  leaves  are  most  likely  to  show  infection  because 
they  are  exposed  for  the  longest  time  and  are  in  a better  environ- 
mental position  for  infection.  (Fig.  6.)  Also,  they  are  appar- 
ently more  susceptible  to  the  disease.  Under  favorable  conditions 
for  infection,  however,  the  disease  attacks  with  almost  equal  vigor 
the  uppermost  leaves,  and  even  the  suckers  and  seed  pods.  Cigar 
binder  and  wrapper  tobaccos  may  become  worthless  by  a com- 
paratively few  infections  on  a leaf,  making  it  suitable  only  for 
stemming  purposes.  Heavily  infected  leaf  ordinarily  is  not 
worth  harvesting  since  the  leaves  are  badly  broken  up  in  handling. 


Tobacco  Wildfire  in  Wisconsin 


9 


FIG.  4.— TYPICAL  WILDFIRE  IN  FIELD 

Fortunately  infection  is  not  always  as  heavy  as  here  shown,  but  it  is 
often  worse  under  favorable  conditions  for  the  disease. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  348 


FIG.  5.— WILDFIRE,  BUT  NOT  TYPICAL 

Easily  mistaken  for  ordinary  rust.  Little  or  no  bleached  area  around 
spots,  and  these  have  run  together  and  turned  nearly  the  whole  leaf  to 

a brown  color. 


Tobacco  Wildfire  in  Wisconsin 


11 


Note  the  young-  spots  on  the  upper  leaves  and  the  dried  up  condition 
of  the  lower  leaves. 


Cause  of  Wildfire 


Most  plant  diseases  are  caused  by  microscopic  organisms  which 
infest  and  live  on  plant  tissues.  Different  organisms  cause  differ- 
ent diseases  and  can  often  be  recognized  by  the  kind  of  decay  or 
lesions  they  produce.  Where  such  organisms  are  found,  it  is 
important  to  remember  that  the  disease  is  infectious  and  hence 
may  spread  more  or  less  rapidly,  depending  upon  the  vigor  of 
the  parasite,  the  susceptibility  of  the  plants  and  the  favorableness 
of  the  weather  conditions  for  infection. 

Wildfire  is  caused  by  a bacterial  organism  named  Bacterium 
tabacum.  Like  all  other  bacteria  this  organism  is  extremely  small 
and  while  one  organism  is  enough  to  start  a leaf-spot,  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  bacteria  are  eventually  present  in  each  spot  and 
serve  as  new  sources  of  infection.  While  this  organism  is  very 
small  it  can  be  measured,  photographed  (Fig.  7),  separated  from 
all  other  organisms,  cultivated  and  inoculated  to  healthy  tobacco. 
The  typical  wildfire  which  it  then  produces  absolutely  proves  it 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  348 


FIG.  7. — THE  REAL  CAUSE  OF  WILDFIRE 

Photographed  through  a microscope,  and  enlarging  to  several  thousand 
times  their  actual  size,  the  wildfire  bacteria  look  like  short  rods  to- 
which  are  attached  “flagella’'  which  enable  them  to  move  about. 

to  be  the  cause  of  this  disease.  (Fig.  8.)  Without  the  wildfire 
germ  it  is  just  as  impossible  for  the  wildfire  disease  to  occur  as 
it  is  for  a crop  of  corn  to  be  produced  in  a field  where  no  corn 
seed  has  been  planted.  Likewise,  corn  planted  in  dry  soil  fails 
to  develop  until  sufficient  moisture  is  supplied,  and  so  while  the 
wildfire  organism  may  be  present  in  great  abundance  rains  are 
necessary  for  its  development. 

Conditions  Favoring  Wildfire 

The  worst  periods  of  infection  in  Wisconsin  in  1922  followed 
two  separate  storms  with  wind  and  some  hail  early  in  the  grow- 
ing season.  Many  growers,  therefore,  believed  that  the  storm 
caused  the  “rusting”  of  their  fields,  and  found  it  difficult  to  accept 


Tobacco  Wildfire  in  Wisconsin 


13 


The  bacteria  when  placed  on  tobacco  leaves  in  a drop  of  water  produce 
spots  of  the  same  type  as  found  under  natural  conditions. 

the  infectious  nature  of  the  disease,  although  many  neighboring 
fields  showed  the  efifects  of  the  storm  but  did  not  have  wildfire. 
Storms,  especially  beating  rains,  however,  have  a very  important 
relation  to  wildfire  in  that  they  favor  infection  to  a high  degree. 
The  bacteria  are  often  unable  to  infect  the  leaves  except  through 
slightly  wounded  tissue,  such  as  may  be  produced  by  beating 
rain,  although  with  rapidly  growing  tobacco,  moisture  in  itself 
often  suffices  for  considerable  infection.  The  facts  are,  gener- 
ally, that  heavy  infection  and  damage  practically  depend  upon 
storms  or  continued  rains.  This  does  not  alter  the  conclusion, 
however,  that  wildfire  damage  is  first  of  all  dependent  upon  the 
presence  of  bacterial  organisms  and  that  the  control  of  the 
disease  must  depend  upon  preventing  the  general  introduction  of 
these  bacteria  into  the  seed-beds  and  fields. 

Wildfire  Compared  With  Other  Rusts 

The  name  “rust”  is  a very  general  one  used  by  tobacco  grow- 
ers and  includes  many  different  leaf-spots  due  to  as  many  dif- 
ferent and  distinct  causes.  The  characteristics  of  the  more  com- 
mon ones  are  as  follows: 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  348 


Ordinary  or  “old-fashioned  rust”  is  quite  similar  to  wildfire, 
but  is  due  to  a different  bacterium  which  is  much  less  serious 
and  rare  in  its  attacks  on  tobacco.  The  spots  are  ordinarily 
brown  and  show  a less  distinct,  if  any,  yellow  area  around  the 
center  of  infection.  (Fig.  9.)  The  yellow  area,  or  halo,  is,  on 


FIG.  9.— ORDINARY  WISCONSIN  “RUST” 

This  disease  looks  much  like  wildfire,  but  it  is  caused  by  another  species 
of  bacteria  which  is  not  nearly  apt  to  cause  large  losses  as  is  wildfire. 


Tobacco  Wildfire  in  Wisconsin 


15 


the  other  hand,  quite  typical  of  wildfire.  Ordinary  rust  occurs 
rarely,  usually  only  on  small  parts  of  the  fields,  and  does  not 
spread  easily  and  as  far  as  known  never  destroys  plants  in  the 
seed-bed  as  wildfire  does. 

“Mosaic  rust”  or  “firing”  was  very  common  and  serious  in 
Wisconsin  in  1922.  White  or  brownish  spots  occur  on  the 
leaves  and  in  more  severe  cases,  large  patches  of  the  leaves  turn 
yellow  or  brown  and  dry  up.  (Fig.  10.)  This  disease  is  readily 


FIG.  10.— MOSAIC  “RUST”  SOMETIMES  MISTAKEN  FOR  WILDFIRE 

This  disease  was  common  in  Wisconsin  in  1922.  The  ordinary  symptoms 
of  mosaic  are  shown  in  the  two  upper  sucker  leaves,  the  lower  ones 
being  healthy  leaves. 

recognized  by  the  mosaic  symptoms  on  the  young  leaves  or  suck- 
ers. The  mosaic  disease,  itself,  is  indicated  by  leaves  mottled 
green  and  yellow  and  often  deformed.  The  plants  are  weakened 
as  a whole  and  under  certain  weather  conditions,  rusting  or 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  348 


“firing”  occurs.  Commonly,  no  great  damage  is  done  by  this 
disease  in  Wisconsin,  although  more  or  less  of  it  can  be  found 
every  year. 

Non-parasitic  leaf -spots  or  non-inf ectious  rusts  not  due  to 
germs  but  resulting  rather  from  unfavorable  soil  conditions  for 
tobacco,  make  up  a third  class.  (Fig.  11.)  They  are  fairly 
common  on  some  soils  with  certain  types  of  tobacco,  and  often 
manifest  themselves  in  several  different  types  or  forms  of 
spots.  These  spots  are  usually  not  numerous  enough  to  cause 
much  concern. 

Many  other  leaf-spots  or  rusts  occur  throughout  the  country 
but  are  very  uncommon  or  not  known  to  occur  in  Wisconsin. 

How  Does  Wildfire  Live  Over  Winter? 

For  practically  six  months  the  wildfire  germ  must  maintain 
life  in  some  manner  without  any  living  plants  upon  which  to  feed 
and  multiply.  While  there  is  evidence  that  some  of  these  germs 
can  live  for  several  weeks  under  very  unfavorable  conditions  as 
on  dried  leaves,  seed,  cloth  and  so  forth,  yet  their  number  is  re- 
duced very  rapidly.  It  seems,  however,  that  a few  of  the  germs 
must  survive  in  some  manner  for  the  six-month  period,  prob- 
ably because  of  being  lodged  in  some  especially  favorable  situa- 
tion for  maintaining  life.  If  the  only  manner  in  which  the  dis- 
ease overwinters  could  be  determined  it  might  greatly  simplify 
present  methods  of  control. 

Bacteria  may  live  over  winter  in  a wide  variety  of  ways,  but 
in  the  case  of  wildfire  it  is  difficult  to  find  out  how  this  is  done 
even  with  the  aid  of  practical  observation  and  experiments.  It 
seems  likely  that  under  certain  conditions  the  bacteria  may  live 
over  winter  on  the  seed,  but  that  this  is  not  in  all  cases  true 
seems  evident  from  the  data  gathered  on  the  source  of  seed  of 
infected  seed-beds  this  past  season  in  Wisconsin.  Some  suspi- 
cion also  falls  on  seed-bed  covers,  seed-bed  frames,  soil,  cured 
tobacco  leaves,  tobacco  refuse  from  sheds,  tobacco  stalks  or  any 
other  material  or  equipment  that  may  come  in  contact  with  wild- 
fire and  subsequently  with  tobacco  plants  in  the  spring. 

It  is  necessary,  therefore,  in  preparing  the  seed-beds  in  the 
spring  to  use  all  possible  precautions  to  prevent  infestation  with 
wildfire  on  farms  where  wildfire  has  previously  occurred. 


Tobacco  Wildfire  in  Wisconsin 


17 


FIG.  11.— ANOTHER  TYPE  OF  RUST 


These  spots  are  different  from  any  of  the  others  mentioned  in  that  no 
germs  are  concerned,  but  they  develop  rather  from  a combination  of 
conditions  in  the  soil  and  plant  itself. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  348 


Spread  of  the  Disease 

Once  infection  has  occurred  in  the  spring  it  is  not  difficult  to 
see  how  the  disease  may  spread  in  the  seed-bed,  in  the  field  and 
from  field  to  field.  In  addition  to  being  carried  through  the  air 
under  certain  conditions,  men,  animals  and  tools  or  other  equip- 
ment may  carry  it  in  various  ways  through  the  field  or  from 
field  to  field  unless  proper  care  is  taken.  The  disease  is  most 
easily  spread  when  the  tobacco  is  wet  and  at  such  times  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  remain  out  of  the  fields  when  the  plants  have 
reached  some  size. 

The  transfer  of  infected  plants  for  transplanting  is  the  most 
evident  means  of  spreading  the  disease  from  farm  to  farm  and 
should  by  all  means  be  avoided.  In  general  the  greatest  injury 
seems  to  be  done  by  an  upward  spread  on  the  plants  from  infected 
lower  leaves  so  that  the  greater  the  number  of  infected  plants  the 
greater  the  damage  from  the  disease.  On  the  other  hand,  under 
favorable  conditions  for  the  spread  of  the  disease,  as  during 
driving  rain  storms,  general  spread  in  the  direction  of  the  wind 
takes  place  and  a relatively  few  infected  plants  in  the  field  may 
cause  general  infection  to  occur  later.  When  infection  has  once 
occurred  in  the  field,  therefore,  and  entire  replanting  is  not  re- 
sorted to,  it  seems  practical  in  many  cases  to  break  off  and  de- 
stroy the  infected  leaves  and  hence  reduce  the  spread  which  may 
follow  stormy  or  rainy  periods. 

Control  Measures 

From  the  foregoing  discussion  the  possible  measures  for  the 
control  of  wildfire  are  evident.  The  practicability  of  the  control 
measures  vary,  however,  with  conditions.  If,  for  example,  most 
of  the  leaves  on  a half  grown  crop  are  infected,  it  would  be 
impractical  and  too  expensive  to  remove  these  leaves  from  stalk- 
cut  tobacco  with  the  purpose  of  profiting  by  reducing  the  infec- 
tion in  the  remainder  of  the  single  crop.  Until  more  ex- 
perimental evidence  is  at  hand,  however,  the  grower  may 
need  to  go  to  some  unnecessary  trouble  to  make  certain  that 
everything  possible  is  done  to  avoid  unlimited  spread.  This  is 
especially  important  while  there  may  still  be  a possibility  of  erad- 
icating the  disease  from  the  state,  or  preventing  its  spread  to  un- 
infested sections. 


Tobacco  Wildfire  in  Wisconsin 


19 


The  control  measures  recommended  are  largely  concerned  with 
growing  disease-free  plants  in  the  seed-beds.  If  this  fails 
healthy  plants  should  be  sought  elsewhere.  If  diseased  plants 
are  accidentally  set  out  the  infected  plants  and  leaves  should  be 
destroyed  as  soon  as  possible,  if  the  infection  is  light  and  scat- 
tered. In  case  of  general  infection  found  before  July  1 it  is 
advisable  to  destroy  and  replant  entirely.  These  efforts  are  not 
only  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  as  much  as  possible  the  chances 
of  the  present  crop  being  damaged  by  wildfire,  but  also  to  pre- 
vent the  accumulation  of  infected  material  on  the  farm  which 
serves  as  a source  of  infection  for  next  year’s  crop  on  the  same 
farm  and  vicinity. 

Precautions  to  Prevent  Infection  in  Seed-Beds 

On  farms  where  wildfire  has  once  occurred  the  grower  should 
take  these  precautions  to  reduce  the  danger  of  introducing  wild- 
fire into  the  plant-beds : 

1.  Locate  beds  a considerable  distance  from  where  tobacco 
beds  or  fields  were  located  last  year  and  away  from  tobacco 
sheds. 

2.  Do  not  use  refuse  from  tobacco  sheds  or  stripping  room  as 
fertilizer  in  seed-beds  or  field,  but  preferably  rake  it  up 
carefully  and  destroy  before  the  beds  are  started. 

3.  Use  new  frame  boards  or  disinfect  old  boards  by  sprink- 
ling or  painting  with  some  disinfecting  solution  such  as 
1 part  of  formalin  to  25  parts  of  water. 

4.  Use  new  seed-bed  covers,  or  sterilize  old  covers  by  boiling 
one  hour. 

5.  Use  seed  known  to  come  from  uninfested  districts  or  seed 
which  has  been  disinfected.  Seed  may  be  treated  most 
safely  by  using  corrosive  sublimate  (1  part  to  1,000  parts 
of  water)  into  which  the  seed  contained  in  a cheese-cloth 
bag  is  dipped  for  10-15  minutes.  Rinse  thoroughly  with 
pure  water  and  dry  as  rapidly  as  possible.3 

6.  As  a final  measure  the  grower  may  have  to  resort  to  spray- 
ing or  dusting  the  beds  with  Bordeaux  mixture  if  the  dis- 
ease becomes  sufficiently  serious  to  warrant  it  in  spite  of  all 
other  precautions.  Spraying  or  dusting  should  be  done  once 
a week  from  the  time  the  leaves  are  as  large  as  a dime  until 

8 Corrosive  sublimate  is  a strong-  poison  but  will  not  affect  the  hands. 
It  corrodes  metal  and  for  that  reason  a glass  or  wooden  vessel  should 
be  used  for  holding  the  solution.  It  can  be  purchased  at  drug  stores  in 
convenient  form. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  348 


the  pulling  of  plants  is  completed.  Such  treatment  has 
been  found  to  be  efficient  in  preventing  heavy  spread  of 
infection  throughout  the  beds.  More  detailed  information 
on  this  subject  will  be  furnished  upon  request  to  the  Ex- 
periment Station,  Madison,  or  State  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. 

Do  Not  Transplant  Infected  Plants 

Where  wildfire  infection  is  found  in  seed-beds  the  diseased 
areas  and  those  bordering  them  should  be  destroyed  at  once  as 
completely  as  possible.  Weeding  and  pulling  plants  will  espe- 
cially spread  the  disease  over  large  areas  of  the  bed.  The  in- 
fected areas  can  best  be  destroyed  by  drenching  with  formalin 

(1  part  to  25  parts  water)  and  covering  with  some  material  to 
hold  the  fumes,  or  by  cutting  the  plants  and  sprinkling  the  areas 
with  kerosene  and  burning  over.  In  case  no  further  signs  of  the 
disease  are  evident  it  is  fairly  safe  to  use  plants  from  other  parts 
of  the  same  beds,  but  plants  should  preferably  not  be  pulled  from 
within  several  feet  of  the  infected  areas.  To  be  entirely  safe, 
plants  from  such  beds  should  not  be  used  at  all. 

Best  Methods  in  Case  of  Field  Infection 

When  wildfire  is  found  in  the  field  the  best  procedure  will 
depend  upon  the  amount  of  disease  present  and  the  time  of  the 

season  when  it  was  first  observed.  If  a large  percentage  of  the 

plants  show  infection  before  July  1 in  Wisconsin  the  safest 
thing  is  to  destroy  the  planting  by  plowing  under  or  pulling  out 
all  the  plants,  refitting  the  ground  and  replanting  from  healthy 
beds.  While  this  method  is  tedious  and  expensive  and  involves 
the  possibility  of  damage  by  frost  to  a later  crop,  it  is  no  more 
discouraging  than  working  with  a crop  badly  damaged  by  wildfire. 

If  infection  is  noted  on  only  a few  plants  early  in  the  session, 
pull  them  out,  carry  them  off  the  field,  burn  or  bury  them,  and 
reset  healthy  plants  in  their  places. 

After  July  1 planting  is  not  ordinarily  desirable  and  it  is 
usually  just  as  well  to  take  the  chance  that  the  disease  may  be 
checked  during  the  season  by  unfavorable  weather  conditions, 
together  with  what  may  be  accomplished  by  removal  of  infected 
leaves.  During  the  first  month  the  tobacco  is  in  the  field  serious 
effort  should  be  made  to  remove  all  infected  leaves,  even  though 
this  means  much  tedious  labor  and  expense.  Even  if  infection 


Tobacco  Wildfire  in  Wisconsin 


21 


gets  such  a start  that  two  to  five  leaves  are  involved  on  prac- 
tically every  plant,  this  measure  may  be  profitably  adopted  as 
part  of  an  eradication  policy  in  place  of  complete  destruction  of 
the  crop. 

Destroy  Second  Growth  of  Suckers 

Wildfire  will  also  attack  sucker  growth  on  harvested  fields  in  the 
fall  if  the  weather  is  favorable.  This  is  an  additional  and  unnec- 
essary possible  source  of  infection  for  the  farm  and  community. 
Plowing  under  the  suckers  before  they  make  much  growth  will 
effectively  prevent  this  danger.  Fall  plowing  is  in  any  case  de- 
sirable as  a rule  from  a general  agricultural  standpoint.  Fields 
on  which  wildfire  has  occurred  should  preferably  not  be  used 
for  tobacco  culture  the  following  year,  although  it  is  not  generally 
regarded  as  unsafe  to  do  so. 


. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  op  the  University 
H.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 
F.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Sta- 
tion 


J.  A.  James,  Asst.  Dean 

K. -  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Exten- 

sion Service 


W.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
S.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 


A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 

F.  A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 
R.  A.  Brunic,  Genetics 

L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

E.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 
J.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 
J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 

E.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of 
Dairy  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 

E.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

W.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
J.  G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  J.  Geib,  Soils 
E.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

F.  B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterin- 

ary Science 

J.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry 
Husbandry 

E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 

E.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Bacteriology 

C.  S.  Hean,  Librarian 

* B.  H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Economics 

A.  W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of 

Agr.  Journalism 
R.  9.  Hulcb,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Ani- 

mal Husbandry 

J.  A.  James,  in  charge  of  Agr.  Edu- 
cation 

J.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

E.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  En- 

gineering 

L.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pa- 
thology 

G.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
*<J.  H.  Kolb,  Agr.  Economics 

B.  D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

Mable  C.  Little,  Inst.  Management 
— T.  Macklin,  Agr.  Ecohomics 

Abby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home 
Economics 

P.  E.  McNall,  Agr.  Economics 
J.  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 
J.  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticul- 
ture 

R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

F.  L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

D.  H.  Reid,  Poultry  Husbandry 
Griffith  Richards,  Soils 

R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
J-  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 

E.  S.  Savage,  Animal  Husbandry 

H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 

A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 


W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
J.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 

H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic 
Entomology 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy  and  Soils 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


A.  R.  Albert,  Soils 
H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 
Freda  M.  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacte- 
riology 

E.  A.  Baird,  Plant  Pathology 
W.  H.  Ebling,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
N.  S.  Fish,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
A.  A.  Granovsky,  Economic  Ento- 
mology 

A.  J.  Haas,  Executive  Secretary 
R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
Elsie  Hess,  Home  Economics 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 
C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 
L.  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 
Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  Journalism 
Samuel  Lepicovsky,  Agr.  Chemistry 
V.  G.  Milum,  Economic  Entomology 
E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
G.  T.  Nightingale,  Horticulture 
A.  J.  Riker,  Plant  Pathology 
Marianna  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 
L.  C.  Thomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 
C.  E.  Walsh,  Agr.  Engineering 


J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  M.  Bethke,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Archie  Black,  Agr.  Chemistry 
O.  R.  Brunkow,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Dorothy  Bradbury,  Horticulture 
Lloyd  Burkey,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  E.  Frost,  Agr.  Journalism 
O.  H.  Gerhardt,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Gerald  Heebink,  Animal  Husbandry 
H.  S.  Irwin,  Agr.  Economics 
W.  C.  Jensen,  Agr.  Economics 
O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

C.  C.  Lindegren,  Plant  Pathology 
Edgar  Martin,  Animal  Husbandry 

A.  J.  Moyer,  Genetics 
N.  T.  Nelson,  Agronomy 

G.  A.  Palmer,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  H.  Pierre,  Soils 
E.  Rankin,  Agr.  Chemistry 
T.  E.  Rawlins,  Horticulture 
E.  G.  Schmidt,  Agr.  Chemistry 
W.  P.  Smith,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
M.  E.  Smith,  Inst.  Administration 

D.  G.  Steele,  Genetics 
Henry  Stevens,  Genetics 

Frances  W.  Streets,  Plant  Pathology 
R.  B.  Streets,  Plant  Pathology 
Ferne  E.  Taylor,  Inst.  Administration 
M.  N.  Walker,  Plant  Pathology 

B.  L.  Warwick.  Veterinary  Science 
V.  R.  Wurtz,  Agr.  Economics 

J.  J.  Yoke,  Genetics 


mm 


ulletin 


■ 


®!r  ■ * 


■ 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
MADISON 


aHMilgiB 


THE  STORY  TOLD  BY  THE  COLORED  PICTURES 

(See  Center  Page) 

Early  Cutting  Weakens  Alfalfa 

For  permanence,  yields  and  the  elimination  of  weeds 
alfalfa  shou.ld  be  cut  as  near  the  full  bloom  stage  as 
possible  without  allowing  the  hay  to  become  too 
coarse.  Cutting  at  early  stages  weakens  the  suc- 
ceeding growth,  causes  yellowing  and  reduces  the 
yields. 

Lime  or  No  Lime 

The  alfalfa  in  the  foreground  growing  on  sour  soil 
without  lime  is  thin,  weak,  yellow  and  sickly.  Where 
lime  was  applied  the  heavy  rich,  dark  green  growth 
occurred.  This  demonstration  proof  of  the  value  q1 
lime  brought  about  the  use  of  several  thousand  tons 
of  ground  limestone  for  more  and  better  alfalfa. 

Low  Areas  Winterkill 

Even  the  hardiest  strains  of  alfalfa  may  winterkill 
on  the  low  areas  where  water  accumulates  and  ice 
sheets  form.  Choose  a sloping  soil. 

Old  Seeding  Winterkills;  New  Seeding  Not  Injured 

New  seedings  are  much  hardier  than  old  stands. 
The  new  alfalfa  in  the  background  did  not  winter- 
kill,  but  the  four-year-old  alfalfa  in  the  foreground 
has  succumbed  to  the  rigors  of  a hard  winter  and 
has  been  largely  replaced  by  grasses.  New  seedings 
are  not  apt  to  winterkill  if  well  established  with  hardy 
alfalfa.  A new  stand  started  every  year  or  two  is 
one  way  to  guard  against  a total  loss  from  winter- 
killing. 

Hardy  Common;  Weak  Common 

In  trials  with  alfalfa  from  common  seed  grown  in 
New  Mexico  and  Arizona,  as  shown  in  the  foreground, 
it  was  found  that  these  strains  were  generally  more 
susceptible  to  winter  injury  than  common  strains  from 
the  more  northern  states  such  as  South  Dakota,  Nebraska 
and  Montana.  A I 


0 


Make  Alfalfa  a Sure  Crop 

R.  A.  Moore  and  L.  F.  Graber 

ALFALFA  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  crops  that  can 
be  raised  on  the  average  Wisconsin  farm.  It  excels  all 
other  Wisconsin  hay  crops  in  yields  by  an  average  of 
one  ton  of  hay  an  acre.  It  is  far  more  drought-resistant  than 
any  of  the  clovers  or  timothy  and  especially  is  this  true  of 
new  seedings.  It  builds  up  the  soil ; maintains  fertility ; 


ALFALFA  PAYS 

377  FARMS  GROWING  ALFALFA 
MADE  AN  AVERAGE  NET  PROFIT 
PER  FARM  OF  1200.00 

ipsp  'ff'frir 


511  FARMS  WITH  NO  ALFALFA 
MADE  AN  AVERAGE  NET  PROFIT 
PER  FARM  OF  * 728.00 


FIG.  1. — PROOF'  OF  PROFITS. 

An  investigation  made  several  years  ago  by  the  Wisconsin  Experi- 
ment Station  where  financial  records  were  kept  on  888  Wisconsin  farms 
indicates  that  the  alfalfa  growers  made  the  most  money. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


eradicates  the  worst  of  weeds  such  as  Canada  thistles,  morn- 
ing-glories, and  numerous  others  less  serious;  and  at  the 


fig.  2.— why  alfalfa  stands  drought  better  than  clover 


The  deeper  tap  root  growth  of  alfalfa  seedlings  (1)  as  shown  above 
compared  to  the  shallower  spreading  type  of  roots  for  red  and  alsike 
clover  seedlings  of  the  same  age  C2)  explains  how  alfalfa  under  favor- 
able soil  conditions  is  often  a surer  crop  than  clover  because  of  its 
greater  ability  to  secure  moisture  out  of  the  soil  in  times  of  severe 
drought. 


same  time  furnishes  a great  abundance  of  very  rich  feeding 
hay  for  our  livestock.  It  can  be  grown  on  the  light  sandy 
soils  and  the  heaviest  clays. 

While  the  market  value  of  western  alfalfa  hay  in  the  stack 
may  range  from  $4  to  $8  a ton,  the  cost  of  transportation,  bal- 
ing and  loading  this  bulky  product  brings  the  price  from 
$20  to  $30  a ton  f.  o.  b.  Wisconsin  points.  This  protects 


Make  Alfalfa  a Sure  Crop 


D 

home-grown  alfalfa  from  competition  with  the  surplus  alfalfa 
produced  in  the  western  states  and  accounts  for  market  prices 
which  have  always  been  sufficiently  high  in  Wisconsin  to 
warrant  the  most  profitable  use  of  liming,  fertilization,  and 
inoculation — which  are  so  often  necessary  to  make  alfalfa  a 
success. 


New  Seedings  Reduce  Winterkilling 

While  winterkilling  has  at  times  been  serious,  yet  these 
losses  can  be  quite  largely  controlled  by  the  avoidance  of  late 
fall  cutting  and  pasturing;  by  the  use  of  hardy  strains  of  seed 
and  the  frequent  establishment  of  new  seedings  of  alfalfa  as  a 
part  of  the  regular  farm  rotation.  A new  stand  of  hardy  alfalfa 
will  generally  weather  the  worst  winters;  and  not  infrequently 
new  seedings  of  the  average  northern  common  will  survive 
when  older  stands  of  the  same  strains  are  practically  killed 
out.  The  farmer  who  has  soil  well  supplied  with  lime  and 


FIG.  3. — CANADA  THISTLES  IN  AN  OAT  FIELD 

The  worst  patches  of  Canada  thistles  and  morning-glories  are  being 
eradicated  where  good  vigorous  stands  of  alfalfa  are  established. 

inoculated  so  that  in  a crop  rotation  he  may  seed  alfalfa  every 
one  or  two  years  will  find  that  after  a hard  winter  the  old 
seeding  may  kill,  but  the  new  seedings  nearly  always  remain 
and  prevent  total  loss  of  his  hay  crop. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


PIG.  4.— ALFALFA  ENRICHES  SOIL 

(1)  Blue  grass  from  an  eight-year-old  alfalfa  field  partly  winter- 
killed  compared  with  an  average  sample,  (2)  taken  from  an  adjacent 
seven-year-old  blue  grass  sod  containing  no  alfalfa 


Make  Alfalfa  a Sure  Crop 


7 


FIG.  5.— GROWTH  OF  BUCKWHEAT  ON  ALFALFA  AND  BLUE  GRASS 

SOD 

Both  the  blue  grass  and  alfalfa  sods  in  Fig.  4 were  plowed  and 
seeded  to  buckwheat  early  in  July.  After  three  weeks  growth,  samnle 
(3)  shows  twenty  average  plants  from  the  alfalfa  sod,  and  (4)  twenty 
average  plants  from  the  blue  grass  sod. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


Hardy  Strains  For  a Stand  That  Will  Last 

While  such  varieties  as  Grimm  often  live  through  hard 
winters  where  the  average  common  kills  out,  there  are  many 
farms  where  common  seed  grown  in  the  Dakotas,  Montana 
and  other  northern  states  has  given  fairly  good  results. 


FIG.  6. — AFTER  SEVERE  WINTERS  HARDY  STRAINS  MAKE  MORE  • 

RAPID  GROWTH 

Note  vigorous  early  spring  growth  of  Grimm  and  other  hardy  strains 
of  alfalfa  after  a hard  winter  compared  with  western  common  strains  on 
either  side  which  were  so  badly  weakened  that  they  have  scarcely  begun 
to  grow.  . ^ __  „ 


This  is  especially  true  where  winterkilling  has  not  been  serious 
and  where  alfalfa  is  used  in  rotation  and  permanent  stands  are 
not  particularly  desired.  Grimm  is  by  no  means  winter  proof 
and  it  is  just  as  hard  to  get  a stand  established  as  it  is  of 
common,  but  with  a field  of  good  hardy  Grimm  once  well 
started,  it  may  last  much  longer  and  probably  there  will  be 
less  blue  grass  difficulty.  The  hardy  varieties  are  high  priced 
and  caution  may  well  be  used  to  secure  the  hardiest  strains 
of  carefully  certified  seed.  Unless  the  soil  is  in  condition  to 
produce  a stand  with  a reasonable  degree  of  certainty,  it  may 
be  wise  to  use  the  cheaper,  common,  northern-grown  seed. 


Make  Alfalfa  a Sure  Crop  9 

Southern-grown  alfalfa  seed  from  such  states  as  Arizona,  New 
Mexico  and  Utah  has  produced  stands  very  sensitive  to  un- 
favorable Wisconsin  winter  weather. 

Lime  Is  Alfalfa’s  Greatest  Need 

It  is  easy  to  throw  away  time,  labor,  seed,  and  money  by 
trying  to  grow  alfalfa  on  sour  land  without  the  use  of  ground 
limestone  or  some  other  suitable  form  of  lime.  Alfalfa  is  a 
lime-hungry  plant,  requiring  nearly  100  pounds  of  lime  to 
make  a ton  of  cured  hay.  Lack  of  lime  in  the  soil  has  been 
the  cause  of  thousands  of  failures  with  alfalfa.  Take  no 


FIG.  7.— ALFALFA  BEST  HOG  PASTURE 


For  a period  of  5 years  (1916-20)  alfalfa  excelled  all  other  hog 
pastures  in  profitable  pork  production  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station. 


chances  on  that  soil  of  yours.  Find  out  if  it  needs  lime. 
Have  it  tested  by  your  county  agent  or  the  Experiment 
Station*.  If  your  soil  is  very  sour  and  requires  from  three 
to  five  tons  of  ground  limestone  an  acre,  do  not  grow  alfalfa 
until  you  can  apply  the  necessary  lime.  Your  soil  may  have 
enough  lime  to  grow  good  corn,  oats,  timothy,  and  alsike 
clover,  but  that  does  not  indicate  there  is  sufficient  lime  in 
the  surface  six  inches  to  get  alfalfa  well  started.  Use  lime 
if  your  ground  needs  it. 

*If  you  have  no  county  agent,  take  a half-pound  sample  of  soil  from 
five  or  six  average  places  in  the  surface  of  the  field  and  send  it  to  the 
Experiment  Station,  Madison,  Wisconsin,  with  a letter  asking  for  an 
acidity  test. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


If  You  Cannot  Get  Lime 

Many  farmers  live  from  four  to  ten  miles  from  a railroad 
station.  If  they  happen  to  be  in  a region  where  lime  rock  is 
abundant,  and  where  the  soil  is  of  a clay,  loam  or  silt  char- 
acter, (not  sandy),  there  is  some  chance  of  starting  a perma- 
nent field.  First  of  all,  the  soil  must  be  tested.  If  it  is  sour, 
so  as  to  require  three  or  more  tons  of  ground  limestone  an 
acre,  it  is  better  to  leave  alfalfa  alone  until  the  lime  can  be 
supplied.  But  if  only  one  or  two  tons  are  necessary  and  the 
soil  is  rich,  or  well  manured,  there  is  a fair  chance  to  grow 


FIG.  8.— ALFALFA  FOR  HAY;  CORN  FOR  THE  SILO 
For  home  grown  feed  this  combination  is  hard  to  excel  either  in  yields 
or  quality. 

alfalfa  without  supplying  lime,  provided  you  will  not  expect 
too  much  from  the  first  crop.  The  older  alfalfa  becomes  the 
deeper  the  roots  penetrate  the  subsoil,  where  they  may  often 
obtain  sufficient  lime  for  a strong,  healthy  growth.  This 
partly  explains  why  some  farmers  find  their  alfalfa  rapidly 
improves  with  age.  Try  this  mixture  at  20  pounds  an  acre: 
14  pounds  alfalfa  seed 
2 ” alsike  ” 

4 ” timothy  ” 

If  on  account  of  a lack  of  lime  in  the  surface  soil  the  alfalfa 
is  yellow  and  weak  in  spots  at  the  time  of  the  first  cutting, 
the  alsike  and  timothy  will  help  fill  in  the  thin  places  and 


Make  Alfalfa  a Sure  Crop 


11 


hold  up  the  yields.  The  second  and  third  growths  will 
generally  be  pure  alfalfa — stronger  and  healthier  than  the 
first  crop  because  the  roots  become  more  and  more  established 
in  the  subsoil  where  they  may  find  sufficient  lime  to  produce 
heavy  yields. 

If  winters  are  favorable,  the  alfalfa  plants  grow  larger  and 
larger.  They  spread  out  and  gradually  replace  the  alsike  as 
it  dies  out.  This  plan  is  well  worth  trying,  but  leave  out  the 
clover  if  your  soil  will  produce  a heavy  volunteer  growth  of 
alsike  without  sowing  any  seed.  Where  soil  conditions  are 
not  entirely  favorable,  sow  alfalfa  with  early  oats  or  pedigree 
barley  and  cut  the  grain  for  hay.  Early  removal  of  the  nurse 
crop  will  guard  against  summer’s  drought  and  helps  to  insure 
a good  stand. 

Home  Ground  Limestone 

In  many  parts  of  the  state  there  are  abundant  outcroppings 
of  limestone  of  a very  high  quality  for  soil  improvement  To 
those  living  at  considerable  distances  from  freight  stations 
“the  haul”  of  “shipped-in”  limestone  is  a great  expense  and 


FIG.  9. — GRINDING  LIME  ROCK  AT  LOCAL  QUARRIES 
Farmers  living  at  considerable  distances  from  railroad  stations  in 
some  counties  are  eliminating  long  hauls  by  having  operators  of  porta- 
ble grinders  pulverize  limestone  rock  for  them  at  local  quarries  or 
limestone  fences. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


inconvenience.  In  some  places  high-testing  lime  rock  is 
ground  for  the  farmer  by  private  operators  at  a quarry  on 
or  near  the  farm  at  a flat  price  which  eliminates  the  long  haul 
and  may  result  in  a tremendous  financial  saving.  In  three 
years  over  8,000  tons  of  lime  were  ground  on  this  basis  in 
Green  county  alone.  The  idea  has  spread  into  numerous  other 
counties,  as  Iowa,  where  in  two  years,  6,000  tons  were  ground ; 
in  Rock  county  where  four  machines  are  operating  with  an 
annual  production  of  7,000  tons ; in  Green  Lake  county  where 
one  grinder  has  produced  2,000  tons  in  six  months.  Tn  many 
other  counties  the  plan  is  just  being  initiated. 

How  to  Lime 

Ground  limestone  can  be  spread  with  a shovel,  with  manure 
spreader,  or  with  a lime  distributor. 

Always  apply  lime  to  the  surface  of  plowed  land — never  plow 
it  under. 


•FIG.  10.— SPREADING  GROUND  LIMESTONE  WITH  A MANURE 

SPREADER 

This  is  a convenient  way  to  apply  the  lime.  Regular  distributors  some 
of  which  are  in  the  form  of  end  gate  spreaders  may  be  used  or  the  lime- 
stone can  be  spread  by  hand  writh  a shovel. 


Autumn  is  probably  the  best  time  to  apply  lime,  but  winter 
or  early  spring  are  often  convenient  and  satisfactory  periods 
for  putting  agricultural  lime  on  the  land. 


WEAK 

Common 


: > 


OLD 

SEEDING 

WNTEftKIlUD 


lime 


Hardy  jfl 
Common!  1 


WEAK 

Common] 


TOO  EAPLY  CUTTING 

MAKES  NEXT  CROP 

SHORT*  WEAK-YELLOW 


CUT  IN  FULL  BLOOM 

MAKES  NEXT  CROP 

HEALTHY- STRONG-VIGOROUS 


Low  Areas 
Winterkilled 


NEW 

SEEDING 

WT  INJURED 


OLD 

SEEDING 

1 WiNTERKlUED  I 

Make  Alfalfa  a Sure  Crop 


13 


Inoculate  for  Vigorous  Growth 

Where  alfalfa  has  not  been  grown  successfully  before,  either 
the  seed  or  the  soil  should  be  inoculated.  Why  take  the 
risk?  Cultures,  which  can  be  gotten  through  your  county 
agent  or  Experiment  Station,  may  conveniently  be  applied 


The  little  white  swellings  or  nodules  on  alfalfa  roots  are  sure  indi- 
cations of  proper  inoculation.  They  are  the  homes  of  millions  of  alfalfa 
bacteria  which  gather  nitrogen  from  the  soil  air  and  convert  it  into  an 
actual  growth-producing  fertilizer  for  the  alfalfa  plants. 


to  the  seed  just  before  sowing.  Inoculation  is  nothing  more 
or  less  than  a simple,  easy,  and  inexpensive  process  of  intro- 
ducing into  soils  the  real  fertilizer  manufacturing  bacteria 
which  develop  swellings  and  nodules  on  the  alfalfa  roots  and 
make  the  plants  strong,  healthy  and  vigorous. 

Give  Alfalfa  a Square  Deal 

Alfalfa  requires  nothing  in  the  way  of  soil  treatment  but 
what  is  largely  needed  to  produce  the  most  abundant  yields 
of  corn,  small  grains,  and  other  crops. 

Play  safe.  Get  inoculated  with  the  right  ideas  about  grow- 
ing alfalfa.  Sow  alfalfa  right  or  don’t  sow  it  at  all.  Give 
it  a square  deal  if  you  expect  a square  deal  in  return. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


Get  the  Nurse  Crop  off  Early 

Many  a good  stand  of  alfalfa  and  of  clover  is  ruined  by 
the  summer’s  drought.  Grasshoppers  are  very  serious  in 
some  years.  There  is  a way  to  play  reasonably  safe  on  this. 
Sow  your  alfalfa  with  one  bushel  of  early  ripening  grain  an 
acre,  such  as  Kherson,  (Wis.  No.  7)  oats  or  pedigree  barley. 
Cut  this  grain  for  hay  just  after  it  is  headed  out.  This  saves 
soil  moisture  and  gives  the  alfalfa  a good  growing  start  to 
stand  later  summer  drought  as  well  as  grasshopper  injury. 
Cutting  the  nurse  crop  for  hay  is  not  always  necessary,  but 
is  essential  when  grain  lodges,  otherwise  alfalfa  may  smother. 


PTC.  1 2.— EARLY  RIPENING  NURSE  CROPS  INSURE  GOOD  STANDS 

Such  early  ripening  grains  as  Kherson  (Wis.  No.  7)  oats  (at  left)  and 
pedigree  barley  are  far  more  preferable  than  late  maturing  oats  (at 
right)  or  spring  wheat. 


This  method  is  especially  advised  when  high-priced  alfalfa 
seed  is  used.  With  this  plan  you  take  little  chance  of  failure 
if  your  soil  conditions  are  right  or  nearly  so.  Compare  this 
method  with  that  of  sowing  alfalfa  with  late  oats  or  late 
spring  wheat,  which  take  huge  quantities  of  moisture  from 
the  soil  during  the  ripening  process  and  are  usually  cut  at 
the  beginning  of  our  hottest  and  driest  weather.  Canning 
peas  make  an  excellent  nurse  crop  because  they  are  cut  and 


Make  Alfalfa  a Sure  Crop 


IS 


hauled  off  the  land  early.  Other  methods  can  be  used,  but  late 
summer  or  fall  seeding-  should  be  avoided  in  Wisconsin. 


FIG.  13. — CUT  LODGED  GRAIN  FOR  HA  V 

Early  removal  of  the  nurse  crop  for  hay,  especially  in  case  of  lodged 
grain,  is  an  important  step  towards  success  in  establishing  a good  stand 
of  alfalfa. 


Select  Reasonably  Rich  Soil 

it  is  a waste  of  time  and  money  to  attempt  to  grow  alfalfa 
on  a worn-out  piece  of  ground  unless  the  soil  is  abundantly 
supplied  with  lime.  If  your  land  is  not  rich  and  fertile,  put 
on  a good  dressing  of  manure.  In  many  instances  phosphate 
fertilizer  helps  immensely. 

Lime,  inoculation  and  manure. 

Make  alfalfa  doubly  sure 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


Use  Clean  Ground 

To  avoid  weed  trouble,  have  your  alfalfa  follow  some  well- 
cultivated  crop  like  corn  or  potatoes.  If  weeds,  especially 
foxtail,  become  thick  the  first  season,  cut  them  close  to  the 
ground,  prior  to  August  15.  Use  a mower  or  grain  binder. 
Haul  the  cut  weeds  off  the  field,  especially  if  there  is  a 
heavy  growth.  A fairly  heavy  sprinkling  of  weeds  will  prob- 
ably cause  very  little  harm  and  if  not  cut  may  prove  a splendid 
winter  protection.  Cutting  or  clipping  is  not  always  necessary 
or  advisable. 

Avoid  Flat  Land 

If  you  have  a heavy  flat  soil  with  a hardpan  subsoil,  or  a 
tight  blue  or  red  clay  subsoil  that  does  not  permit  good  under- 
drainage, leave  alfalfa  alone.  You  will  have  better  luck  with 
timothy  and  alsike.  Alfalfa  must  have  good  surface  and 


FIG.  14.— best  to  choose  a sloping  field 

Flat  lands  will  grow  alfalfa  but  smothering  ice  sheets  like  this 
may  cause  winterkilling  especially  if  the  under-drainage  is  poor. 


under-drainage.  It  likes  a gravelly  limestone  subsoil  best. 
Sometimes  it  grows  remarkably  well  on  rich  bottom  lands  or 
on  black  flat  prairie  loams  and  flat  sandy  soils  that  have  good 
thorough  under-drainage,  but  in  certain  years  it  will  suffer 
most  severely  from  ice  sheets  and  other  winter  injury  on  any 
flat  ground.  Choose  a sloping  soil. 


Make  Alfalfa  a Sure  Crop 


17 


Rolling  Helps 

Alfalfa  wants  a firm  but  well-prepared  seed  bed.  Fall 
plowing  is  best  with  the  heavier  soils  as  it  gives  the  soil  time 
to  settle  and  become  firm.  Spring  plowing  should  be  com- 
paratively shallow.  Alfalfa  sown  on  spring  plowed  land — 
especially  loose  sandy  soils — is  greatly  benefited  by  rolling 


FIG.  15. — ROLLING  MAKES  A SPLENDID  SEED  BED 

The  corrugated  roller  breaks  coarse  lumps,  firms  the  seed  bed,  and 
leaves  the  surface  loose.  Tt  is  often  desirable  to  roll  both  before  and 
after  seeding. 


with  a corrugated  roller.  It  helps  clover  also  and  brings 
better  yields  of  grain.  The  corrugated  roller  is  a much  needed 
implement  on  many  farms.  Alfalfa  wants  a firm  seed  bed 
with  the  lumps  on  the  surface  well  broken  up.  The  corrugated 
roller  will  do  this  and  do  it  well.  Rolling  before  and  after 
seeding  is  advisable 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


Use  Enough  Seed 

Lf  your  land  has  plenty  of  lime,  an  open  gravelly  subsoil, 
and  grows  alfalfa  easily,  15  pounds  an  acre  of  clean  seed  that 
germinates  90  per  cent  or  above  is  sufficient.  If  you  are  sow- 
ing alfalfa  for  the  first  time  or  if  your  soil  is  not  particularly 
well  adapted  to  alfalfa  growing,  it  is  better  to  use  18  to  20 
pounds,  especially  where  common  seed  is  used. 

Timothy  With  Alfalfa  Keeps  Out  Weeds  and  Blue  Grass 

Timothy  grows  surprisingly  well  with  alfalfa.  The  first 
crop  is  ready  to  cut  just  when  the  timothy  is  in  early  bloom 
and  at  that  stage  it  is  quite  palatable  and  digestible.  The 


PIG.  16.— HOW  TIMOTHY  HELPS  WHEN  ALFALFA  WINTERKILLS 

Mixing  a little  timothy  with  alfalfa  insures  against  total  loss  when 
winterkilling  occurs.  Two  seven-year-old  alfalfa  plots,  one  seeded  with 
timothy  and  the  other  alone,  winterkilled  almost  completely.  The 
timothy  mixture  gave  a yield  of  2.4  tons  of  hay  an  acre  made  up  of  a 
mixture  of  a few  spears  of  alfalfa,  95  per  cent  timothy  and  5 per  cent 
blue  grass.  Where  alfalfa  was  seeded  alone  the  plot  gave  1.2  tons  of 
blue  grass  hay  containing  about  10  per  cent  alfalfa. 


second  and  third  growths  will  generally  be  pure  alfalfa.  But 
the  important  point  is : Suppose  the  alfalfa  should  winter- 


Make  Alfalfa  a Sure  Crop 


19 


kill  or  become  thin  in  spots?  Instead  of  weeds  and  blue 
grass  coming  in  you  are  likely  to  find  that  the  timothy  thickens 
right  up ; and  the  way  it  grows  on  the  dead  rotting  roots  of 
alfalfa  is  most  remarkable.  Where  the  alfalfa  remains  thick 
the  timothy  will  be  comparatively  thin  and  where  the  alfalfa 
thins  the  timothy  thickens.  The  two  crops  go  hand  in  hand 
to  maintain  a good  stand.  Timothy  helps  keep  out  blue 
grass  and  increases  the  yields.  Try  this  at  least  in  a small 
way,  mixing  one-fourth  or  one-fifth  timothy  by  weight  with 
your  alfalfa  and  sow  the  mixture  20  pounds  an  acre.  The 
chief  objection  to  this  combination  has  come  from  those 
who  are  loathe  to  use  even  good  timothy  as  part  of  their 
ration  for  dairy  cattle  and  who  secure  splendid  uniform  stands 
of  alfalfa  with  great  ease  under  their  particular  soil  conditions. 


Mix  Alfalfa  With  Your  Grass  and  Clover  Seed 

It  is  excellent  practice  on  most  farms  to  mix  in  with  the 
regular  timothy  and  clover  seedings  from  two  to  four  pounds 
of  alfalfa  seed  per  acre.  Inoculate  this  seed  before  mixing 
and  you  will  soon  have  your  whole  farm  inoculated  for  future 
crops  of  alfalfa.  Alfalfa  growing  with  timothy  and  clover  im- 
proves the  yield  and  quality  of  hay.  Even  if  your  ground 
is  a little  sour,  a thin  sprinkling  of  alfalfa  plants  will  generally 
get  sufficient  lime  for  a strong,  healthy  growth. 


How  to  Avoid  Blue  Grass  Troubles 

Do  not  cut  or  pasture  your  alfalfa  after  the  first  week  in 
September  if  a permanent  stand  is  desired.  It  does  not  pay 
to  kill  the  goose  that  lays  the  golden  eggs  by  trying  to  get 
an  extra  crop  late  in  the  fall.  Alfalfa  needs  a growth  of 
fully  eight  inches  or  more  for  protection  against  winter- 
killing 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


FIG.  17.— PASTURING  NEW  SEEDINGS  A POOR  PRACTICE 
Fall  pasturing-  new  seedings  may  result  in  winterkilling  and  thin- 
ning of  the  stand. 


Proper  Cutting  Stage  of  Alfalfa 

Two  crops  of  alfalfa  cut  in  the  full  bloom  stage  often  yield 
as  much,  and  not  infrequently  yield  considerably  more  hay 


FIG.  18.— LATE  FALL  CUTTING  AND  PASTURING  CAUSE  WINTER- 
KILLING  AND  BLUE  GRASS  TROUBLES 
The  left  part  of  this  field  which  is  so  badly  winterkilled  and  over- 
run with  blue  grass  was  cut  the  previous  fall  on  October  12.  The  al- 
falfa on  the  right  was  last  cut  on  August  30,  the  previous  year,  and 
came  through  the  winter  uninjured.  In  the  northern  states  cutting  or 
heavy  pasturing  after  the  first  week  in  September  is  poor  practice. 


than  three  crops  cut  in  the  early  bud  or  tenth  bloom  stage. 
Of  course,  the  later  you  ftit  alfalfa  the  coarser  and  poorer  the 


Make  Alfalfa  a Sure  Crop 


21 


quality  of  hay,  but  too  early  cutting  weakens  and  thins  out 
alfalfa,  while  later  cutting  strengthens  the  plants  against 
winterkilling,  weeds,  low  yields  and  blue  grass.  With  favor- 
able weather,  alfalfa  should  be  cut  for  hay  as  near  the  full 
bloom  stage  as  possible  without  sacrificing  too  much  on  the 
quality  of  hay.  Especially  is  this  essential  following  hard 
winters.  One-year-old  alfalfa  grows  less  luxuriantly  and 
generally  can  be  cut  in  the  full  bloom  stage  without  serious 
reduction  in  the  quality  of  the  hay  and  with  considerable 
increase  in  the  total  yields.  Although  the  shoot  develop- 
ment of  alfalfa  has  long  been  used  as  a gauge  for  the  proper 


FIG.  19.— TALL  ALFALFA  STUBBLES  HELP  TO  HOLD  SNOW 

There  is  no  better  winter  protection  than  a good  covering  of  snow 
A good  fall  growth  of  alfalfa  strengthens  the  roots,  prevents  ice  sheets 
from  forming  close  to  the  ground  and  keeps  the  snow  from  rapidly  melt 
ing  or  blowing  away — all  of  which  guard  against  winter  injury 


cutting  stage,  experiments  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Sta- 
tion indicate  that  the  clipping  of  the  more  advanced  sprouts 
is  not  injurious  to  the  succeeding  growth.  This  is  of  im- 
portance for  those  who  are  raising  alfalfa  seed.  While  in 
certain  seasons  three  hay  crops  may  be  obtained,  many  ex- 
perienced growers  get  the  biggest  yields  in  the  long  run  by 
cutting  only  twice  a year,  leaving  a tall  heavy  growth  for 
winter  protection. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


How  to  Grow  Alfalfa  on  Sandy  Soil 

Sandy  soils  which  grow  potatoes  successfully  can  usually 
be  made  to  produce  good  crops  of  alfalfa.  Remarkable  growths 
of  alfalfa  have  been  secured  on  light  sandy  soils  which  have 
been  properly  treated. 


FIG.  20. — ALFALFA  IS  THE  PREMIER  HAY  CROP  FOR  SANDY  SOILS 
Because  of  its  great  drought  resistance,  alfalfa  is  the  best  perma- 
nent hay  crop  for  sandy  land.  Lime,  manure,  and  inoculation  produced 
the  above  excellent  crop  (second  growth)  on  a light  sandy  soil  near 
Plainfield,  Wisconsin. 


Six  Sandy  Soil  Suggestions — 

Lime  is  the  first  essential. 

Inoculate  for  better  yields. 

Apply  manure  or  commercial  fertilizer  or  both. 

Roll  with  corrugated  roller  just  before  and  after 
sowing. 

Seed  with  a light  sowing  of  early  spring  grain 
which  should  be  cut  for  hay  just  as  it  heads 
out  or  use  no  nurse  crop  at  all  and  sow  the  al- 
falfa in  the  latter  part  of  May  after  the  soil  has 
been  freed  of  weeds  by  previous  cultivation. 


Make  Alfalfa  a Sure  Crop 


23 


FIG.  21— INOCULATION  OR 
STARVATION 

Each  jar  contains  pure  quartz 
sand  to  which  all  the  necessary- 
elements  for  plant  growth,  ex- 
cept nitrogen,  have  been  added. 
The  alfalfa  bacteria  supplied  by 
inoculation  have  taken  sufficient 
nitrogen  from  the  air  to  produce 
a healthy  growth  of  alfalfa.  The 
alfalfa  plants  in  the  sand  receiv- 
ing no  inoculation  have  starved 
for  a want  of  nitrogen.  Inocu- 
lation is  very  important  especial- 
ly on  sandy  and  other  soils, 
which  may  lack  nitrogen. 


FIG.  22.— CURING  IN  WINDROWS  SAVES  LEAVES 

Alfalfa  hay  is  readily  raked  into  windrows  with  side  delivery  rake* 
and  can  be  loaded  with  hay  loaders 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  347 


Raising  Alfalfa  Seed  in  Wisconsin 


Several  growers  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  have  grown 
alfalfa  seed  very  successfully.  In  one  county  alone  over  a 
thousand  bushels  of  seed  were  grown  in  1921.  The  second 
crop  generally  is  taken  for  seed  and  if  the  dry  weather  occurs 
during  the  blossoming  period  yields  of  from  two  to  four 
bushels  an  acre  have  been  obtained.  If  the  alfalfa  blooms 
sparsely  and  heavy  rains  occur  it  is  best  to  cut  the  crop  for 


FIG.  23. — HARVESTING  ALFALFA  SEED  IN  WISCONSIN 

Cutting-  the  second  crop  of  a thirty-acre  field  of  Grimm  alfalfa  on  the 
Cornfalfa  Farms  at  Waukesha,  Wisconsin,  for  seed.  Seed  growing, 
especially  of  the  hardy  varieties  is  proving  profitable.  Dry  weather 
which  cuts  down  yields  of  hay  generally  favors  seed  production. 

hay.  Fortunately  where  drought  prevents  a big  crop  of  hay. 
seed  production  is  generally  at  its  best.  The  seed  crop  is 
handled  and  hulled  exactly  like  red  clover.  Where  hardy 
strains  of  alfalfa  are  grown  the  production  and  use  of  home- 
grown seed  will  tend  to  reduce  winterkilling  losses. 


,letin  350 


ifb 

January,  1923 


Minerals 

for 

Livestock 


LEGUMES 

'^OWN  ON  LIME-RICH  SOILS 
^E  AN  EXCELLENT  SOURCE 
f - LIME  FOR  FARM  ANIMALS 


LIVESTOCK  NEED  MINERALS 

Supply  all  livestock  with  plenty  of  common  salt.  Page  3. 

Guard  against  goiter  and  hairless  pigs  by  using  potassium 
or  sodium  iodide  as  an  insurance  where  such  trouble  has  been 
experienced.  Pages  4-10. 

When  swine  get  no  dairy  by-products,  tankage,  or  green 

pasture,  feed  a mineral  supplement  furnishing  lime.  Steamed 
bone  meal,  wood  ashes,  ground  limestone,  or  rock  phosphate 
may  be  used  as  the  mineral  supplement.  One-half  to  two 
pounds  of  one  of  these  mineral  supplements  may  be  mixed 
with  each  100  pounds  of  ground  grain  or  other  concentrates, 
or  the  pigs  may  be  allowed  free  access  to  a simple  mineral 
mixture.  Where  dairy  by-products  are  used,  such  as  skimmed 
milk  and  buttermilk,  or  where  tankage  is  available  and  the 
rest  of  the  ration  properly  selected,  there  is  probably  no  need 
for  additional  lime.  If  whey  is  used,  a lime  supply  should  be 
added.  Pages  10-13. 

Add  a mineral  supplement  furnishing  lime  to  the  ration  in 

feeding  cows,  sheep,  and  horses  where  the  forage  fed  is 
grown  on  acid  soils  and  is  of  a non-legume  type.  Steamed 
bone  meal,  wood  ashes,  limestone,  or  rock  phosphate  may  be 
used  at  the  rate  of  3 to  4 pounds  to  100  pounds  of  grain. 

Even  where  the  roughage  consists  of  clover,  alfalfa,  or  soy- 
bean hay  the  use  of  any  of  these  minerals  will  do  no  harm 
and  may  perhaps  be  of  benefit.  If  they  are  not  completely 
absorbed  by  the  animal,  they  enrich  the  manure,  particularly 
when  bone  meal  or  rock  phosphate  are  used,  as  these  supply 
phosphorus.  Pages  15-16. 

Grains  carry  an  abundant  supply  of  phosphorus  and  wheat 
bran  and  middlings  are  especially  rich  in  this  element.  Phos- 
phorus added  as  sodium  phosphate  to  the  ration  of  a dairy 
cow  during  her  dry  period  has  been  found  to  increase  her 
milk  flow  the  following  lactation  period.  It  would  probably 
be  unwise  for  farmers  to  take  up  phosphate  feeding  until 
there  have  been  further  experiments  with  diverse  systems  of 
feeding.  Pages  17-19. 

Most  of  the  complex  salt  mixtures  now  on  sale  contain  use- 
less ingredients  for  livestock.  Since  the  extra  minerals 
needed  for  livestock  can  be  purchased  cheaper  as  simple  in- 
gredients and  mixed  by  the  farmer  himself,  it  is  uneconomical 
and  unwise  for  him  to  purchase  and  use  the  commercial  com- 
plex salt  mixtures.  Page  20. 


Minerals  for  Livestock 


E.  B.  Hart,  H.  Steenbock  and  F.  B.  Morrison 

MOST  FARMERS  know  that  livestock  require  some 
extra  mineral  matter  as  a part  of  the  daily  ration. 
The  kind  of  minerals  to  feed,  however,  and  the 
amounts  required  by  different  classes  of  stock  are  questions 
upon  which  there  is  a wide  difference  of  opinion.  This  diffi- 
culty is  probably  increased  because  of  the  fact  that  a number 
of  individuals  or  companies  in  Wisconsin  and  neighboring- 
states  have  various  mineral  mixtures  for  sale. 

The  importance  of  the  problem  and  the  need  for  an  ample 
supply  of  mineral  materials  cannot  be  overemphasized,  but  use 
should  be  made  only  of  those  extra  salts  that  are  absolutely 
essential.  Farmers  should  purchase  only  what  they  need  and 
not  buy  complex  mineral  mixtures  that  may  contain  needless 
ingredients. 


Livestock  Need  Salt 

All  farm  livestock  absolutely  need  a certain  amount  of 
common  salt  in  the  ration.  This  viewpoint  is  so  common  that 
it  would  be  difficult  to  find  many  farmers  who  were  not  using 
common  salt  for  their  livestock.  It  is  necessary  to  supply  salt 
because  the  crops  and  feeds  fed  to  livestock  are  very  low  in 
ffie  element  chlorine  and  it  is  this  that  common  salt  must  fur- 
nish the  body.  Common  salt  makes  hydrochloric  acid  in  the 
stomach  of  the  animal,  and  this  is  absolutely  essential  for 
proper  digestion. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  the  dairy  cow,  for  example, 
cannot  get  along  indefinitely  without  an  extra  amount  of  com- 
mon salt.  Dr.  S.  M.  Babcock  carried  on  trials  at  the  Wiscon- 
sin station  twenty  years  ago  and  showed  that  if  the  cow  was 
fed  a ration  that  did  not  have  added  salt,  finally  her  flow  of 
milk  would  diminish  and  her  general  condition  become  im- 
paired (see  Figs.  1 and  2).  The  evidence  is  clear  that  farmers 
must  feed  common  salt  to  all  livestock  unless  some  of  the 
feeds  they  are  purchasing  already  contain  an  extra  supply  of  it. 

Stock  may  be  allowed  free  access  to  salt,  they  may  be  fed 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  350 


FIG.  1 — EFFECT  OF  LEAVING  COMMON  SALT  OUT  OF  THE  RATION 

This  cow  appeared  in  this  condition  January  19,  1901,  after  having 
been  deprived  of  common  salt  for  9 months.  She  had  decreased  in  her 
milk  flow  markedly.  Note  the  roughness  of  her  hair  coat. 


salt  at  regular  intervals,  or  it  may  be  mixed  with  their  feed. 
The  most  common  plan  with  all  stock  except  dairy  cows  and 
poultry  is  to  allow  them  free  access  to  it. 

Dairy  cows  should  receive  a least  1 ounce  of  salt  a head 
daily.  A plan  followed  by  many  dairymen  is  to  mix  one-half 
pound  to  one  pound  of  salt  with  each  100  pounds  of  concen- 
trates, and  then  in  addition  to  provide  salt  so  the  cows  can 
have  access  to  it  and  take  what  they  wish.  In  the  case  of 
poultry,  salt  should  form  one-half  to  one  per  cent  of  their 
ration,  depending  on  whether  some  of  the  feeds  already  carry 
added  salt,  as  is  often  the  case  with  meat  scraps  and  tankage. 


Iodine  Prevents  Goiter  and  “Hairlessness” 


Especially  heavy  losses  of  new-born  pigs,  lambs,  kids,  calves, 
and  foals,  due  to  goiter  or  “hairlessness, ” have  been  experi- 
enced during  recent  years  in  certain  sections  of  the  northwest- 
ern states.  Such  trouble  has  been  most  prevalent  in  the  region 
extending  from  the  British  Northwest  through  eastern  Wash- 
ington, Montana,  the  Dakotas,  and  into  the  region  of  the  Great 
Lakes. 


Minerals  for  Livestock 


5 


FIG.  2 — THE  SAME  COW  AS  SHOWN  IN  FIG.  1,  AFTER  RECEIVING 
SALT  FOR  FIVE  MONTHS 

This  photograph  was  taken  on  June  21,  1901,  and  shows  the  restora- 
tion to  normal  condition  and  the  great  improvement  in  appearance 
brought  about  by  feeding  common  salt  for  5 months. 

The  young  so  affected  are  usually  born  dead  or  weak,  they 
are  frequently  nearly  hairless,  especially  in  the  case  of  pigs, 
lambs,  and  kids,  and  they  commonly  have  enlarged  necks.  It 
has  recently  been  found  that  these  conditions  are  due  to  the 
thyroid  gland  in  the  neck  being  diseased  and  enlarged,  just 
as  in  the  case  of  humans  affected  with  the  common  type  of 
goiter.  This  goitrous  swelling  presses  on  the  wind  pipe  and 
interferes  with  breathing,  often  resulting  in  death  from  suf- 
focation. Sometimes  goiter  develops  after  birth  especially  in 
calves. 

The  primary  cause  for  hairlessness  or  goiter  is  not  known  ; 
but  recent  experiments  at  this  Station  and  elsewhere  have 
shown  that  this  condition  can  be  prevented  by  administering 
iodine  to  the  pregnant  dams.  It  has  been  found  that  one 
of  the  functions  of  the  thyroid  gland  is  to  make  a certain 
iodine-containing  compound  which  has  important  uses  in 
the  body.  Near  the  sea  coast  humans  suffer  to  a much  less 
extent  from  goiter  than  in  certain  interior  districts,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  stock.  Apparently,  this  is  due  to  the  food 
plants  in  these  interior  districts  being  lower  in  iodine  than 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  350 


FIG.  3— A GROUP  OF  HAIRLESS  PIGS 

Hairless  pigs  are  dead  pigs.  The  losses  from  the  production  of  hair- 
less pigs  in  Wisconsin  have  been  considerable,  and  such  a loss  can  be 
avoided  by  the  use  of  potassium  iodide. 

those  grown  near  the  sea  coast.  (The  water  of  the  ocean 
contains  appreciable  amounts  of  iodine.) 

The  forms  of  iodine  used  in  treating  animals  to  prevent 
goiter  are  potassium  iodide  and  sodium  iodide,  whichever  is 
the  cheaper  of  these  two  forms  of  iod>ine. 

Just  how  large  a dosage  of  iodine  is  necessary  to  prevent 
goiter  or  hairlessness  has  not  yet  been  definitely  determined. 
However,  experiments  have  shown  that  a daily  dose  of  2 grains 


FIG.  4— A MIXED  LITTER  OF  HAIRED  AND  HAIRLESS  PIGS 

A sow  may  produce  a litter  in  which  there  are  both  haired  and  hair- 
less pigs.  The  hairless  ones  are  dead,  while  those  with  hair  will  show 
life  and  may  be  raised.  This  sow  grew  up  on  a ration  of  30  parts  of 
corn,  30  of  oats,  30  of  middlings,  8 of  oil  meal,  and  1 of  tankage.  She 
was  under  strictly  confined  conditions,  but  appeared  normal  in  every 
other  respect  except  in  reproduction. 


PIG.  5.- 


-RAISING  THE  GILT  SO  AS  TO  HELP  IN  THE  PREVENTION 
OF  HAIRLESS  PIGS 


It  is  possible  that  hairless  pig1  production  is  often  the  result  of  im- 
proper feeding  of  young  sows,  such  as  giving  them  too  high  protein 
feeds  and  too  little  roughage  in  the  ration.  This  sow  was  reared  on  a 
ration  of  75  parts  of  corn  and  25  parts  of  alfalfa.  While  a sow  receiving 
such  a ration  will  grow  at  a slower  rate  than  normal,  yet  the  litters  have 
always  been  haired  and  strong  where  sows  have  been  reared  on  rations 
containing  15  to  25  per  cent  of  roughage  such  as  alfalfa. 


Minerals  for  Livestock  7 

tof  potassium  or  sodium  iodide  throughout  the  gestation  period 
will  prevent  the  trouble.  This  same  daily  dose  is  sufficient  for 
sows,  ewes,  cows,  or  mares.  Cows  and  mares  will  receive  dur- 
ing their  gestation  period  a total  quantity  of  somewhat  over 
one  ounce  of  the  compound,  whille  ewes  and  sows  will  receive 
approximately  one-half  ounce,  as  their  gestation  periods  are 
much  shorter.  It  is  entirely  possible  that  a smaller  daily  dose 
would  be  sufficient  to  prevent  the  trouble,  or  else  treatment 
during  only  the  latter  part  of  the  gestation  period.  However, 
further  experiments  are  necessary  to  decide  the  point. 

It  is  rather  difficult  to  mix  the  dry  potassium  or  sodium 
iodide  with  the  feed,  as  the  quantity  of  the  substance  neces- 
sary is  so  small.  Therefore,  Dr.  J.  W.  Kalkus  of  the  Wash- 
ington Experiment  Station  recommends  that  the  potassium 
iodide  be  dissolved  in  water  in  the  proportion  of  one  ounce  of 
the  substance  to  a gallon  of  water.  One  tablespoonful  of  such 
a solution  will  contain  approximately  two  grains  of  the  com- 
pound and  is,  therefore,  a daily  dose.  For  horses  or  cows 
fed  in  the  stable,  it  can  be  conveniently  sprinkled  on  the  feed 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  350 


each  day.  In  the  case  of  sows,  the  solution  can  be  mixed  with 
the  feed,  swill,  or  water,  adding  one  tablespoonful  for  each 
animal  in  the  pen. 

If  more  convenient,  about  320  grains  (two-thirds  ounce,  troy 
weight)  of  the  dry  potassium  or  sodium  iodide  may  be  mixed 
thoroughly  in  each  1,000  pounds  of  the  concentrate  mixture 
fed  the  pregnant  sows  or  other  pregnant  animals ; for  stock  on 
pasture  the  dry  potassium  iodide  may  be  mixed  with  the  stock 
salt.  In  this  case  it  will  be  necessary  to  estimate  the  amount 


FIG.  6— A CORRECTION  WITH  POTASSIUM  IODIDE 

This  sow  had  already  developed  goiter  when  the  experiments  with 
her  were  begun  and  had  produced  hairless  pigs  upon  a ration  of  33 
parts  of  corn,  33  of  oats,  and  33  of  alfalfa.  When  in  the  next  gestation 
period  10  grams  of  potassium  iodide  per  100  pounds  of  the  same  feed 
were  fed  a normal  haired  litter  of  young  was  produced. 

of  salt  the  animals  are  consuming  a head  daily,  and  then  mix 
sufficient  of  the  potassium  iodide  with  the  salt  so  that  they  will 
get  about  two  grains  a day. 

Calves  affected  with  “big  neck”  or  goiter  may  recover  with- 
out medical  treatment,  but  it  is  best  to  treat  them  for  this 
trouble.  Field  experiments  by  Dr.  F.  B.  Hadley  of  the  Veteri- 
nary Science  department  show  that  a cure  may  be  affected  by 


Minerals  for  Livestock 


9 


giving  them  two  grains  of  potassium  iodide  a day  for  three  or 
four  weeks. 

Overdoses  of  iodine  or  of  potassium  or  sodium  iodide  have 
poisonous  effects,  first  shown  by  watering  of  the  eyes,  slobber- 
ing at  the  mouth  and  running  at  the  nose. 

On  one  of  the  large  stock  farms  in  Wisconsin,  tablets  con- 
taining five  grains  of  potassium  iodide  are  placed  every  other 
day  in  the  water  buckets  of  the  dairy  herd  test  barn.  These 
tablets  are  used  for  the  sixty  days  preceding  freshening. 
There  has  been  no  difficulty  with  goiter  since  this  practice 
was  begun,  .although  the  stock  did  suffer  from  goiter  before 
potassium  iodide  was  used. 


FIG.  7— A NEW  BORN  LAMB  SHOWING  GOITER  AND  VERY  THIN 

WOOL 

The  great  .success  of  Dr.  David  Marine  in  reducing  goiter 
in  school  children  at  Akron,  Ohio,  by  the  systematic  use  of 
sodium  iodide  is  a lesson  to  livestock  men.  By  giving  the 
children  from  the  age  of  ten  to  seventeen,  two  grams  of  sodium 
iodide  over  a ten-day  period,  twice  a year,  he  prevented  goiter 
in  practically  all  these  children.  The  same  quantity  of  potas- 
sium iodide  could  also  be  used.  This  public  health  measure  in 
human  nutrition  should  become  a common  measure  of  insur- 
ance against  loss  from  goiter  in  the  livestock  industry. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  350 


FIG.  8— A NEW  BORN  CALF  SHOWING  GOITER 

This  could  have  been  prevented  by  feeding-  the  mother  potassium 
iodide.  Calves  in  early  life  suffering  from  goiter  can  often  be  helped 
by  painting  the  neck^with  tincture  of  iodine,  or  by  giving  potassium 
iodide. 

In  Wisconsin  there  is  much  less  difficulty  from  goiter  or 
hairlessness  than  in  such  districts  as  eastern  Washington  or 
Montana.  Trouble  is  most  apt  to  be  experienced  with  hair- 
lessness in  new-born  pigs  after  a severe  winter  with  heavy 
snow  fall.  Apparently,  the  danger  of  this  trouble  is  much  less 
if  sows,  during  the  winter,  are  fed  well-balanced  rations,  con- 
taining neither  too  much  nor  too  little  protein,  and  if  they 
eat  plenty  of  legume  hay  and  are  forced  to  take  considerable 
exercise.  Some  Wisconsin  farmers  and  breeders  have  never 
had  trouble  from  hairlessness  or  goiter  in  their  livestock,  while 
others  have  experienced  severe  losses  in  certain  years.  Each 
farmer  must  decide  for  himself  whether  it  seems  advisable  for 
him  to  go  to  the  expense  of  administering  iodine  to  pregnant 
sows,  cows,  etc.  It  is  certainly  advisable  to  use  this  treatment 
on  farms  where  the  conditions  in  question  have  occurred. 

Should  Lime  Be  Added  to  the  Ration? 

This  question  cannot  be  so  definitely  answered  as  in  the 
case  of  common  salt  or  of  iodine.  Whether  extra  lime  should 
be  added  to  the  livestock  ration  depends  upon  what  is  fed. 


Minerals  for  Livestock 


11 


Lime  and  phosphorus  are  widely  used  by  all  animals  in  build- 
ing bone  and  by  the  dairy  cow  in  producing  milk.  Compound- 
ing of  rations  from  only  seeds  or  seed  by-products,  will  always 
result  in  a low-lime  feed.  For  example,  a mixture  of  corn 
meal,  ground  oats,  wheat  bran  or  middlings  and  oil  meal 
would  be  too  low  in  lime  for  the  maximum  growth  of  a pig. 
With  such  a ration  a certain  amount  of  lime  woul^d  have  to  be 
added  either  in  the  form  of  steamed  bone  meal,  wood  ashes, 
ground  lime  stone,  or  floats  (rock  phosphate).  These  mate- 
rials in  thie  proportion  of  one-half  to  two  pounds,  to  100 
pounds  of  grain  mixture,  depending  on  the  supplement  used, 
would  provide  ample  lime. 

When  swine  are  fed  shelled  corn  or  ear  corn,  the  mineral 
supplement  can  not  be  mixed  with  the  feed,  but  should  be  fed 
separately  in  a suitable  covered  box  or  self-feeder.  Such 
mineral  supplements  as  ground  limestone,  wood  ashes,  ground 
rock  phosphate,  and  bone  meal,  are  not  very  palatable  to  pigs, 
and  hence  they  may  not  eat  enough  of  the  supplement  to  have 
the  desired  effect.  To  increase  the  palatability  of  the  mineral 
supplement,  salt  may  be  mixed  with  it,  or  else  a small  pro- 


FIG.  9— RICKETS  IN  A GROWING  PIG 


This  pig-  received  a ration  of  white  corn  and  skimmed  milk  and  de- 
veloped this  condition  after  7 weeks  confinement  to  the  ration.  Rickets 

is  not  alone  due  to  a low  supply  of  lime  or  of  phosphorus  in  the  diet, 

because  this  ration  carries  a good  supply  of  both  these  materials.  In 
this  case  it  was  due  to  a lack  of  the  vitamine  that  assists  calcium 

assimilation.  Dried  alfalfa  or  dried  clover  would  correct  it.  Cod  liver 

oil  would  do  the  same  thing. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  350 


portion  of  tankage  or  meat  meal  may  be  mixed  with  the  min- 
eral supplement. 

For  feeding  to  swine  with  ear  corn  or  shelled  corn  and 
proper  protein-rich  supplements  any  one  of  the  following  mix- 
tures may  be  used.  There  is  at  the  present  time  no  definite 
information  as  to  just  which  one  of  these  mineral  mixtures  will 
give  the  best  results. 

(1)  Equal  parts  by  weight  of  ground  limestone  and  salt; 
or  equal  parts  wood  ashes  and  salt.  These  supply  calcium  but 
no  appreciable  amount  of  phosphorus. 

(2)  Equal  parts  of  ground  limestone,  salt,  and  either  bone 
meal  or  ground  rock  phosphate.  This  furnishes  both  calcium 
and  phosphorus. 

(3)  Nine  parts  of  either  bone  meal  or  ground  rock  phosphate 
and  one  part  tankage  for  flavoring.  These  mixtures  also  fur- 
nish both  calcium  and  phosphorus. 

In  supplementing  with  limestone  (calcium  carbonate)  in 
animal  feeding  only  high  grade  limestone  should  be  used  and 
not  the  magnesian  limestone  (calcium-magnesium  carbonate). 


FIG.  10— THE  SAME  PIG  SHOWN  IN  FIG.  9 

Recovery  from  rickets  was  produced  by  the  daily  administration  of 
10  c.c.  of  cod  liver  oil.  Twenty-five  (25)  per  cent  of  alfalfa  or  possibly 
less  in  the  ration  would  have  accomplished  the  same  thing.  Green 
forage  will  also  prevent  it. 


Minerals  for  Livestock 


13 


Such  grain  mixtures  as  mentioned  above,  however,  do  not 
produce  normal  growth ; and  the  most  successful  hog  raisers 
use  either  skimmed  milk,  whey,  or  tankage  to  supplement  these 
grain  mixtures.  While  soybeans,  or  certain  other  vegetable 
sources  of  protein  may  supplement  corn  successfully  in  hog 
raising,  nevertheless  it  will  always  be  necessary  to  add  min- 
erals, particularly  lime,  to  rations  made  up  exclusively  of  grain 
and  seed  by-products.  Where  plenty  of  skimmed  milk  or  tank- 
age is  fed  to  balance  the  ration,  there  is  probably  no  advan- 
tage from  adding  a mineral  supplement  to  furnish  additional 
lime,  for  both  tankage  and  skimmed  milk  are  rich  in  lime. 
However,  growing  pigs  fed  white  corn  and  skimmed  milk  in 
dry  lot,  without  any  pasture,  often  develop  rickets,  a serious 
disease  of  the  bones,  which  may  cause  paralysis  and  even 
death.  This  is  not  due  to  a lack  of  lime,  but  to  the  lack  of  a 
vitamine  necessary  for  the  assimilation  of  lime.  If  the  mixture 
fed  is  yellow  corn  and  skimmed  milk,  there  is  much  less  dan- 
ger of  rickets,  because  the  yellow  corn  carries  some  of  this 
needed  vitamine. 


FIG.  11— RESULT  OF  FEEDING  A RATION  TOO  LOW  IN  MINERALS 

This  cow  received  a ration  of  ground  oats  and  oat  straw  during  her 
entire  gestation  period.  A premature  and  weak  calf  was  produced. 
This  result  invariably  follows  from  the  continued  use  of  roughage  poor 
in  mineral  content,  particularly  lime. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  350 


The  mere  supply  of  calcium  (lime)  or  phosphorus  in  the 
ration  is  not  enough  to  prevent  rickets,  for  bone  formation  re- 
quires not  only  an  ample  supply  of  lime  and  an  ample  supply 
of  phosphorus,  but  also  a vitamine  that  assists  in  assimilating 
calcium  and  phosphorus.  Without  the  vitamine  only  a limited 
use  is  made  of  the  calcium  and  phosphorus  in  the  ration. 

Supplementing  a white-corn-skimmed-milk  ration  with  ground 
alfalfa  (5  to  10  per  cent)  will  prevent  rickets  in  swine. 
Tankage  always  carries  a generous  supply  of  bone  meal  and 
where  it  is  used  to  supplement  the  grains,  addition  of  extra 
amounts  of  lime  materials  is  unnecessary.  Where  whey  forms 
the  supplement  in  winter  feeding,  it  is  wise  to  use  an  extra 
supply  of  lime.  On  the  other  hand,  where  grain  mixtures  and 
green  forage  are  fed,  such  as  clover,  alfalfa,  rape  and  pasture, 
there  is  no  need  whatever  of  an  extra  supply  of  lime. 


FIG.  12— EFFECT  OF  ADDING  MINERALS  TO  THE  OAT  PLANT 

RATION 

This  cow  received  a ration  of  70  parts  of  ground  oats,  7 parts  of  oat 
straw  and  2 pounds  of  wood  ashes  per  100  pounds  of  grain.  A fairly 
successful  reproduction  resulted,  although  the  calf  was  not  as  strong 
as  one  produced  on  a natural  roughage  like  clover  or  alfalfa  hay. 


Minerals  for  Livestock 


15 


Clover  and  Alfalfa  Furnish  Lime 

Since  such  animals  as  cows,  sheep,  and  horses  get  minerals, 
particularly  lime,  almost  wholly  from  roughage,  its  mineral 
content  is  important.  It  has  been  demonstrated  very  clearly 
at  this  station  that  a cow  receiving  a dry  roughage  low  in  lime 
content  and  supplemented  with  grains,  will  usually  abort  her 
calf.  This  means  not  only  loss  of  the  calf,  but  also  lowered 
milk  production.  The  same  thing  has  happened  time  and 
time  again  when  wheat  or  oat  straw  was  fed,  as  these  are 
generally  low  in  lime.  On  the  other  hand,  where  to  such  a 
ration  a certain  amount  of  lime  salts  was  added,  there  was 


FIG.  13 — EFFECT  OF  ALFALFA  HAY  ON  REPRODUCTION 

This  cow  received  a ration  consisting-  of  7 parts  of  whole  oats,  4 parts 
of  oat  straw  and  3 parts  of  alfalfa.  She  produced  a strong  eighty-four 
(84)  pound  calf.  The  introduction  of  alfalfa  into  the  ration  brought  in 
more  lime  and  more  of  certain  vitamines. 


marked  improvement  in  the  offspring,  but  they  were  not  as 
thrifty  as  those  produced  when  the  roughage  was  a natural 
one  rich  in  lime,  such  as  clover  or  alfalfa  hay.  The  stems  and 
leaves  of  forage  plants  are  variable  in  lime  content,  dependent 
upon  the  soil  supply.  If  the  soil  is  acid  and  low  in  lime,  then 
plants,  or  parts  of  plants,  like  timothy  hay,  bluegrass,  corn 
stover,  or  corn  fodder,  will  have  a relatively  small  amount  of 
lime.  Even  red  clover  grown  on  an  acid  soil  will  be  lower  in 
lime  than  if  grown  upon  a lime-rich  soil ; but  nevertheless  the 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  350 


lime  content  of  a legume  plant,  such  as  clover  or  alfalfa,  will 
always  be  relatively  high.  Its  minimum  is  high  and  if  it  can- 
not get  the  minimum,  it  ceases  to  grow. 

Low  Lime  Roughages  Cause  Weak  Calves 

The  relation  of  soil  to  plants  is  an  important  one.  Corn 
stover  grown  on  acid  soils  in  this  state  has  as  low  a lime 
content  as  .31  per  cent.  The  same  is  true  of  blue  grass  or 
timothy  hay.  If  these  are  the  sole  roughage  of  a cow  during 
the  entire  gestation  period,  particularly  if  she  is  milking,  weak 
offspring  will  surely  result.  Green  pasture  for  a number  of 
months  in  the  year  will  help  save  the  situation,  however.  This 
is  important  because  animals  will  get  along  on  a lower  per- 
centage of  lime  in  their  ration  when  they  are  given  fresh,  green 
feeds,  like  pasture,  than  when  it  is  dry;  and  they  will  also  use 
or  assimilate  added  calcium  salts  with  greater  efficiency  on 
green  forage  than  on  dried  hays.  This  is  because  green  mate- 
rials contain  more  of  the  vitamine  that  assists  in  calcium 
assimilation  than  do  the  dried  materials.  The  method  of  dry- 
ing will  also  affect  the  amount  of  this  vitamine  left  in  the  mate- 
rial. Drying  grasses  under  caps  preserves  the  vitamine  much 
better  than  drying  in  the  windrow  with  long  exposure  to  sun- 
light. 

The  same  thing  is  probably  true  of  corn  fodder  and  corn 
silage.  Silage  from  field  and  sun-dried  mature  plants  will  not 
be  as  effective  in  making  “available”  the  lime  in  the  ration  as 
will  silage  from  green  plants. 

The  fact  that  roughages  low  in  lime  may  lead  to  premature 
and  weak  calves  and  that  adding  lime  to  the  ration  is  helpful, 
has  no  doubt  given  rise  to  the  idea  that  the  Wisconsin  Station 
has  a cure  for  contagious  abortion.  This  emphatically  is  not 
true.  A cow  may  be  getting  the  very  best  roughage  grown, 
rich  in  lifne,  such  as  alfalfa  or  clover,  and  yet  when  she 
becomes  infected  with  the  germs  of  contagious  abortion,  she  is 
quite  likely  to  abort  or  to  drop  her  calf  prematurely. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  question  may  be  raised  as  to  how 
much  of  the  weak  offspring  produced  by  our  dairy  stock  is 
due  to  the  feeding  of  forage  low  in  lime  and  how  much  is  due 
to  infection.  At  present  this  question  cannot  be  conclusively 
answered.  However,  it  is  certain  that  both  factors  play  a role. 
There  is  no  experimental  evidence  that  contagious  abortion  or 


Minerals  for  Livestock 


17 


FIG.  14—4  REPRODUCTION  ON  CLOVER  HAY 

This  cow  received  a ration  of  7 parts  of  ground  oats  and  7 parts  of 
clover  hay.  She  produced  a strong,  vigorous  calf.  The  clover  hay,  like 
the  alfalfa  hay,  carried  more  minerals  in  the  ration,  particularlv  lime. 


sterility  of  cattle  can  be  cured  by  the  use  of  mineral  mixtures 
of  any  kind  but  whether  contagious  abortion  or  sterility  could 
not  in  part  be  eradicated  if  farmers  used  better  roughages 
such  as  clover  and  alfalfa  hay  is  an  open  question. 

The  best  advice  in  the  present  state  of  knowledge  is  to  grow 
and  feed  clover,  alfalfa  and  soybeari  hay  whenever  it  is  at  all 
possible.  If  you  are  forced  to  use  poor  hays  or  corn  stover 
grown  on  acid  soils  and  you  have  had  losses  in  previous  years 
from  the  premature  birth  of  calves,  add  three  to  four  pounds 
of  limestone,  steamed  bone  meal,  wood  ashes  or  floats  (rock 
phosphate)  to  100  pounds  of  grain  for  such  livestock.  This 
cannot  possibly  do  any  harm  and  may  do  a great  deal  of 
good.  If  you  are  a successful  grower  of  clover,  alfalfa,  or  soy- 
bean hay  and  have  these  for  your  dairy  stock,  then  the  need 
for  adding  lime  carriers  to  the  ration  is  less  than  with  the 
poorer  roughage.  But  even  with  legume  hay  available  in  win- 
ter feeding  or  when  cows  are  not  on  pasture,  the  addition  of 
lime  carriers  does  no  harm ; and  if  they  carry  phosphorus,  as 
do  steamed  bone  meal  or  rock  phosphate,  the  manure  is  en- 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  350 


PIG.  15— WHAT  MARSH  HAY  GROWN  ON  AN  ALKALINE  SOIL 

WILL  DO 

This  cow  received  a ration  of  7 parts  of  whole  oats  and  7 parts  of 
marsh  hay,  which  was  grown  on  a soil  rich  in  lime.  This  hay  carried 
plenty  of  minerals,  and  the  result  was  a strong,  vigorous  calf. 


riched  by  their  use.  It  is  possible  that  the  extended  use  of 
legumes  plus  lime  carriers  may  produce  unusually  large-boned 
young  with  greater  difficulties  at  birth.  This  should  not  cause 
worry,  however,  until  experience  shows  it  to  be  true. 


TABLE  I.— POUNDS  OF  LIME  IN  1,000  POUNDS  (AIR  DRIED 
MATERIAL) 


Wheat  straw 
Corn  stover 
Timothy  hay 
Blue  grass  . 
Clover  hay  . 
Soybean  hay 
Alfalfa  hay  . 


2-  3 pounds 

3-  6 

3-  5 

4-  5 
16-18 

17- 18 

18- 20 


Hens  Need  Oyster  Shells 

In  feeding  chickens  an  extra  source  of  lime  other  than  the 
feed  should  always  be  given.  Producing  eggs  is  such  a heavy 
draft  upon  the  hen  for  lime  that  successful  poultry  raising 
demands  the  use  of  extra  lime.  Experiments  conducted  at  the 
Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  proved  that  the  best  form  of 
lime  to  feed  chickens  is  oyster  shells,  with  clam  shells  a close 


Minerals  for  Livestock 


19 


FIG.  16— LAYING  HENS  SHOULD  RECEIVE  EXTRA  LIME 

Hens  on  low  lime  rations  do  not  lay  soft  shelled  eggs,  but  cut  off  egg 
production  and  fail  to  lay  to  capacity.  This  station  has  found  oyster 
shells  or  clam  shells  the  best  carriers  of  lime  for  laying  hens.  They  are 
superior  to  bone  meal  or  lime  rock. 

second.  Why  one  source  of  lime  should  be  superior  to  another 
(oyster  shells  over  ground  limestone)  is  not  known,  but  it  has 
been  shown  that  oyster  shells  are  a superior  source  of  lime  for 
laying  hens. 

Table  II  gives  the  egg  production  of  groups  of  twelve 
pullets  kept  under  the  same  conditions  and  on  a ration  low 
in  lime,  but  having  free  access  to  their  respective  grit  mate- 
rials. 

TABLE  II.— EGG  PRODUCTION 


Grit  material  First  test  Second  test  Third  test 

Oyster  shell  1,606  eggs  557  eggs  976  eggs 

Clam  shell 916  *' 

Dry  bone  1,033  “ 507  “ 

Lime  rock  948  “ 411  “ 879 

Quartz  577  “ 221  “ 325  “ 


Extra  Phosphorus  in  the  Ration 

Grains  are  abundant  sources  of  phosphorus,  especially  such 
by-products  as  wheat  bran  and  wheat  middlings.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  for  all  classes  of  livestock  receiving  grains,  espe- 
cially wheat  bran  and  middlings,  the  need  for  extra  phosphorus 
would  not  warrant  its  purchase.  Recent  experiments,  how- 
ever, by  Dr.  E.  B.  Meigs  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  have  shown  that  by  giving  cows  a daily  allow- 
ance of  one-half  pound  of  sodium  phosphate,  during  their  dry 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  350 


period,  greatly  increased  milk  production  in  the  following 
lactation  period.  These  results  are  new  and  extremely 
interesting,  but  it  is  not  advisable  that  Wisconsin  dairymen 
take  up  the  practice  until  further  tests  have  been  made  under 
different  systems  of  feeding.  It  is  possible  that  feeding  amply 
of  wheat  bran  during  the  dry  period  of  dairy  cattle  would  fill 
the  need  quite  as  well  as  sodium  phosphate,  and  for  the  present 
farmers  should  wait  for  more  definite  information. 

Why  Buy  Commercial  Mineral  Mixtures? 

Complex  salt  mixtures  should  not  be  purchased  by  farmers. 
For  example,  there  is  on  the  market  a product  widely  adver- 
tised for  dairy  cows  which  consists  of  calcium  phosphate, 
sodium  chloride  (common  salt),  potassium  iodide,  magnesium 
sulphate  (Epsom  salts),  sodium  sulphate  (Glauber’s  salts), 
ferrous  sulphate  (Copperas),  and  sulphur.  Why  should 
sodium  sulphate,  sulphur,  iron  sulphate,  or  magnesium  sul- 
phate be  added  to  a dairy  cow’s  ration?  If  the  cow  is  getting 
good  clover  or  alfalfa  hay  in  addition  to  her  grains  and  silage, 
the  only  thing  she  needs  in  addition  is  some  common  salt,  pos- 
sibly some  bone  meal  or  wood  ashes,  and,  if  necessary,  potas- 
sium or  sodium  iodide  to  prevent  goiter.  There  is  absolutely 
no  need  to  spend  money  for  any  other  minerals.  “High  test” 
cows  are  often  fed  charcoal.  This,  again,  seems  a perfectly 
needless  expense,  for  there  is  no  scientific  information  that 
justifies  it. 

A mineral  mixture  widely  advertised  for  swine  contains  the 
same  ingredients  as  the  mineral  dairy  cow  ration  just  men- 
tioned, plus  charcoal.  If  swine  need  some  charcoal  in  winter 
feeding,  then  buy  charcoal  only  and  not  all  the  other  salts  in 
such  a mixture.  But  where  hogs  can  go  to  a rack  of  clover 
or  alfalfa  hay,  no  charcoal  is  needed. 

Another  mineral  mixture  consisting  of  common  salt,  a low 
grade  rock  phosphate,  and  some  calcium  carbonate,  or  ground 
limestone  is  also  sold.  This  is  sold  at  too  high  a price  for  its 
actual  cost  or  value. 

There  are  other  complex  mineral  mixtures  on  the  market, 
but  none  of  them  have  any  merit  whatever  over  the  unmixed, 
simple  ingredients  that  livestock  need.  There  is  no  educa- 
tional value  in  using  an  unknown  mixture.  To  purchase  intel- 
ligently the  salts  needed  leads  in  many  cases  to  a better  under- 


Minerals  for  Livestock 


21 


standing  of  the  problems  of  nutrition  and  to  a well  grounded 
knowledge  of  agricultural  science.  There  is  nothing  mysteri- 
ous in  these  salt  mixtures.  The  materials  of  which  they  are 
made  can  always  be  bought  cheaper  separately  than  in  the 
complex  mixtures  now  on  sale.  Such  carriers  of  phosphorus 
and  calcium  that  may  be  needed  under  special  conditions  can 
always  be  bought  cheaper  in  steamed  bone  meal,  wood  ashes, 
ground  limestone,  or  rock  phosphate  than  in  these  mixtures. 

Some  of  the  commercial  mineral  mixtures  on  the  market  for 
swine  may  help  to  rid  pigs  of  worms,  but  a specific  and  reliable 
worm  remedy  is  preferable. 

Combinations  including  santonin  have  been  widely  used 
with  good  results  as  worm  remedies,  but  this  drug  is  now  high 
in  price,  and  oil  of  chenopodium  (American  wormseed)  is 
being  commonly  used  in  place  of  it.  Castor  oil  should  be 
given  along  with  the  oil  of  chenopodium  as  a physic.  The  dose 
for  a 50-pound  pig  is  2cc.  of  oil  of  chenopodium  thoroughly 
mixed  with  15  cc.  of  castor  oil.  Proportionate  amounts  should 
be  used  for  a large  or  a smaller  pig.  This  worm  remedy  is  best 
given  as  a drench  after  withholding  feed  for  18  to  24  hours. 
The  dose  should  be  repeated  after  a week  or  ten  days. 

The  following  santonin  mixture  is  an  excellent  worm  rem- 
edy, though  rather  expensive:  Santonin,  2}4  grains;  calomel, 
2 y2  grains ; areca  nut,  1 dram,  and  sodium  bicarbonate,  1 dram. 
This  is  a dose  for  a 50-pound  pig.  Proportionately  more  or 
less  should  be  used  for  pigs  of  other  weights.  This  remedy 
may  be  given  mixed  with  a thin  slop,  if  the  pigs  are  accustomed 
to  slop.  In  this  case  be  sure  that  each  pig  gets  its  share. 
It  also  may  be  given  in  a gelatin  capsule. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  of  the  University 
H.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 
F.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Sta- 
tion 


J.  A.  James,  Asst.  Dean 

K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Exten 

sion  Service 


W.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 
S.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 


A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 

F.  A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 
R.  A.  Brink,  Genetics 

L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

E.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 
J.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 
J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 

E.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of 
Dairy  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 
E.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

W.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
J.  G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  J.  Geib,  Soils 
E.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

F.  B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterin- 

ary Science 

J.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry 
Husbandry 

E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 

E.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Bacteriology 

C.  S.  Hean,  Librarian 

B.  H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Economics 

A.  W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of 

Agr.  Journalism 

R.  S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Ani- 

mal Husbandry 

J.  A.  James,  in  charge  of  Agr.  Edu- 
cation 

J.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

E.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  En- 

gineering 

L.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Pa- 
thology 

G.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Kolb,  Agr.  Economics 

B.  D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

Mable  C.  Little,  Inst.  Administration 
T.  Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 
Abby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home 
Economics 

P.  E.  McNall,  Agr.  Economics 
J.  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 
J.  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticul- 
ture 

R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

F.  L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 
W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

D.  H.  Reid,  Poultry  Husbandry 
Griffith  Richards,  Soils 

R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 

E.  S.  Savage,  Animal  Husbandry 

H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 

A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 


W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 
J.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic 
Entomology 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy  and  Soils 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 


A.  R.  Albert,  Soils 
H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 
Freda  M.  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacte- 
riology 

E.  A.  Baird,  Plant  Pathology 
W.  H.  Ebling,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
N.  S.  Fish,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
A.  A.  Granovsky,  Economic  Ento- 
mology 

A.  J.  Haas,  Executive  Secretary 
R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
Elsie  Hess,  Home  Economics 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 
C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 
L.  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 
Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  Journalism 
Samuel  Lepkovsicy,  Agr.  Chemistry 
V.  G.  Milum,  Economic  Entomology 
E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
G.  T.  Nightingale,  Horticulture 
A.  J.  Riicer,  Plant  Pathology 
Marianna  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 
L.  C.  Thomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 
C.  E.  Walsh,  Agr.  Engineering 


J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  M.  Bethke,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Archie  Black,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Dorothy  Bradbury,  Horticulture 
Lloyd  Burkey,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
Conrad  Elveiijem,  Agr.  Chemistry 
R.  E.  Frost,  Agr.  Journalism 
O.  H.  Gerhardt,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Gerald  Heebink,  Animal  Husbandry 
H.  S.  Irwin,  Agr.  Economics 
W.  C.  Jensen,  Agr.  Economics 
O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

C.  C.  Lindegren,  Plant  Pathology 
Edgar  Martin,  Animal  Husbandry 

A.  J.  Moyer,  Genetics 

N.  T.  Nelson,  Agronomy 

O.  .T.  Noer,  Soils 

G.  A.  Palmer,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  H.  Pierre,  Soils 
E.  Rankin,  Agr.  Chemistry 
T.  E.  Rawlins,  Horticulture 
E.  G.  Schmidt,  Agr.  Chemistry 
W.  P.  Smith,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

M.  E.  Smith,  Inst.  Administration 

D.  G.  Steele,  Genetics 
Henry  Stevens,  Genetics 

Frances  W.  Streets,  Plant  Pathology 
R.  B.  Streets,  Plant  Pathology 
Ferne  E.  Taylor,  Inst.  Administration 
M.  N.  Walker,  Plant  Pathology 

B.  L.  Warwick,  Veterinary  Science 
V.  R.  Wurtz,  Agr.  Economics 

J.  J.  Yoke,  Genetics 


December,  1922 


***  * *' % 


DIGEST 


State  laws  provide  a means  by  which  neighbors  may  cooperate  in 
the  construction  and  maintenance  of  an  outlet  drain  serving  a com- 
munity. Without  such  outlets  many  farm  drains  would  be  valueless. 
Big  tile  are  commonly  used  in  place  of  open  ditches.  Pages  3-8 

The  better  areas  are  due  for  improvement  first.  Among  these  are 

the  low  flat  areas  now  cultivated,  wild  hay  marshes  adjacent  to  culti- 
vated land,  and  timbered  swamps  where  drainage  is  necessary  to  aid 
the  construction  of  roads.  A well  financed  colonization  policy  is  es- 
sential to  the  success  of  the  drainage  of  large  marshes  in  sparsely 
settled  localities.  Pages  9-13 

A majority  of  the  land  owners  or  the  owners  of  half  the  land  must 
petition  the  court  to  start  a project.  The  court  hears  the  merits  or 
demerits  of  the  proposition  and  may  order  the  construction  of  the 
drains  to  proceed  under  the  direction  of  a board  and  its  engineer. 

Pages  13-18 

The  board  assesses  the  cost  on  the  basis  of  benefits.  Outlet  drains 
cost  between  $5  and  $30  an  acre.  The  average  cost  has  been  about  $7. 
Distance  from  the  outlet,  the  slope  of  the  land  and  the  kind  of  drains 
are  the  big  factors  in  benefits.  Damages  are  allowed  where  damage 
is  done.  Bonds  may  be  sold  to  distribute  the  payment  of  drainage 
taxes  over  a period  of  20  years  if  the  land  owners  desire  it. 

Pages  19-33 

An  index  of  the  drainage  laws,  forms  of  petitions,  reports,  specifica- 
tions and  contract  are  given  in  the  appendix.  Pages  34-55 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 

E.  R.  Jones  and  O.  R.  Zeasman 

WHY  is  there  a marsh  along  the  creek  on  so  many 
Wisconsin  farms?  It  is  because  the  creeks  are  wind- 
ing, sluggish,  and  full  of  stones  or  logs  that  retard  the 
flow  of  water.  The  adjacent  lands  are  too  wet  for  profitable 
cultivation  or  good  pasture.  They  will  remain  so  until  the 
owners  get  together  and  construct  an  outlet  drain,  perhaps 
several  miles  long. 

Before  deciding  the  extent  and  manner  in  which  marsh 
lands  are  to  be  drained  it  is  well  to  consider  how  desirable 
they  are  for  farming  or  road-making.  It  is  better  to  postpone 
the  organization  of  a drainage  project  for  a few  years  than  to 
install  it  prematurely. 

Successful  drainage  demands  that  the  outlet  drains  be  deep 
enough ; that  the  lateral  drains  be  sufficiently  frequent  to 
furnish  adequate  under  drainage ; and  that  farmers  know  how 
to  use  such  lands  correctly. 


FIG.  1. — GIVE  THE  TILE  AN  OUTLET 

Two  lengths  of  glazed  sewer  pipe  with  cemented  joints  supported 
by  stone  make  an  inexpensive,  serviceable  outlet  where  the  normal 
water  level  in  the  ditch  is  nearly  up  to  the  tile. 


There  are  certain  laudable  enterprises  that  necessitate  keep- 
ing some  wet  areas.  The  owners  of  such  lands,  however, 
should  not  be  required  to  keep  their  lands  wet  for  the  benefit 
of  others  without  just  return  for  the  actual  losses  sustained. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


Intensive  forestry  and  intelligent  drainage  harmonize,  for 
often  our  best  forests  are  on  well-drained  land.  The  mis- 
chief is  done  where  haphazard,  partial  drainage  of  peat  lands 
surrounded  by  natural  forests  has  threatened  both  marsh  and 
forest  with  destruction  by  fire.  With  adequate  drainage  and 
good  farming  the  surface  of  the  marshes  is  kept  free  from  in- 
flammable rubbish,  and  the  deep  rooted  trees  in  the  wood  lots 
thrive  better. 

Generally  it  is  best  not  to  drain  marshes  until  the  advance 
of  farming  from  the  surrounding  upland  demands  it.  To  this 
rule  there  are  exceptions,  providing  a well  financed  policy  of 
colonization  or  utilization  is  made  a part  of  the  drainage  plan. 
One  is  found  in  northern  Wisconsin  where  a marsh  requiring 
no  land  clearing  can  be  drained,  broken  and  seeded  to  tame 
grass  for  a smaller  cost  per  acre  than  the  surrounding  cut- 
over land  can  be  cleared  and  stumped.  Another  is  found 
in  parts  of  central  Wisconsin,  where  the  drained  peat  lands 
can  be  made  more  productive  of  cultivated  crops  than  the 
sandy  uplands  surrounding  them. 

Draining  Through  Your  Neighbor’s  Land.  Abundant  fall 
affords  an  outlet  without  crossing  the  line  fence.  Less  fall 
requires  entering  the  land  of  a lower  neighbor  for  the  neces- 


FIG.  2.— AN  OUTLET  DITCH 

This  was  dug  with  a floating  dredge.  It  is  20  feet  wide  at  the  top 
and  7 feet  deep.  Its  sides  are  somewhat  steeper  than  is  advisable. 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


5 


sary  outlet.  A mutual  agreement  with  the  neighbor,  each 
agreeing  to  pay  his  share  of  the  cost  of  construction,  is  the 
simplest  form  of  procedure.  If  the  neighbor  is  unwilling  to 
cooperate  in  this  way,  he  may  be  forced  to  cooperate  under, 

(1)  The  Farm  Drainage  Law  (Chapter  446,  Laws  of  1919),  or 

(2)  The  Drainage  District  Law  (Chapter  557,  Laws  of  1919), 
provided  the  public  health  or  general  welfare  will  be  pro- 
moted thereby.  In  either  case  three  disinterested  men  fix  the 
tax  that  each  owner  is  to  pay  for  the  construction  of  the  out- 
let drain,  or  the  damages  to  which  he  is  entitled.  When  such 
awards  are  approved  by  the  county  judge  or  the  circuit  court, 
they  are  enforcible. 

Your  Share  Is  Fair.  The  benefits  must  exceed  the  cost. 
Otherwise  drainage  would  not  be  profitable  and  were  better 
left  undone.  The  benefits  are  usually  more  than  twice  the 
cost.  For  this  reason,  a land  owner  errs  when  he  expects  his 
neighbor,  the  state  or  the  nation  to  contribute  money  toward 
the  construction  of  an  outlet  drain  for  his  farm,  except  when 
such  contributors  also  receive  tangible,  financial  benefits  from 
the  proposed  drain.  It  must  be  established  that  the  public 
health  or  general  welfare  will  be  promoted  by  the  drains. 

Miles  Men  Have  Made.  Wisconsin  has  about  2,000  miles 
of  open  ditches  and  large  tile  constructed  under  state  laws, 
chiefly  during  the  last  twenty  years,  giving  an  outlet  to  about 
800,000  acres  of  land  and  consisting  of  about  200  independent 
projects.  The  largest  of  these  projects  consists  of  75,000 
acres.  Another  large  project  has  60,000  acres  and  120  miles 
of  ditch.  The  smallest  project  on  record  consists  of  only  40 
acres  with  an  outlet  ditch  only  1 rod  long.  But  that  rod  ex- 
tends across  the  line  fence  where  a neighbor  had  constructed 
a dam  to  hold  back  the  water  on  the  upper  owner.  In  that 
case,  upon  petition  of  the  upper  owner,  a profile  was  made 
and  recorded,  showing  the  grade  of  the  water  course  for  80 
rods  below  the  offending  dam,  to  prevent  the  lower  owner 
from  constructing  another  such  dam  in  any  portion  of  the 
water  course  thus  recorded. 

Many  small  projects  have  been  partially  or  wholly  installed 
under  state  laws,  but  the  records  kept  by  town  clerks  under 
the  Town  Ditch  Law  (repealed  in  1919)  are  imperfect,  and 
some  of  the  ditches  have  but  little  value.  During  the  three 
years  following  the  enactment  of  the  Laws  of  1919,  a total  of 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


ETG.  3. — BIG  TILE  WIN  FAVOR 
These  tile  are  48  inches  in  diam- 
eter. They  are  more  expensive  but 
better  than  open  ditches.  Even  a 
12-inch  tile  with  a surface  run  is 
better  in  many  places  than  a large 
open  ditch. 


103  projects  have  taken 
steps  toward  organization. 
Of  these,  17  were  dropped 
or  postponed  upon  the  re- 
commendation of  the  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture  and  the 
State  Chief  Engineer.  The 
other  86  are  proceeding  to- 
ward completion  or  are  com- 
pleted. They  contain  217,- 
110  acres  and  660  miles  of 
open  ditch  or  large  tile  cost- 
ing $2,326,832. 

Big  Tile  W i n Favor. 

Sluggish,  winding  streams 
have  been  deepened, 
straightened  and  placed  on 
forty-lines  where  possible. 
Open  ditches  are  made  by 
floating  dredges  or  walking 
or  dry-land  dredges.* 


For  short  ditches,  the  overhead  expense  of  building  a large 
dredge  is  high,  and  some  of  the  smaller  dredges  on  the  mar- 
ket are  desirable.  Dynamite  also  can  be  used  with  advantage 
m short  ditches.  The  smallest  outlet  ditch  advisable  is  6 feet 
deep,  3 feet  wide  at  the  bottom  and  15  feet  wide  at  the  top. 
Wherever  a smaller  ditch  than  this  is  sufficient,  a big  tile  aided 
by  a dry,  shallow,  rounded  surface-run  at  its  side  is  cheaper 
and  better.  Big  tile  are  growing  in  favor  as  land  becomes 
more  valuable.  They  require  less  for  maintenance.  They 
waste  no  land;  leave  no  uncultivated  strip  for  weeds;  can 
cross  highways  without  expensive  bridges ; and  cost  but  little 
more  than  open  ditches.  When  a dredge  crosses  a road,  the 
bridge  usually  has  to  be  reconstructed.  This  difficulty  de- 
creases where  the  highway  officials  have  been  far-sighted 
enough  to  put  in  the  concrete  foundations  of  their  bridges 
deep  enough  that  they  reach  down  below  the  grade  line  of  the 


♦Advantages  of  each  are  given  in  Bulletin  300,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


7 


FIG.  4.— TILE  LAID  BY  MACHINE 

This  machine  digs  the  trench  with  a dipper  suspended  from  the 
boom.  The  heavy  tile  are  then  swung  into  place  by  a block  and 
tackle  from  the  same  boom.  The  smaller  tile  are  laid  by  hand  and  the 
smaller  trenches  are  dug  either  by  hand  or  with  tiling  machines. 


proposed  ditch.  Any  farmer  owning  marsh  land  above  a 
highway  where  a new  bridge  is  proposed  does  well  to  confer 
with  the  highway  officials  when  they  are  designing  a new 
bridge  in  an  effort  to  get  the  bridge  foundations  deep  enough 
so  that  they  will  not  have  to  be  underpinned  when  the  ditch 
is  constructed. 


FIG.  5— TILE  AND  SURFACE  RUN 

The  tile  carries  the  seepage  and  water  from  the  tile  laterals.  The 
surface  run  carries  water  during  a flood  and  is  dry  enough  to  raise 
hay  the  rest  of  the  time. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


LOW  LANDS  LYING  WASTE 

Peat  and  Muck.  Peat  is  partly  decomposed  vegetable  mat- 
ter that  has  accumulated  in  the  marshes.  Before  drainage  it 
was  virtually  pickled.  After  drainage  the  acids  leach  out 
and  air  and  bacteria  come  in.  It  then  decomposes  into  muck, 
becoming  more  solid  and  darker  in  color.  A technical  defini- 
tion of  muck  requires  that  it  contain  50  per  cent  or  more  min- 
eral matter,  but  this  is  not  the  muck  of  the  farmer’s  vocabu- 
lary. In  this  bulletin  muck  means  a soil  that  was  once  peat, 
but  which  has  decomposed  through  drainage  until  it  has 
lost  its  tough,  fibered  structure. 

Marshes  and  Swamps.  There  are  at  least  six  types  of  wet 
lands.  (1)  Marshes  are  wet  most  of  the  year.  They  usually 
have  a peat  or  muck  soil  and  support  wild  grasses.  (2) 
Swamps  are  the  same  as  marshes  except  that  they  support 
trees  or  brush.  (3)  Overflowed  lands  are  wet  only  when  the 
adjacent  stream  overflows.  (4)  Pot  holes  are  depressions  that 
have  no  surface  drainage.  (5)  Seeped  areas  are  those  kept 
wet  by  seepage  from  higher  lands.  (6)  Tight  soils  are  those 
that  are  kept  waterlogged  by  the  slow  rate  of  percolation. 
The  last  two  classes  frequently  have  so  much  fall  that  the 
necessary  tile  drainage  systems  do  not  require  the  extension 
of  the  outlet  into  the  land  of  a neighbor. 


FIG.  6.— A CAPSTAN  DITCH 


Three  feet  deep  but  too  shallow  to  serve  as-  an  outlet  for  tile. 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


9 


Where  to  Drain  First.  Low,  flat,  cultivated  fields  on  which 
labor  is  expended  annually  but  wasted  by  the  drowning  of 
cultivated  crops  demand  attention  first,  particularly  the  nar- 
row wet  strips  in  well  drained  fields. 

Areas  where  drainage  can  be  made  profitable,  but  where  it 
may  well  await  the  convenience  of  a majority  of  the  land  own- 
ers, are : 

(1)  Wild  hay  marshes,  particularly  the  smaller  ones  that 
have  well-developed  upland  adjacent  to  them.  Corn  or  tim- 
othy and  alsike  is  more  profitable  than  marsh  hay. 

(2)  Timbered  swamps  across  which  a road  is  to  be  con- 
structed. It  may  be  cheaper  for  the  county  to  dredge  a ditch 
8 feet  deep  for  the  entire  length  of  the  swamp  than  to  haul 


FIG.  7.— HAY  MEADOW  DRAINAGE 

Dredge  or  dynamite  a ditch  6 feet  deep  down  through  the  center  and 
cut  off  the  seepage  at  the  edges  with  a line  of  5-inch  tile.  It  does 
not  pay  to  bother  with  little  ditches  only  three  feet  deep.  The  hay 
crop  is  too  uncertain  with  shallow  drainage. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


in  enough  earth  to  build  up  the  road  to  a height  of  4 feet.  Let 
the  county  pay  for  part  of  the  dredging  and  the  farmers  pay 
for  the  rest  and  both  will  gain  thereby. 

(3)  Areas  kept  wet  by  small  mill-dams  in  well-developed 
agricultural  communities.  Where  the  Railroad  Commission 
of  Wisconsin  finds  that  the  agricultural  value  of  the  land  dam- 
aged is  greater  than  the  commercial  value  of  the  water  power 
or  pond,  the  farmers,  through  a drainage  district  duly  organ- 
ized, are  permitted  to  purchase  and  remove  the  dam  at 
a stipulated  or  fixed  price  paid  to  the  owners  of  the  water 
power. 

(4)  Wild  hay  meadows  in  undeveloped  cut-over  areas  that 
can  be  converted  into  timothy  and  alsike  meadows  at  less  cost 
than  that  of  clearing  the  surrounding  upland. 

Finishing  the  Job.  The  outlet  drain  is  but  a starter.  The 
land  must  be  broken  for  a seed  bed.  Supplementary  drains 
are  necessary  in  most  cases  after  the  outlet  drain  is  dug.  This 
means  laying  enough  lines  of  tile  to  complete  the  drainage, 
except  in  sandy  sub-soils.  In  such  soils,  ditches  that  reach  4 
feet  into  the  underlying  sand  and  are  one-half  mile  or  a mile 
apart,  with  a line  of  5-inch  tile  at  the  edge  of  the  sandy  up- 
land or  larger  islands  to  cut  off  the  seepage,  give  satisfactory 
drainage.  More  failures  in  marsh  farming  are  due  to  the  neglect 
in  putting  in  the  supplementary  drains  than  to  any  other  cause. 

Care  prevents  damaging  fires  in  peat  soils.  Burning-off  all 
the  surface  rubbish  as  soon  as  it  is  dry  in  the  spring  and  be- 
fore the  peat  is  dry  enough  to  burn,  lessens  or  eliminates  the 
fire  hazard.  The  older  trees  on  a timbered  swamp  may  occa- 
sionally die  with  drainage.  Cutting  and  marketing  them  the 
first  year  after  drainage  is  advisable.  The  younger  trees  de- 
velop deeper  roots  and  thrive  better  thereafter. 

A peat  marsh  with  a clay  sub-soil  is  usually  better  than  one 
with  a sandy  sub-soil,  but  the  latter  is  more  easily  drained. 
While  open  ditches  in  sand  must  have  a slope  of  1J4  to  1,  and 
the  joints  of  tile  must  be  protected  from  the  sand  by  a layer 
of  peat  or  a wrapping  of  heavy  paper,  the  drains  may  be  far- 
ther apart.  Even  with  only  two  inches  of  peat  on  the  surface, 
and  certainly  with  six  inches  of  peat,  the  sandy  marshes  have 
more  organic  matter  than  the  sandy  uplands  and  to  that  ex- 
tent are  more  valuable,  except  as  they  are  more  subject  to 
frost.  Drainage  does  remove  some  water  from  sandy  soils 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


11 


FIG.  8.— A DRY  LAND  DREDGE 

This  dredge  straddles  the  ditch  and  digs  up  stream  best.  It  has  a 
walking  device  or  track  for  moving  along  the  ditch  or  from  one  job  to 
another  without  dismantling. 

that  might  be  used  later  by  plants,  but  to  compensate  for  this 
loss,  the  plant  roots  go  deeper  into  the  soil  after  drainage  and 
for  that  reason  resist  drouth  better.  The  ideal  plan  is  to  have 
deep  drainage  during  the  spring,  followed  by  sub-irrigation 
during  the  summer,  where  it  can  be  accomplished  by  bulk- 
heads in  the  ditches.  To  do  this  there  must  be  plenty  of  water 
running  in  the  ditches  in  dry  weather. 

Some  Marshes  Should  Wait.  Chief  among  the  less  desir- 
able wet  areas,  for  agricultural  purposes  at  present  are : 

(1)  Marshes  that  cannot  be  drained  without  impairing  the 
beauty  or  usefulness  of  lakes. 

(2)  Timbered  swamps  interspersed  with  little  or  no  open 
marsh,  particularly  in  Northern  Wisconsin. 

(3)  Large  marshes  in  sparsely  settled  localities,  unless  a 
well  financed  development  or  colonization  policy  is  assured. 
This  may  mean  carrying  the  development  to  the  raising  of 
the  first  crop  before  it  is  sub-divided  into  farms  for  settlers. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


The  8-inch  tile  from  A almost  to  B is  the  equivalent  of  a 5-inch  tile 
to  the  lower  owner.  The  lower  owner  contributes  the  cost  of  a 5-inch 
tile  and  the  upper  owner  pays  the  remainder  of  the  cost  of  the  8-inch 
tile.  Each  pays  half  for  the  open  ditch  from  B to  C,  where  the  land  is 
too  low  to  be  tiled.  The  upper  owner  connects  on  the  8-inch  tile  at  A. 
The  lower  owner  pays  the  extra  cost  of  a short  line  of  12-inch  tile. 

THE  LAWS  THAT  GOVERN 

Try  Mutual  Agreement  First.  Two  or  more  land  owners 
may  agree  as  to  how  much  each  is  to  pay  toward  the  drain 
and  then  install  it  themselves.  If  this  is  not  possible,  the  next 
step  is  to  proceed  according  to  the  special  statutes. 

The  Two  Laws  Are  Similar.  Simple  projects  are  handled 
best  under  the  Farm  Drainage  Law  administered  by  the 
County  Court.  They  are  called  farm  “drainages.”  The  com- 
plicated projects  involving  navigable  waters  or  unusually  large 
areas  are  best  handled  under  the  Drainage  District  Law  ad- 
ministered by  the  Circuit  Court.  There  is  no  maximum  or 
minimum  limit  to  the  size  or  cost  of  projects  under  either  law. 
Out  of  103  projects  started  in  the  first  three  years  of  the  op- 
eration of  these  laws,  9 are  drainage  districts  and  94  are  farm 
“drainages.”  The  chief  difference  is  that  each  drainage  dis- 
trict has  three  special  commissioners  appointed  to  take  charge 
of  it,  while  a permanent  board  of  three  men  in  each  county 
known  as  the  “farm  drainage  board”  takes  charge  of  all  farm 
“drainages”  begun  in  the  county.  If  a project  lies  in  two 
counties,  the  board  of  the  county  having  the  larger  acreage 
as  described  in  the  petition  has  jurisdiction.  A drainage  dis- 
trict may  be  placed  in  the  circuit  court  of  any  county  in  which 
any  part  of  the  lands  lie. 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm  13 


Reinforced  concrete  4 inches  thick  to  give  tensile  strength  and  pre- 
vent leakage  under  the  face.  The  wing  walls  deflect  the  water  down 
stream.  The  foundation  is  deep  to  resist  frost  action. 


Owners  Petition  Court.  A majority  of  the  land  owners 
holding  one-third  of  the  land  in  a project  or  the  owner  or  own- 
ers of  more  than  half  the  land  must  sign  the  petition.  Sug- 
gestions for  such  petitions  appear  in  the  Appendix  (page  38). 
It  is  best  to  let  a reliable,  experienced  drainage  attorney  re- 
sponsible to  a representative  committee  of  land  owners  take 
charge  of  the  petition  and  present  it  to  the  court.  An  attor- 
ney who  has  handled  other  projects  successfully  can  save  the 
land  owners  considerable  time  and  money.  The  land  owners 
can  aid  the  attorney  by  preparing  a sketch  of  the  forties  in- 
cluded in  the  project  and  the  approximate  location  of  the  pro- 
posed drains.  This  sketch  satisfies  the  requirements  of  the 
petition.  If  time  permits,  an  extension  worker  of  the  College 
of  Agriculture  will  go  over  the  area  with  the  owners  to  aid 
them  in  deciding  what  forties  to  include.  The  boundaries  of 
the  project  may  be  changed  later,  but  it  is  essential  that  a 
tentative  boundary  be  established  so  that  the  court  can  deter- 
mine the  sufficiency  of  the  signatures. 

The  State  Chief  Engineer.  The  laws  require  that  all  drain- 
age districts  and  all  farm  “drainages’’  containing  more  than 
200  acres  (5  forties  whether  all  marsh  or  not)  within  its  boun- 
daries shall  be  under  the  direction  of  the  state  chief  engineer. 
By  virtue  of  the  statute  he  requires : 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


(1)  That  all  project  engineers  be  approved  by  the  state  chief 
engineer.  Such  approval  has  now  been  extended  to  36  engi- 
neers who  are  eligible  to  work  on  any  project  in  Wisconsin  so 
long  as  their  work  is  up  to  standard. 

(2)  That  the  board  en- 
gage one  of  these  engineers 
to  make  a preliminary  sur- 
vey of  the  project  and  send 
to  the  state  drainage  engi- 
neer four  blue  prints  of  a 
map  showing  preliminary 
plans  and  topography.  It  is 
well  for  the  engineer  to  cor- 
respond with  the  state  drain- 
age engineer  while  making 
the  preliminary  survey  and 
plans. 

(3)  That  the  College  of 
Agriculture  prepare  a report 
on  the  quality  of  the  soil  and 
the  crops  to  which  it  is 
adapted. 

(4)  That  the  board  inclu4e  this  soil  and  crop  report,  to- 
gether with  a feasibility  report  by  the  state  drainage  engineer, 
with  its  preliminary  report  to  the  court. 

(5)  That  the  final  report  of  the  board  containing  final  plans 
and  assessments  be  submitted  to  him  for  recommendations  or 


FIG.  11.— GOOD  FACE  BUT  POOR 
BODY 

Unless  the  tile  are  imbedded  in 
reinforced  concrete  for  8 or  10  feet 
back  from  the  outfall,  the  water  will 
escape  through  the  cracks  between 
the  tile  and  undermine  the  founda- 
tion of  the  face. 


This  is  accomplished  by  having  several  laterals  discharge  into  a single 
drain.  A line  of  tile  is  located  at  the  edge  of  the  high  land  to  cut  off 
the  seepage.  Farmers  put  in  systems  like  this  after  the  outlet  drains  are 
constructed  by  the  drainage  board. 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


15 


approval  before  it  is  filed  with  the  court,  preferably  while  it 
is  in  preparation. 

The  College  of  Agriculture  cooperates  with  the  state  chief 
engineer  by  extending  to  him  the  services  of  its  drainage  spe- 
cialist as  state  drainage  engineer. 

The  Preliminary  Survey.  When  a drainage  board  directs 
an  approved  engineer  to  proceed  with  the  preliminary  survey, 
it  relies  upon  him  to  collect  all  of  the  important  data  to  deter- 
mine feasibility  at  a cost  not  exceeding  2 per  cent  of  the  cost 
of  construction  of  the  proposed  drains.  Detailed,  expensive 
surveying  is  inadvisable  at  this  stage  because  the  project  may 
prove  to  be  not  feasible.  In  that  event  the  court  dismisses  it 
and  assesses  the  cost  of  the  survey  and  hearing  against  the 
petitioners  on  the  acreage  basis.  It  is  not  fair  to  ask  the  peti- 
tioners to  be  responsible  for  any  more  surveying  than  is  ac- 
tually necessary  to  determine  the  feasibility  of  the  project. 
Later,  after  the  project  is  assured,  is  the  time  for  the  accurate 
survey. 

Figure  19  is  a satisfactory  preliminary  map  and  Figure  20 
a preliminary  profile.  Well  established  bench  marks  and  other 
reference  points  recorded  on  the  blue  prints  are  of  use  in  the 
final  survey  and  there  is  no  loss  in  duplication. 

The  board  may  order  the  engineer  to  survey  topography 
outside  the  boundary  of  the  project  petitioned  for,  but  only 
where  this  additional  land  should  be  included  or  otherwise 
afifects  the  project.  In  the  event  of  dismissal,  this  additional 
survey  also  must  be  paid  for  by  the  petitioners.  If  the  court 
organizes  the  project,  the  cost  of  the  preliminary  survey  is 
made  a part  of  the  cost  of  construction  and  is  paid  by  a tax 
against  all  of  the  land  and  corporations  benefited. 

No  drains  are  staked  out  during  the  preliminary  survey. 
Some  engineers  have  wasted  time  staking  out  drains,  meas- 
uring the  angles,  and  have  neglected  to  take  important  read- 
ings well  selected  over  the  marsh  to  determine  approximately 
the  slope  of  the  land  toward  the  proposed  drain. 

A specimen  of  a preliminary  report  of  the  board  based  on 
the  preliminary  survey  appears  in  the  Appendix  (page  43). 
The  edge  of  the  wet  land  is  shown  only  approximately.  The 
board  ascertains  in  a general  way  the  benefits  and  the  cost  of 
the  proposed  work.  A letter  from  the  project  engineer  to  the 
state  drainage  engineer,  describing  the  sub-soil,  topography 


and  size  of  catchment,  size  and  condition  of  bridges  and  char- 
acter of  the  existing  stream,  is  of  value  to  supplement  the  data 
shown  on  the  preliminary  map. 

The  Engineer’s  Responsibility.  A good  engineer  demands 
authority  to  make  the  plans  and  specifications  and  accepts  re- 
sponsibility for  their  execution.  He  scorns  the  idea  of  “pass- 
ing the  buck”  to  the  board  or  to  the  state  drainage  engineer. 
If  the  board,  or  the  state  drainage  engineer,  insists  upon  plans 
which  the  project  engineer  cannot  support  with  enthusiasm, 
confidence  and  good  faith,  he  should  resign,  instead  of  be- 
traying his  board  by  pretending  to  execute  plans  that  he  would 
rather  see  fail  than  succeed  because  he  did  not  favor  them. 
With  the  responsibility  of  inspecting  the  work  of  the  con- 
tractor, the  board  gives  the  engineer  authority  to  enforce 
specifications  to  his  own  satisfaction. 


FIG.  13— CLEAN  OLD  DITCHES 

Where  the  spoil  banks  have  been  reduced  by  partial  leveling,  a ma- 
chine like  this  can  clean  out  a ditch  at  a reasonable  cost.  This  is  a 
good  practice  from  five  to  ten  years  after  t'he  original  ditches  are  dug 
and  the  slopes  are  seeded. 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


17 


FIG.  14.— CURVES  AND  GRADES  FOR  LATERALS 

To  prevent  erosion  at  the  junction  make  the  first  200  feet  of  the 
lateral  as  deep  as  the  main.  Have  a g-entle  curve  down  stream.  The 
larger  ditches  or  swifter  streams  may  require  a 200  foot  radius. 

The  Final  Report.  If  the  hearing  on  the  preliminary  report 
proves  the  project  advisable,  the  board  is  instructed  by  the 
court  to  prepare  its  final  report.  This  includes  the  final  loca- 
tion and  design  of  the  drains  and  the  assessment  of  benefits 
and  damages  to  each  parcel. 

The  final  report  is  based  on  the  final  survey.  The  engineer 
stakes  out  the  drains  with  a station  marked  by  a stake  every 
100  feet  on  the  lines  of  the  drains.  He  takes  elevations  on 
the  ground  at  the  foot  of  these  stakes,  but  for  safety  does  not 
set  the  reference  hubs  until  the  board  has  let  the  contracts 
for  construction  and  the  contractor  is  ready  to  start  the  work. 
If  these  hubs  are  set  too  long  in  advance  of  construction,  they 
may  heave  with  freezing  or  be  disturbed  by  tramping,  or  be 
burned  or  moved  to  facilitate  the  cutting  of  marsh  hay. 

The  final  map  (Figure  21)  shows  the  location  of  the  drains 
accurately  and  the  finale  profile  shows  their  depths.  The  ele- 
vations of  the  ground  at  the  critical  places  on  each  parcel  and 
an  accurate  location  of  the  edge  of  the  wet  land  are  necessary 
to  the  board  in  determining  benefits. 

The  engineer  is  the  man  to  make  the  plans  and  be  respon- 
sible for  them.  If  he  is  competent,  his  plans  are  usually  ac- 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


ceptable  to  the  board.  The  assessment  roll  is  prepared  by  the 
board  “with  the  aid  of  the  engineer”  and  an  equitable  assess- 
ment is  based  in  great  part  upon  the  findings  of  the  engineer 
and  the  soil  examination.  The  purpose  of  asking  the  board 
to  send  a tentative  draft  of  its  final  report  and  plans  to  the 
state  chief  engineer  is  to  permit  him  to  make  his  recommen- 
dations and  suggestions  before  the  report  is  put  in  final  form 
or  filed  with  the  court. 

The  Board  May  Borrow  Money.  When  the  court  refers  a 
petition  to  the  board  it  may  authorize  the  board  in  writing  to 
borrow  a limited  sum  in  the  name  of  the  petitioners  to  make 
the  preliminary  survey  and  pay  preliminary  expenses.  After 
the  hearing  on  the  preliminary  report,  when  the  court  author- 
izes the  final  survey,  it  orders  the  board  to  borrow  another 
limited  sum  to  meet  the  necessary  expenses'.  All  of  these 
expenditures  are  later  added  to  and  become  a part  of  the  cost 
of  construction.  After  the  final  report  is  confirmed,  the  drain- 
age taxes  for  the  entire  cost  of  construction  are  due,  unless 
the  court  permits  the  debt  to  be  paid  in  installments  by  the 
sale  of  bonds  or  notes  based  on  the  assessments.  The  latter 
is  the  common  practice  although  any  land  owner  may,  up  to 
the  time  of  the  selling  of  such  bonds,  pay  the  court  his  entire 
drainage  tax.  Bonds  are  then  sold  only  to  the  extent  of  the 
unpaid  taxes.  Installments  to  pay  assessments  in  farm  drain- 
ages shall  not  exceed  fifteen  in  number,  the  first  one  falling 
due  one  year  after  the  assessment  is  confirmed,  and  one  falling 
due  each  year  thereafter.  In  drainage  districts  the  first  of  the 
fifteen  annual  installments  must  fall  due  not  more  than  five 
years  after  confirmation.  The  statute  must  be  carefully  com- 
plied with  in  every  respect,  or  the  attorney  for  the  bond  buy- 
ers will  not  approve  the  bonds  for  purchase. 

Hearings  Required.  Land  owners  are  given  several  oppor- 
tunities to  remonstrate  and  be  heard  by  the  court.  Each  law 
provides  three  distinct  hearings.  First  on  the  petition,  then 
on  the  preliminary  report,  and  last  on  the  final  report.  Ten 
days  or  more  of  notice  is  given  to  each  land  owner  of  each 
hearing  so  that  he  may  examine  the  petition  or  report  to  be 
heard  and  prepare  his  remonstrance  if  he  feels  that  the  project 
should  not  go  forward  or  that  he  is  being  wronged.  The  hear- 
ing on  the  petition  for  a farm  “drainage”  is  informal  but  must 
be  in  strict  accordance  with  the  statute.  The  board,  after 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


19 


notice  of  time  and  place  of  meeting-,  meets  the  land  owners  at 
some  convenient  place  near  the  proposed  drain  to  hear  their 
complaints  or  comments.  The  rest  of  the  hearings  are  held 
in  the  court  room  before  the  county  court.  Town  boards  and 
railroad  officials  are  also  notified.  Highways  and  railroads 
must  open  their  right-of-ways  to  permit  the  construction  of 
drains,  but  damages  must  be  allowed  them  to  the  extent  of  the 
expense  incurred. 

LANDS  ASSESSED  FOR  BENEFITS 

Computing  the  Benefits.  Benefits  to  the  land  are  measured 
by  the  increase  in  value  due  to  the  proposed  drainage.  It  is 
necessary  first  to  fix  a value  “before  drainage”  and  a value 
“after  drainage”  and  to  subtract  the  former  from  the  latter  to 
ascertain  the  benefits. 

Value  Before  Drainage.  The  value  of  agricultural  land  be- 
fore drainage  is  determined  largely  by : 

1.  Proximity  of  roads  and  markets. 

2.  The  brush  or  rubbish  on  the  surface  which  must  be  re- 
moved before  the  land  can  be  plowed. 

3.  The  quality  of  the  soil. 

4.  Difficulty  of  drainage  as  determined  by  topography,  sub- 
soil and  natural  or  artificial  obstructions. 

Lands  with  high  elevations  but  kept  wet  by  seepage  have 
less  need  of  a dredge  or  deepened  outlet,  and  therefore  their 
value  before  drainage  is  usually  greater  th^n  that  of  lands  no 
wetter  but  having  a lower  and  more  unfortunate  elevation. 
Even  though  the  higher  lands  are  just  as  wet  and  produce  no 
more  crops  than  the  lower  lands,  they  are  worth  more  because 
of  their  fortunate  topography.  They  may  be  worth  $40  an 
acre,  while  the  lower  lands  are  worth  only  $10  an  acre.  If 
both  are  worth  $70  an  acre  after  the  outlet  drains  are  estab- 
lished by  law  and  constructed,  the  higher  wet  lands  are  bene- 
fited only  $70  minus  $40,  or  $30  an  acre,  while  the  lower  lands 
are  benefited  $70  minus  $10,  or  $60  an  acre.  Wet  lands  10  feet 
higher  than  the  surface  at  the  proposed  ditch  80  rods  away 
have  a natural  outlet  as  good  as  the  low  lands  will  have  after 
a ditch  8 feet  deep  is  dredged,  and  are  benefited  only  to  the 
extent  of  the  legal  rights  afforded  by  the  organization. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


Wet  lands  lying  above  a railroad  or  a rock  layer  or  a bed 
of  quicksand  have  those  obstacles  in  the  way  of  their  drain- 
age, and  their  value  before  drainage  will  ordinarily  be  corre- 
spondingly low  for  that  reason. 

Value  After  Drainage.  The  value  after  drainage  has  the 
value  before  drainage  for  a background,  but  with  the  addi- 
tional factor  of  the  quality  of  drainage  to  be  affected  by  the 
proposed  drains.  Near  the  outlet  the  water  may  not  be  low- 
ered very  much  due  to  lack  of  fall,  and  the  value  after  drainage 
will  be  but  little  in  excess  of  the  value  before  drainage.  Not 
until  a point  is  reached  where  tile  can  be  laid  4 feet  deep  with 
a descending  gredient  of  .1  in  100  feet  to  the  top  of  the  water 
in  the  outlet  drain  at  reasonable  stage,  do  benefits  reach  a 
maximum.  Lands  that  are  given  an  outlet  anything  short  of 
this  will  not  attain  normal  value  after  the  proposed  outlet  is 
constructed  and  will  not  receive  maximum  benefits. 

To  serve  as  an  adequate  outlet  for  level  land  80  rods  away 
from  an  outlet  drain  the  top  of  the  water  in  the  outlet  must 
be  normally  about  Sl/2  feet  below  the  top  of  the  ground.  This 
means  that  the  bottom  of  a 12-inch  tile  in  such  cases  would 
be  6 feet  deep.  An  open  ditch,  if  used,  would  have  to  be 
dredged  about  2 feet  deeper  than  that  to  provide  for  the 
deterioration  common  to  open  ditches  with  little  fall.  Outlet 
drains  shallower  than  these  specifications  do  not  render  max- 
imum benefit. 

High  Lands  Benefited.  “Islands”  of  high  land  surrounded 
by  marsh  have  a low  value  before  drainage  because  of  their 
inaccessibility,  and  the  benefits  to  them  may  be  as  great  as 
those  to  the  surrounding  marsh.  High  lands  cut  into  irregu- 
lar fields  by  the,  encroachment  of  arms  of  the  marsh  are  bene- 
fited because  they  can  be  made  into  convenient  rectangular 
fields  after  drainage.  High  lands  now  in  rectangular  fields 
but  included  in  the  project  for  convenience  of  description  are 
usually  benefited  only  by  the  reflection  of  benefits  from  the 
adjacent  lands.  Actual  measurement  of  the  high,  interme- 
diate, and  low  areas  on  each  parcel  by  the  engineer  is  essential 
as  a part  of  his  final  survey. 

Laterals  Increase  Benefits.  A parcel  of  land  a mile  away 
from  an  outlet  may  be  benefited,  but  not  so  much  as  if  a lateral 
is  put  in  from  the  main  drain  to  a low  part  or  corner  of  the 
distant  parcel.  Two  methods  are  used.  Either  assess  low 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


21 


Dig  a trench  under  the  proposed  spoil  bank.  Lay  tile  of  required 
size  about  5 feet  deep  and  a 15-inch  corrugated  culvert  about  2 feet 
above  the  tile,  using  a pump  to  keep  trench  dry  during  construction  if 
necessary.  After  the  ditch  is  constructed,  extend  each  to  the  ditch. 


FIG.  16.— CULVERT  UNDER  SPOIL  BANK 

It  injures  a ditch  to  admit  surface  water  directly.  Continuous  spoil 
banks  leveled  to  permit  cultivation  protect  the  ditch  slopes  from  erosion. 
Use  a culvert  to  admit  the  water  from  the  abandoned  bends  Of  the  old 
creek  bed. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


benefits  on  the  distant  parcel  and  postpone  the  construction  of 
the  lateral,  or  put  in  the  lateral  and  assess  all  parcels  benefited 
by  it  high  enough  so  that  each  will  have  to  pay  its  just  share 
toward  the  lateral,  in  addition  to  the  contribution  toward 
the  main. 

Direct  Drainage  Extra  Benefit.  An  outlet  drain  not  only 
provides  an  outlet  for  smaller  drains,  but  renders  some  direct 
drainage  itself.  If  an  open  ditch  or  a big  tile  extends  through 
the  interior  of  a forty  it  does  as  much  or  more  direct  draining 
as  a line  of  5-inch  tile  would  do  if  laid  at  the  same  depth.  This 
is  in  excess  of  the  service  an  outlet  drain  would  render  if  its 
end  merely  touched  one  corner  of  the  forty  like  the  SE% 
NW*4  section  3 in  Fig.  21. 

It  is  reasonable  on  good  land  needing  drainage  to  assume 
that  the  benefits  of  the  direct  drainage  afforded  by  a main 
drain  is  about  $4  per  linear  rod  of  drain  where  the  drain  is 
wholly  within  a parcel  of  land,  or  $2  a*  rod  where  the  drain 
is  on  the  boundary  of  the  parcel.  Where  the  drain  is  an 
open  ditch  this  benefit  is  decreased  by  the  inconveniences  of 
the  open  ditch  and  the  land  occupied  by  it.  There  is  not 
such  compensating  damage  resulting  from  a tile. 

Where  creameries,  cheese  factories,  canning  factories,  or 
dwelling  houses  are  on  land  within  the  district  the  benefits 
from  furnishing  sewerage  outlet  for  those  factories  or  dwell- 
ings are  assessable  against  land  because  in  most  cases  build- 
ings are  legally  land.  If  they  are  legally  not  land  the  benefits 
to  them  can  be  assessed  only  if  they  are  the  property  of  a 
corporation. 

Benefits,  to  Roads.  Both  railways  and  highways  need  drain- 
age. The  other  alternative  is  to  build  the  road  bed  up  two 
feet  or  more  above  high  water.  Assuming  that  before  drain- 
age the  water  frequently  reaches  the  top  of  the  road  between 
Sections  2 and  3,  the  proposed  drains  offer  a means  both  of 
reducing  the  peak  of  the  flood  during  high  water  and  drying 
up  the  base  at  all  times.  To  get  maximum  benefits  it  is  nec- 
essary to  lay  a line  of  5-inch  tile  on  the  west  side  of  the  road, 
but  the  outlet  for  this  is  provided.  It  is  safe  to  assume  that 
the  benefits  of  the  drains  as  shown  are  the  equivalent  of  haul- 
ing in  enough  earth  to  build  up  the  road  2 feet.  If  the  road- 
way is  27  feet  wide  this  would  require  5,280  cubic  yards  in 
the  one-half  mile  of  road.  At  50  cents  a cubic  yard  the  saving 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


23 


due  to  drainage  alone  would  be  $2,640,  a pro  rata  part  of  which 
should  be  paid  by  the  town  or  county  responsible  for  building 
the  road.  Where  the  proposed  drainage  will  reduce  the  cost 
of  maintaining  or  repairing  a road,  it  is  a benefit. 


TABLE  I.— OPEN  DITCHES— COST,  CONTENTS  AND  CAPACITY. 


Bottom 

width 

Depth 

Top  width 

Acres 

drained 

Cubic  yards 
per  mile 

Cost  per  mile 

5 

6 

15 

4,300 

10,550 

$1,600 

s 

0 

16 

5,000 

11,750 

1,750 

b 

6 

18 

6,500 

14,000 

2,100 

4 

7 

18 

8,500 

15,250 

2,300 

6 

7 

20 

11,000 

17,750 

2,600 

8 

7 

22 

13,000 

20,600 

3,100 

4 

8 

20 

13,000 

18,750 

2,800 

0 

8 

22 

16,000 

22,000 

3,300 

8 

8 

24 

18,000 

25,000 

3,750 

10 

8 

26 

22,000 

28,000 

4,200 

6 

9 

24 

22,000 

26,500 

4,000 

8 

9 

26 

26,000 

30,000 

4,500 

10 

9 

28 

30,000 

33,500 

5,000 

12 

9 

30 

33,000 

37,000 

5,500 

Side  slopes  of  1 to  1 are  assumed.  In  sand  or  unstable  muck,  slopes 
of  1 y2  to  1 are  necessary.  The  capacity  of  the  ditch  is  based  on  a fall 
of  3 feet  per  mile  with  the  crest  of  the  flood  2 feet  below  the  banks 
and  with  1 foot  of  sediment  in  the  bottom  of  the  ditch.  The  acreage  is 
based  on  the  removal  of  % inch  from  the  area  in  24  hours.  The  cost  is 
based  on  15  cents  a cubic  yard.  The  cost  will  be  more  than  this  if  less 
than  3 miles  in  length. 


Damages.  Damages  within  the  project  consist  of  mutilation 
of  land  necessitating  bridges  and  irregular  fields,  occupation 
of  land,  removal  of  stock  watering  places,  or  killing  of  timber. 
Damages  below  the  project  may  result  because  of  the  water 
carried  by  the  proposed  drain.  In  any  and  all  cases  the  land 
damaged  must  be  compensated  in  some  way.  Damage  may  be 
allowed  to  cover  the  cost  of  a bridge.  Land  occupied  is  paid 
for  by  the  acre  at  the  rate  of  its  value  before  drainage.  This 
damage  is  eliminated  where  big  tile  are  used  or  where  the  old 
ditch  occupies  as  much  land  as  the  one  proposed.  The  old 
ditch  can  usually  be  filled  up  at  a small  cost  after  the  new 
ditch  is  dug.  For  $50  a satisfactory  watering  place  can  be 
excavated  usually  at  the  side  of  the  ditch  and  fenced  from  it. 
Or,  if  the  new  ditch  cuts  off  the  water  from  a pasture,  the 
damage  can  be  measured  by  the  cost  of  well,  windmill,  and 
tank.  The  killing  of  timber  by  lowering  the  water  table  is 
usually  limited  to  100  feet  or  less  each  side  of  the  ditch,  and 
where  the  timber  is  cut  and  marketed  with  advantage  the  first 
winter  after  drainage  the  damage  from  this  source  is  neg- 
ligible. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


FIG.  17— SKETCH  FOR  PETITION 

Check  the  forties  that  are  to  be  included.  Show  approximately  the 
location  of  the  proposed  drains.  Boundaries  and  locations  may  be 
changed  after  the  survey  is  made. 


It  is  seldom  that  damage  is  done  below  the  project  by  the 
increased  discharge  of  a good  outlet  ditch  and  its  supplemental 
laterals  after  the  first  year.  These  drains  lower  the  water 
table  on  the  area  drained  and  keep  the  soil  dry  enough  to  ab- 
sorb more  of  the  rainfall  than  it  did  before  drainage.  This 
equalizes  the  runoff  on  the  land  below  and  reduces  the  floods. 
Immediately  after  the  construction  of  the  outlet  ditch  and 
before  the  laterals  are  installed  to  complete  the  drainage,  the 
runoff  may  be  greater  because  the  soil  to  be  drained  has  not 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


25 


The  engineer  examines  the  size  and  character  of  the  catchment  basin 
as  a basis  for  the  design  of  the  drains. 


FIG.  19.— THE  PRELIMINARY  MAP 

The  purpose  of  this  map  is  to  show  only  the  features  that  are  to 
determine  feasibility.  A scale  of  1-inch  to  80  rods  or  1-inch  to  1,200 
feet  is  desirable. 


d 


Not  accurate  in  all  details,  but  convenient  and  does  not  cost  much. 


£3 

O 
CP  C$ 

w © 


<p  «» 
<p  bfl 
«t-i  aS 


U1 
ro  w 
S3  © 


CD 

8* 

C +J 


H 

W th  be 
H S3 

| *3 

'•  ctf  cj 


©.£ 

® fc. 

■s,® 

S'© 

£ S3 

8 bo 

S3 

-O  ® 

S3  CD 

+-> 

•2-3 
d S3 
3 rt,d 

a ^ ctf 

<| 

O <w 
,Q  O 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


yet  been  given  its  absorbing  capacity.  A capstan  ditch  or 
other  ditch  which  is  not  deep  enough  to  drain  thoroughly  may 
cause  considerable  damage  below  its  outlet.  Likewise,  any 
drain  that  reaches  outside  its  natural  basin  brings  in  more 
than  the  natural  amount  of  water,  which  may  or  may  not  do 
damage.  Before  such  damages  can  be  established  it  must  be 
shown  that  poorer  crop  of  hay  or  corn  or  similar  crops  are 
grown  below  the  outlet  than  were  raised  under  similar  con- 
ditions before  drainage. 

TABLE  II. — COST  OP  TILE  AND  TILING. 


Diameter, 

inches 


Pounds 
per  foot 


Acres 

drained 


Cost  in  dollars  per  ICO  feet 


Tile 


3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

4 

6 

4 

4 

5 

7 

10 

5 

8 

5 

4 

5 

7 

10 

14 

6 

11 

21 

6 

5 

6 

8 

11 

15 

20 

7 

14 

32 

9 

6 

7 

9 

12 

16 

21 

27 

8 

18 

44 

12 

7 

8 

10 

13 

17 

22 

28 

35 

10 

25 

75 

20 

8 

9 

11 

14 

18 

23 

29 

38 

12 

33 

130 

28 

9 

10 

12 

17 

21 

26 

32 

42 

14 

43 

190 

36 

10 

11 

14 

18 

23 

29 

36 

47 

15 

50 

225 

39 

12 

10 

21 

27 

34 

42 

53 

16 

58 

270 

42 

13 

18 

24 

31 

39 

48 

63 

18 

70 

360 

60 

15 

21 

28 

36 

45 

55 

63 

20 

83 

475 

75 

18 

25 

33 

42 

52 

63 

77 

22 

100 

540 

95 

30 

39 

49 

60 

72 

87 

24 

112 

660 

115 

36 

46 

57 

69 

82 

98 

27 

150 

830 

170 

43 

54 

66 

79 

93 

110 

30 

192 

1,140 

230 

51 

63 

76 

90 

105 

123 

Labor— Depth  in  feet 


The  acres  drained  is  based  on  the  removal  of  % inch  in  24  hours  with 
a gradient  of  .001.  Areas  subject  to  heavy  seepage  from  higher  lands 
may  discharge  one  inch  from  the  wet  area  in  24  hours.  In  all  cases  it  is 
assumed  that  a surface  run  is  to  be  constructed  large  enough  to  remove 
the  surface  water  from  the  upland  surrounding  the  tiled  land.  Certain 
corrections  have  been  made  in  Elliott’s  original  table  based  on  Yar- 
nell’s  findings.  The  cost  of  the  tile  is  f.  o.  b.  any  station  in  southern 
Wisconsin.  Dec.  1,  1922.  with  12 y2  per  cent  added  to  cover  the  cost  of 
hauling  about  three  miles  to  the  trench.  Labor  includes  digging  the 
trench,  laying  the  tile  and  back-filling,  and  good  digging  conditions  are 
assumed.  Cost  of  bulk  heads,  intakes,  quicksand,  stones  or  rock  would 
have  to  be  added. 


Supplemental  Assessments.  Supplemental  drains  may  be 
installed  by  the  board  upon  petition  of  the  one  or  more  land 
owners  affected  by  them.  This  usually  necessitates  the  assess- 
ment of  supplemental  benefits.  If  the  board  omitted  Lateral 
3 from  the  original  construction  and  put  it  in  a few  years 
afterward  at  a cost  of  $400,  it  would  be  necessary  to  deduct 
from  the  original  tax  and  to  levy  later  as  a supplemental  tax 
approximately  these  amounts : 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


31 


SW  NW  Section  3 $160 

NW  SW  Section  3 160 

Town  of  Montrose 80 


The  benefits  would  be  about  twice  these  amounts  in  each  case. 

Additional  Assessments.  Construction  may  cost  more  or 
less  than  the  estimate,,  depending  upon  the  accuracy  of  the 
estimate  or  the  success  of  the  board  in  letting  the  contract. 
If  the  estimate  is  too  small  the  board  must  levy  another  small 
percentage  of  the  assessed  benefits,  but  is  not  permitted  to 
levy  a tax  in  excess  of  them.  Usually  the  board  makes  an 
original  estimate  large  enough  so  that  there  is  some  money 
left  in  the  treasury  after  construction  is  completed.  This  is 
used  for  maintenance  of  the  drains.  Open  ditches  must  be 
cleaned  out  and  repaired  from  time  to  time.  If  there  is  no 
money  in  the  treasury  the  board  may  levy  a maintenance  tax 
of  a few  cents  an  acre  each  year  known  as  “assessment  for 
repairs.” 

The  board  acts  virtually  as  a trustee  of  the  project  indef- 
initely. Its  members  are  paid  .66  cents  an  hour  for  the  time 
actually  consumed.  At  least  one  member  of  the  board  or  a 
patrolman  hired  by  the  board  should  walk  over  and  inspect 
each  drain  once  every  year. 

The  board  may  construct  fences  if  necessary  to  protect  the 
slopes  of  ditches.  It  shall  also  specify  what  kind  of  intakes 
are  to  be  required  to  admit  surface  water  to  a ditch  without 
erosion,  and  if  a land  owner  violates  an  order  of  the  board  he 
is  subject  to  a fine  and  payment  of  damages.  It  is  good  prac- 
tice to  seed  grass  on  the  ditch  slopes  and  to  level  the  spoil 
banks  so  that  they  are  not  a menace  to  the  ditch. 

Boards  Aim  to  Please.  Drainage  boards  and  commission- 
ers, as  agents  of  the  court,  are  guardians  of  justice  to  the  land 
owners.  In  design  of  drain  and  expenditure  of  money,  their 
aim  is  to  give  every  land  owner  as  much  drainage  as  possible 
for  his  money.  Disagreements  may  arise  but  the  judgment  of 
an  experienced  drainage  board  is  usually  better  than  that  of  a 
less  experienced  land  owner.  Often  a land  owner  uncon- 
sciously opposes  his  own  interest.  The  following  statement 
by  an  experienced  member  of  a farm  drainage  board  illus- 
trates the  attitude  of  drainage  boards : 


FIG.  22. — THE  FINAL  PROFILE 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


33 


“In  mingling  closely  with  the  land  owners,  one  can  also 
often  overcome  opposition.  In  one  district  by  showing  two 
objectors  where  we  could  turn  the  creek  over  on  property 
lines  and  give  them  square  pieces  of  land,  we  got  the  support 
of  two  of  the  most  serious  objectors. 

At  our  meetings  on  the  land,  we  call  the  roll  of  all  land 
owners  present.  We  then  tell  them  that  they  have  been  called 
together  to  speak  to  the  commissioners,  not  to  argue  among 
themselves  while  the  meeting  is  in  progress.  We  then  call  on 
each  land  owner  to  express  his  sentiments,  at  the  same  time 
informing  them  that  their  statements  will  be  recorded  and 
turned  over  to  the  court.  When  thus  called  on  formally,  the 
recorded  answers  are  short  and  to  the  point.  In  this  way, 
also,  the  land  owners  feel  they  have  had  their  say  and  are  not 
so  apt  to  go  to  court.  So  far  we  have  had  only  one  remon- 
strance reach  the  court.” 

TABLE  III. — ASSESSMENT  OF  BENEFITS  AND  DAMAGES. 


1 

Description 

2 

Sec- 

tion 

3 

Owner 

4 

Outlet 

benefits 

5 

Addition- 
al bene- 
fits for 
direct 
drainage 

6 

Total 

benefits 

7 

Assess 
for  con- 
struction 

8 

Dam- 

ages 

9 

Net  assess- 
ment for 
construc- 
tion 

SW  NW 

2 

$ 300.00 

$ 300.00 

$ 126.37 

$ 126.37 

NW  SW 

2 

600.00 

$ 160.00 

760.00 

$ 320.14 

320.14 

SW  SW 

2 

600.00 

260.00 

860.00 

362.26 

362.26 

SE  NW 

3 

500.00 

500.00 

210.62 

210.62 

SW  NE 

3 

1,750.00 

160.00 

1,910.00 

804.55 

804.55 

SE  NE 

3 

1,450.00 

160.00 

1,610.00 

678.18 

678.18 

NE  SE 

3 

2,000.00 

480.00 

2,480.00 

1,044.65 

1,044.65 

NW  SE 

3 

2,000.00 

320.  OC 

2,320.00 

977.25 

977.26 

SW  SE 

3 

2,000.00 

600.00 

2,600.00 

1,095.20 

1,095.20 

SE  SE 

3 

1,500.00 

160.00 

1,660.00 

699.24 

699.24 

NE  SW 

3 

1,200.00 

160.00 

1,360.00 

572.87 

572.87 

SE  SW 

3 

1,200.00 

160.00 

1,360.00 

572.87 

572.87 

NW  NE 

10 

1,200.00 

160.00 

1,360.00 

572.87 

572.87 

SW  NE 

10 

100.00 

100.00 

42.12 

42.12 

NE  NW 

10 

900.00 

160.00 

1,060.00 

446.50 

446.50 

SE  NW 

10 

200.00 

360.00 

560.00 

235.89 

$ 10.00 

225.89 

NW  NW 

11 

300.00 

300.00 

126.37 

126.37 

Town  of  Montrose 

2,640.00 

2,640.00 

1,112.05 

1,112.05 

$20,440.00 

$ 3,300.00 

l$23, 740.00 

$10,000.00 

$ 9,990.00 

The  ratio  of  cost  of  construction  to  benefits  is  .42.  If  there  were  any 
parcels  not  touched  by  an  outlet  drain  it  would  be  necessary  to  have 
an  extra  column  headed:  “Subtract  for  Necessary  lateral.”  In  that 
case  outlet  benefits  would  be  assessed  as  if  the  parcel  were  touched 
by  a drain  and  a subtraction  would  be  made  therefrom  because  of  the 
omission  of  the  lateral.  Columns  4 and  5 are  memoranda  for  the  board 
and  need  not  appear  in  the  final  assessment  roll. 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


APPENDIX 

INDEX  OF  DRAINAGE  LAWS 


The  Drainage  District  Law  is  Section  1379,  Wisconsin  Statutes,  or 
Chapter  557,  Laws  of  1919. 

The  Farm  Drainage  Law  is  Section  1368,  Wisconsin  Statutes,  or 
Chapter  446,  Laws  of  1919. 

The  numbers  in  the  index  refer  to  the  sub-sections. 

Section  Section 


Provision  1379  1368 

Additional  assessments 30  10-5 

Additional  lands  included 17-2  7-3 

Adverse  examination lOq 

Affidavit  of  notice lOf  7 5-6  (i) 

Agent  may  sign 11-5 

Annexation,  by  order 31g  7-3 

Annexation,  voluntary 31f 

Annual  report 22-4  19 

Appeal  to  higher  court 10-0  25 

Assessment  certificates  as  collateral 31b  5 

Assessment  for  repairs 22-4 

Assessments  due lOi  2 10-2 

Assessments  on  other  districts 31q 

Assessments  void  if  inequitable 31a 

Assessments,  when  payable 22  10-2 

Assessments  on  other  districts 11-4 


Benefits,  defined 

Bids,  advertisement 

Board,  defined 

Bond  for  deficient  benefits 

Bonds,  advertised 

Bonds  of  commissioners 

Bonds  of  commissioners 

Bonds  may  be  sold 

Bonds  may  be  sold 

Bonds,  refunded. 

Borrowing  by  note 

Borrowing  for  repairs 

Borrowing,  temporarily 

Bridges  on  highways 

Cities,  villages,  towns,  assessed 

Collection  of  taxes 

College  of  Agriculture’s  report.. 
Commissioners;  appointment... 
Commissioners;  bond  record... 

Commissioners;  powers 

Commissioners ; qualifications . . . 

Commissioners;  vacancies 

Comparison  between  parcels. . . . 
Compensation  of  commissioners 

Condemnation  proceedings 

Consolidation  of  districts 


. . 10b 

2-1 

2-2 

. . 31b  3 
. . 10c  2 
. . 10m  1 

7-2 

. . 22 

10-2 

. . 30-2 
. . 31b  6 

10-3 

. . 31b 
. . 31b  2 

4-11 

. . 31b 

12 

. . 31m 

15 

. . 31L 

8-2 

. . 23 

14 

. . 16-2 

6-7 

. . 14-6 
. . 14a  6 
. . 14b 

4 

. . 14a  1 

4-2 

. . 14a  2 to  4 
. . 20-2 

4-2 

. . 14a 
. . lOr 
. . lOh  1 

4-10 

An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm  35 


Section  Section 

Provision  1379  1368 

Consolidation  of  districts 31p  20 

Contiguous  territory  not  required 11-4 

Corporation,  defined 10b  2 

Corrections 10c  3 6 

Corrections  of  assessments. 31r 

Costs  against  petitioners 10L  7-2 

Cost  of  construction 10b  2 

County  having  jurisdiction.. 11-1  21 

County  lands 18b 

Court,  defined 10b  2-7 

Crossing  pipe  lines,  etc 28a  7 16-2 

Damages,  defined 10b  23 

Damages,  external 31i 

Damages,  to  lower  districts 31  j 

Damages,  when  paid 31d 

Deeds,  in  bad  faith 14-4 

Delinquent  taxes 24  14 

Drainage,  defined 2-8 

Drain,  defined 10b  2-12 

Engineers  to  be  approved > 16-1  8-1 

Equitable  nature  of  proceedings 10c  1 

Errors  in  taxes 23-3 

Failure  to  serve  notice 13  3-4 

Final  report  modification 19-3  9 

Final  report  of  commissioners 18  8-1 

Fire  wardens 14b  (d) 

Hearing  on  final  report 20  8-4 

Hearing  on  petition 12  6-2 

Hearing  on  preliminary  report 17-1  6-9 

Hearings,  where  held lOg  1 6-2 

Infants  or  incompetents 10L  1 22 

Interest,  date  and  rate lOi  1 10-4 

Irrigation  31t 

Jury  trial lOg  3 

Land,  defined 10b  2-lU 

Laterals,  petitioned  for 31e  11 

Liens  ahead  of  mortgages 22-2  10-1 

Lis  pendens  notice 10-k  3-5 

Machinery  and  pumps 31v 

Machinery  purchased 31n 

Modification  of  boundaries 18-2  9 

Modification  of  orders-. lOd  1 3-6 

Modifications  affecting  bonds lOd  2 

Modifications  of  plans 10c  4 9 

Mortgagee,  defined 10b  2-11 

Navigable  waters 17-6  to  18. 

Notice,  contents  of lOf  2 6-4 

Notice,  how  made lOf  3 3-2 

Notice,  how  made 12-2  8-4 

Obstructions,  removed 31u  26 

Omission  by  mistake 31  28 

Ownership  divided 31k  24 


36 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


Provision 

Partial  confirmation ' 

Petition  by  town  or  county  board.  . . 

Petition,  contents  of 

Petition,  dismissed 

Petitioners  recover  expenses 

Petition  for  supplemental  drains. . . . 
Petitioners  signing  subsequently.... 
Preliminary  report  of  commissioners 
Punishment  for  molesting  drains.  . . . 

Railroads  name  representative 

Railroads  open  tracks 

Register  of  deed’s  record 

Remonstrances  

Remonstrances,  grounds  for 

Remonstrances,  grounds  for 

Roads  on  spoil  banks 

Specifications  for  intakes 

State  chief  engineer  directs 

State  chief  engineer’s  approval 

State  chief  engineer’s  report 

State  lands ... 

Sub-districts  

Supplemental  drains 

Supplemental  drains 

Tax  roll 

Treasurer’s  duties 

Trespass  


Section 

Section 

1379 

1368 

21-1 

5-1 

11-1 

5 

14-5 
10L  4 

72 

26-1 

11-2 

11-6 

16-1 

6-6 

28a 

26 

lOp 

29 

16-1 

25 

10-1 

10j 

3-8  - 

14-1 

9 

17-3 

18a 

28a 

18-3 

8 (h) 

16-1 

6-8  J 

16-2 

6-7  i 

18c 

31o 

26 

11-1 

31s 

23 

13 

24 

18 

14b 

27 

Validity  of  assessments.. 
Withdrawal  from  petition 


28 

lOn 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


37 


DUTIES  OF  THE  ENGINEER 


Preparatory  Study 

1.  Observe  the  flow  in  the  old  creek. 

2.  Estimate  the  size  of  catchment  basin. 

3.  Recognize  the  special  merits  of  the  project. 

4.  Recognize  the  chief  obstacles. 

5.  Designate  the  forties  to  be  included  in  the  project  and 
describe  the  plan  that  appears  most  feasible. 

Preliminary  Survey 

1.  Make  a sketch  showing  approximately  the  edge  of  the 
wet  land,  using  the  forty-line  as  a basis  if  possible.  If 
not,  use  transit  and  stadia. 

2.  Establish  bench  marks,  and  get  the  elevation  of  critical 
places  as  the  basis  for  a preliminary  profile.  Look  out 
for  the  low  places  hard  to  drain,  usually  some  distance 
away  from  the  drain.  Make  soundings  for  depth  of  water 
in  ponds. 

3.  Study  catchment  basin  more  in  detail  and  observe  the 
size  and  kind  of  bridges. 

4.  Make  borings  of  the  sub-soil  to  a depth  of  8 feet  in  crit- 
ical places  where  drains  will  probably  be. 

5.  Make  preliminary  plans  computing  the  cost. 


Final  Survey 

1.  Stake  out  the  drain  with  stakes  every  100  feet,  taking  ele- 
vations at  the  foot  of  the  stakes.  (Do  not  set  hubs  yet.) 

2.  Compare  two  or  more  possible  locations  and  decide  which 
is  the  best,  making  borings  to  the  proposed  grade  line  to 
observe  the  sub-soil. 

3.  Take  enough  elevations  located  by  transit  and  stadia  that 
contour  lines  can  be  located  at  intervals  of  one  foot ; use 
these  contours,  supplemented  with  notes  on  the  vegeta- 
tion, for  measuring  the  wet  land.  Check  on  the  bench 
marks. 

1 Make  final  map,  plans  and  profiles  and  compute  costs. 

5.  Help  the  board  with  assessments,  and  help  the  attorney 
with  specifications  for  the  contract. 


38 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


Inspection 

1.  Set  a hub  at  each  stake  on  tile  lines  just  before  the  con- 
tractor starts  work.  Cross-section  and  compute  yardage 
accurately.  For  open  ditches  a hub  every  500  feet  on 
the  center  line  is  sufficient  with  a reference  hub  about 
100  feet  away  from  the  center  or  far  enough  that  it  will 
not  be  disturbed  by  the  dredge. 

2.  Give  the  contractor  written  grade  notes  and  necessary  in- 
structions. 

3.  Stop  the  contractor  and  appeal  to  the  board  if  unable  to 
agree  with  the  contractor  as  to  methods. 

4.  Inspect  all  work  each  week  so  that  the  contractor  can 
correct  imperfections  before  his  machine  gets  too  far 
away. 

5.  Make  monthly  estimates  of  payments  to  be  made  to  the 
contractor. 

6.  Recommend  to  the  board  any  supplemental  work  proven 
necessary  as  the  work  proceeds. 

7.  Inspect  drain  tile  when  shipment  arrives  and  reject  un- 
satisfactory tile. 

PETITION  FOR  FARM  DRAINAGE 

To  the  County  Court  of County,  Wisconsin: 

The  undersigned  petitioners  sufficient  in  number  to  comply  with  the  : 
law,  desire  to  .have  organized  under  the  Farm  Drainage  Law,  a “drain- 
age” as  hereinafter  described.  We,  therefore,  respectfully  represent: 

(a)  That  the  following  lands  will  be  benefited  and  should  be  included 
in  the  proposed  “drainage:” 


(b)  That  the  proposed  work  is  necessary  and  will  be  beneficial  to 
the  public  health  and  welfare,  because  there  is  in  the  proposed  “drain- 
age” large  amount  of  wet  and  marshy  land  affording  breeding  places 
for  mosquitoes,  causing  infections,  damps,  and  fogs,  and  having  but 
little  value  for  agricultural  purposes. 

(c)  That  there  is  attached  hereto  a sketch  of  the  proposed  “drain- 
age” on  a township  plat  showing  the  proposed  boundaries  of  the  same, 
and  the  general  location  of  the  proposed  drains,  subject  to  such 
changes  as  may  appear  advisable  after  the  final  survey  is  made. 

(d)  That  we  believe  that  the  benefits  of  the  proposed  drains  are 
greater  than  the  damages  and  the  cost  of  construction. 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


39 


(e)  That  the  name  of  the  proposed  “drainage”  be 

County  Farm  Drainage  Number  (the  number  to  be  in- 

serted by  the  County  Judge). 

(f)  That  we  desire  to  have  the  proposed  “drainage”  organized  with 
the  least  possible  delay. 

(g)  That  there  ( is  | (cross  out  one)  filed  herewith  a guaran- 

\ is  not  $ 

tee  for  the  payment  of  the  portion  of  the  cost  of  construction  that 
may  be  in  excess  of  the  benefits. 

(h)  That  (to  be  omitted  where  no  old  project  exists)  there  was  in 

the  year organized  under  an  old  state  law  a public 

drain  within  the  area  described  in  this  petition  and  located  approxi- 
mately as  follows:  


Here  follow  the  signatures  of  the  petitioners: 


PETITION  FOR  DRAINAGE  DISTRICT 

To  the  Circuit  Court  of County,  Wisconsin: 

Your  undersigned  petitioners,  sufficient  in  number  to  comply  with 
the  law,  desire  to  have  organized  a drainage  district  under  the  Drain- 
age District  Law.  We,  therefore,  respectfully  represent: 

(a)  That  the  name  of  the  proposed  district  is  to  be 


(b)  That  the  proposed  work  is  necessary  and  will  be  beneficial  to 
the  public  health  and  welfare,  because  there  is  in  the  proposed  drain- 
age district  a large  amount  of  wet  and  marshy  land  affording  breeding 
places  for  mosquitoes,  causing  infectious  damps  and  fogs,  and  having 
but  little  value  for  agricultural  purposes. 

(c)  That  the  accompanying  sketch  on  a township  plat  gives  a gen- 
eral description  of  the  location,  character,  and  plans  of  the  proposed 
drains  described  more  in  detail  as  follows,  but  subject  to  such  changes 
as  may  seem  advisable  in  the  light  of  the  final  survey: 

(d)  That  the  sketch  attached  hereto  shows  the  boundary  of  the  pro- 
posed district  including  approximately acres  described 

as  follows: 


(e)  That  the  public  health  and  the  public  welfare  will  be  promoted 
by  the  proposed  work  and  that  we  believe  that  the  benefits  will  ex- 
ceed the  damages  and  the  cost  of  construction. 


40 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


(f)  That  the  names  and  addresses  of  the  owners  and  mortgagees  of 
all  land  in  the  proposed  district  so  far  as  known  to  us,  is  as  follows* 


(g)  That  we  desire  to  have  the  proposed  drainage  district  organized  I 
with  all  convenient  speed. 

(h)  That  (to  be  omitted  where  no  old  project  exists)  the  purpose  of 

the  proposed  work  is  to  enlarge  and  repair  an  existing  drain  estab- 
lished in  the  year and  described  approximately  as  follows:. 


In  testimony  of  our  desires  we  hereunto  affix  our  signatures: 


FARM  DRAINAGE  NOTICE 

State  of  Wisconsin, 

County  Court  for  Dane  County, 

In  the  matter  of  Farm  Drainage  Number  7,  (Berry). 

Notice  is  hereby  given  that  the  Drainage  Board  of  Dane  County, 
Wisconsin,  will  meet  on  the  6th  day  of  April,  A.  D.  1921,  at  10  o’clock 

A.  M.  at  the  home  of in  Section  35  in  the  Town  of  Berry, 

Dane  County,  Wisconsin,  to  consider  the  petition  filed  in  the  County 
Court  for  said  Dane  County:  to  drain  lands  in  Sections  Nos.  25,  35  and 
36,  in  Township  8 North,  Range  7 East,  being  in  the  Town  of  Berry, 
in  said  Dane  County,  and  more  particularly  described  as  follows: 

DESCRIPTION 

Section  25, 

NE*4  of  NE14 
S%  of  NE1^ 

SE%  Of  Nwy4 
NE14  of  swyi 
sy2  of  SW % 

N%  of  SE14 
SW14  of  SE14 

All  persons  may  appear  and  be  heard. 


Section  35, 

NE14 

Ni/2  of  SW^ 
n y2  of  SE14 
Section  36, 

Ni/2  of  NW14 
swyi  of  Nwy£ 


Farm  Drainage  Board. 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


41 


CERTIFICATION  OF  NOTICE 

State  of  Wisconsin, 

County  Court  for  Dane  County, 

1 

In  Re  Farm  Drainage  No.  7 (Berry)  |> 

I 

I 

— o J 

State  of  Wisconsin,  ) ss. 

Dane  County,  j 

being  first  duly  sworn,  on  oath  says,  that  he  is  a 

member  of  the  Farm  Drainage  Board  of  Dane  County  and  that  on  the 
23d  day  of  March,  1921,  he  posted  true  and  correct  copies  of  the  an- 
nexed notice  of  preliminary  hearing  to  consider  the  petition'  filed  in 
the  County  Court  for  Dane  County  as  follows: 

One  copy  of  said  notice  on  telephone  pole  on  west  side  of  highway 
running  in  a slightly  northeasterly  and  southwesterly  direction  in  the 
Southeast  quarter  (SE14)  of  the  Southwest  quarter  (SW14)  of  Sec- 
tion Thirty-five  (35)  in  said  town  of  Berry,  said  telephone  pole  being 
approximately  twenty  feet  southeast  of  the  store  and  store  building 
owned  and  occupied  by  

One  copy  of  said  notice  on  hog  house  abutting  on  east  side  of  high- 
way running  in  a generally  northeasterly  and  southwesterly  direction 
in  the  Northeast  quarter  (NE14)  of  Section  Twenty-five  (25),  said  hog 
house  being  on  lands  owned  and  occupied  by 

One  copy  of  said  notice  on  cottonwood  tree  at  north  corner  of  high- 
way four  corners  near  the  Southwest  corner  of  Section  25. 

That  all  of  said  notices  so  posted,  were  in  Sections  25  and  35  of  the 
town  of  Berry  in  said  Dane  County. 

That  on  the  said  23rd  day  of  March,  1921,  this  affiant  served  a true 
and  correct  copy  of  said  notice  on  each  of  the  following  named  per- 
sons and  owners  of  land  within  said  farm  drainage  as  follows: 

One  copy  upon  by  delivering  to  and  leaving  with 

the  said , a true  and  correct  copy  of  said  notice. 

One  copy  on  by  delivering  to  and  leaving  with 

Mrs by  this  affiant  known  to  be  the  wife  and  a mem- 
ber of  the  family  of  the  said a true  and  correct  copy 

of  said  notice. 

One  copy  on , by  delivering  to  and  leaving  with  the 

said  , a true  and  correct  copy  of  said  notice. 

One  copy  upon  by  delivering  to  and  leaving  with 

Mrs by  this  affiant  known  to  be  the  wife  and  a mem- 
ber of  the  family  of  the  said  a true  and  correct  copy 

of  said  notice. 

One  copy  on  , by  delivering  to  and  leaving  with  the 

said  , a true  and  correct  copy  of  said  notice. 

One  copy  on  each  of  the  following  named  persons:  


42 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


by  delivering  to  and  leaving  with  each  of  said  persons,  a true  and  cor- 
rect copy  of  said  notice. 

Subscribed  and  sworn  to  before  me  this  26th  day  of  March,  1921. 


Notary  Public,  Dane  Co.,  Wis. 


In  Re  Farm  Drainage  No.  7 (Berry)  > 


MINUTES  OF  FIELD  MEETING 

The  Dane  County  Farm  Drainage  Board  met  at  the  home  of 

in  Section  35  in  the  above  town  of  Berry  pursuant  to 

notice  duly  posted  and  served  on  April  6,  1921,  at  the  hour  of  ten 
o’clock  A.  M. 

The  meeting  was  called  to  order  at  the  appointed  time  by 

president  of  the  board,  and  proof  of  the  posting  and 

serving  of  notice  was  read  by , secretary  of  the  board. 

All  members  of  the  board  were  present. 

On  roll  call  of  interested  land  owners,  the  following  answered  pres- 
ent:   


The  meeting  was  open  for  a general  discussion  of  the  drainage  propo 
sition  and  the  following  owners  of  lands  were  heard: 

stated  that  he  would  like  to  know  how  the  assess- 
ments were  made,  whereupon  the  board  explained  the  manner  of  mak- 
ing the  assessments. 

stated  that  they  didn’t  need  a big  ditch  through  his 

land;  that  a big  ditch  would  be  dangerous  to  cattle  and  that  probably 
tile  would  be  better,  but  that  when  a rain  came  tile  would  not  be  large 
enough. 

stated  that  there  was  a lot  of  water  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  his  land  all  the  time  and  that  it  should  be  drained1  out. 

stated  that  the  principal  trouble  would  be  the 

bridges  over  a big  ditch  and  that  the  water  might  be  stopped  at  the 

lower  end  by  reason  of  the  bridges. 

wanted  to  know  more  about  the  manner  of  mak- 
ing assessments  and  further  explanation  was  made  relative  thereto. 

stated  that  he  wanted  to  know  more  about  the 

method  and  manner  of  making  assessments. 

stated  that  the  proposition  would  be  all  right  if 

the  lands  can  be  rid  of  the  flood  water. 

said  that  his  lands  did  not  need  a ditch;  that  he 

had  a ditch  on  his  land  and  that  it  was  open;  that  he  did  not  want  a 

ditch  unless  he  was  paid  damages;  that  his  land  was  all  dry  and  it 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm  43 

would  be  a considerable  damage  to  him  if  the  water  was  taken  away. 

made  remarks  similar  to  those  of  R.  Jennickes. 

stated  that  it  would  benefit  his  lands  if  they  can  be 

rid  of  the  water. 

said  that  he  was  at  the  upper  end  and  did  not 

think  that  his  lands  needed  a ditch. 

Mrs said  that  they  constructed  a ditch  at  one 

time  and  that  the  money  expended  was  thrown  away.  She  was  afraid 
the  result  of  this  would  be  about  the  same. 

The  Farm  Drainage  Board  thereupon  checked  over  the  acreage  and 
signers  to  the  petition  and  upon  motion  it  was  determined  that  the 
petition  had  attached  to  it  a requisite  number  of  signers. 

There  being  no  further  business,  upon  motion  made,  the  meeting 
was  adjourned. 


Secretary. 

SPECIMEN  OF  PRELIMINARY  REPORT 

State  of  Wisconsin, 

County  Court  for  Dane  County, 


In  Re  Farm  Drainage  No.  7 (Berry) 

I 

J 

To  the  County  Court  for  Dane  County: 

Now  comes  the  Farm  Drainage  Board  of  Dane  County,  Wisconsin, 
and  makes  its  preliminary  report  to  the  court  relative  to  the  above  en- 
titled farm  drainage  located  in  the  town  of  Berry  in  said  county,  as 
follows: 

That  subsequent  to  the  entry  of  the  order  referring  the  petition  to 
the  board  and  directing  the  board  to  report  thereon,  the  board  ascer- 
tained the  sufficiency  of  the  signers  of  the  petition  and  with  the  aid 
of  an  engineer,  approved  by  the  State  Chief  Engineer,  examined  the 
lands  in  the  petition  and  all  other  lands  that  the  board  believes  will  be 
benefited  or  damaged  by  the  proposed  work  and  considered  whether 
the  drains,  as  proposed,  were  satisfactory  and  had  the  engineer  pre- 
pare a map,  plan  and  profiles  setting  forth  the  outlines  of  the  district 
and  showing  the  location  and  character  of  the  drainage  which  the 
board  and  its  engineer  finally  considered  as  most  satisfactory  for  the 
work  covered  by  the  petition  herein. 

That  subsequently,  and  after  due  notice  had  been  given  as  provided 
by  law,  a hearing  on  the  petition  was  had  as  near  the  land  described 
therein  as  convenient,  such  hearing  being  held  on  the  6th  day  of  April, 

1921,  at  the  hour  of  ten  o’clock  A.  M.  on  the  farm  of 

in  Section  35  in  said  town  of  Berry,  at  which  time  and  place,  the  board 
gave  opportunity  for  all  persons  to  be  heard  who  desired  to  be  heard 
for  or  against  the  petition;  that  after  personal  examination  of  the 


44 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


lands  by  the  commissioners  and  their  engineer  and  upon  the  report  of 
the  State  Chief  Engineer,  the  board  reports  as  follows: 

(a)  That  the  petition  is  signed  by  adult  persons  owning  a majority 
in  acreage  of  the  lands  sought  to  be  included  within  said  proposed 
drainage. 

(b)  That  the  lands  described  in  the  petition  will  be  improved  by 
drainage  and  by  the  plan  of  drainage  herewith  submitted. 

(c)  That  the  plan  of  drainage  proposed  in  the  petition  and  herein 
recommended  is  feasible. 

(d)  That  both  the  public  health  and  the  public  welfare  will  be  pro- 
moted by  the  proposed  work. 

(e)  That  the  plan  of  drainage  herein  proposed,  including  any  sug- 
gested changes  in  the  report  of  the  Chief  Engineer,  will  best  accom- 
plish the  drainage  prayed  for. 

(f)  That  the  benefits  from  such  drainage  will  exceed  the  cost  of 
construction. 

(g)  The  board  attaches  to  this  report,  proof  of  service  of  and  no- 
tice of  hearing  on  the  petition,  together  with  a copy  of  its  minutes  of 
such  hearing  marked  Exhibits  A,  B and  C. 

(h)  That  filed  herewith,  are  a map  and  profiles  of  the  district  and 
ditches  prepared  by  the  engineer  of  the  board. 

(i)  That  attached  hereto,  marked  Exhibit  D,  is  the  report  of  the 
Chief  Engineer  of  the  State  of  Wisconsin  on  the  location,  design,  feas- 
ibility and  cost  of  the  proposed  work,  a general  description  of  such 
additional  drainage  is  deemed  necessary  to  properly  reclaim  said  lands, 
a statement  of  a comparison  of  the  benefits  to  the  lands  in  different 
portions  of  the  drainage,  together  with  the  report  of  the  College  of 
Agriculure  of  the  state  of  Wisconsin. 

WHEREFORE,  the  board  prays  the  court  to  fix  a time  and  place  of 
hearing  thereon  and  direct  notice  of  such  hearing  to  be  given  in  the 
manner  provided  by  law  and  for  an  order  organizing  said  drainage. 


Farm  Drainage  Board  of  Dane  County. 

SPECIMEN  OF  SPECIFICATIONS 

STATE  OF  WISCONSIN,  COUNTY  COURT  FOR  DANE  COUNTY 

Prepared  by  the  Committee  en  Drainage,  Wisconsin  Enginering 
Society  and  the  Committee  on  Specifications  of  the  Wisconsin  State 
Drainage  Association. 

In  the  Matter  of  the  Farm  Drainage  No 

GENERAL  SPECIFICATIONS 
EXHIBIT  “A”  OF  THE  CONTRACT 

[.  DEFINITIONS  OF  TERMS  AND  EXPRESSIONS  CONTAINED  IN 
THE  WITHIN  SPECIFICATIONS. 

1.  The  >term  “Map”  shall  refer  to  the  blue  print  of  the  drawing  of 

said  “Drainage”  which  was  filed  in  the  office  of  the  Clerk  of  the  County 
Court  for County  by  the  Farm  Drainage  Board. 

2.  The  term  “Profile”  shall  refer  to  the  blue  print  of  the  profile  of 
the  proposed  ditches  and  drains  within  said  “Drainage”  and  which  was 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


45 


filed  in  the  office  of  the  Clerk  of  the  County  Court  for  Dane  County  by 
the  Farm  Drainage  Board. 

3.  The  term  “Contractor”  shall  refer  to  the  person  or  persons  or  the 
corporation,  or  its  proper  representative,  to  whom  shall  be  let  the  con- 
tract for  constructing  the  work  proposed  in  the  report  and  in  these 

specifications. 

4.  The  term  “Engineer”  shall  refer  to  such  person  as  shall  be  em- 
ployed by  the  Board  to  superintend  under  the  direction  of  said  Board  the 
construction  of  said  proposed  work. 

5.  The  term  “Farm  Drainage  Board”  or  “ Board”  shall  refer  to  the 
person  or  persons  and  their  successors  in  office,  who  shall  be  appointed 
by  the  Court  under  Chapter  446,  Laws  of  1919,  and  the  laws  amendatory 
thereof,  and  who  are  possessed  of  the  powers  and  charged  with  the 
duties,  provided  in  Chapter  446  and  the  laws  amendatory  thereof,  in 
relation  to  the  organization  of  and  the  prosecution  and  completion  of 
the  proposed  work  of  the  said  “Drainage.” 

6.  The  term  “Station”  shall  refer  to  a point  dividing  the  ditch  or 
drain  into  sections  of  100  feet  each,  and  the  stations  shall  be  numbered 
consecutively  from  the  outlet,  which  station  is  denominated  zero,  to 
the  upper  end  of  such  ditch  or  drain. 

II. 


The  starting  point,  route  and  terminus  of  the  proposed  ditch  or  drain 
and  the  location  thereof  as  nearly  as  the  same  may  now  be  determined, 
and  which  the  said  board  may  deem  most  proper  and  feasible  for  the 
accomplishment  of  the  proposed  work,  are  as  follows: 

(Here  insert  the  location  and  design  of  the  work  referred  to.) 

III.  GRADES 

Grades  shall  be  as  shown  on  the  profile  and  the  contractor  be  fur- 
nished with  a table  giving  the  depth  of  cutting  at  all  stations,  such 
depth  being  measured  from  the  top  of  the  station  stakes  or  hubs. 

For  open  ditches  a hub  every  500  feet  on  the  center  line  is  sufficient, 
with  a reference  hub  about  100  feet  away  from  the  center  or  far 
enough  that  it  will  not  be  disturbed  by  the  dredge. 

The  location  of  the  station  stakes,  the  plans,  profiles  and  excavation 
sheets  as  furnished  by  the  Engineer,  shall  constitute  essential  parts  of 
these  specifications. 

No  work  shall  be  accepted  where  the  contractor  leaves  the  line  of  the 
survey  without  authority  of  the  Board. 

IV.  CHANGES  AND  ALTERATIONS 

1.  The  location  and  dimensions  of  the  drains  shall  be  subject  to 
change  by  and  under  the  direction  of  the  Board  and  their  engineer. 

2.  The  Board  shall  have  the  right  to  increase  or  decrease  the  amount 
of  work  on  any  part  thereof,  to  such  an  extent  as  they  may  deem 
advisable  and  necessary,  but  may  decrease  it  to  an  extent  not  exceeding 
ten  per  cent  of  the  entire  contract  without  agreement  in  writing  by  the 
parties  to  this  contract. 

3.  Any  increase  or  decrease  in  the  amount  of  work  shall  be  figured 
at  the  unit  rate  named  in  the  proposal,  and  the  value  of  the  work  in- 
cluded in  such  alterations  shall  be  added  to  or  deducted  from  the  con- 
tract price  as  the  case  may  be,  and  no  allowance  shall  be  made  to  the 
contractor,  in  the  case  of  an  increase  or  decrease  of  such  proposed  work, 
for  any  damages  or  loss  of  profits  to  the  contractor  occasioned  thereby. 

V.  EXTRAS 

The  amount  of  the  bid  for  the  construction  of  the  proposed  work 
shall  include  all  work,  material  used,  tools,  machinery,  the  removal  and 
replacement  of  any  sluice  pipe,  wire  conduit  or  cable  and  all  other 
matters  necessary  to  complete  the  work  according  to  the  plans,  profiles, 
and  specifications,  and  shall  cover  all  losses  and  damage  to  the  con- 
tractor arising  from  any  action  of  the  elements,  the  nature  of  the  soil 
or  obstructions  or  difficulties  which  may  be  incurred  in  the  prosecution 
of  the  work,  and  all  losses  and  damages  to  the  owners  of  lands  resulting 
from  any  negligence  of  the  contractor,  in  constructing  said  proposed 
work,  and  no  charge  for  extra  work  shall  be  made  unless  it  shall  be 
ordered  in  writing  by  the  Board  or  by  the  engineer  with  the  approval 
of  the  Board  and  at  a price  therefor  agreed  upon  previous  to  its  com- 
mencement. 


VI.  MEASUREMENTS  AND  PAYMENTS 

1.  The  profiles,  maps  and  estimates  herein  referred  to  shall  be  con- 
sidered as  approximations  only,  but  are  sufficiently  accurate  to  serve 
as  a basis  for  bids  although  bidders  for  the  proposed  work  must 
satisfy  themselves  by  personal  inspection  as  to  the  difficulties  to  be 
encountered  in  the  construction  of  said  proposed  work. 


46 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


2.  Intermediate  payments  based  upon  approximate  estimates  of  the 
engineer  for  work  performed  during-  the  preceding  month  made  during 
the  first  week  of  each  succeeding  month,  during  the.  progress  of  the 
work  shall  be  payable  about  the  15th  day  of  each  succeeding  month. 
Such  payments  shall  be  85  per  cent  of  the  contract  price  of  the 
work  done  the  previous  month,  as  estimated  by  the  engineer,  or  such 
other  percentage  thereof  as  may  be  agreed  upon,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  contract  price  shall  be  paid  within  ten  days  after  the  completion  of 
the  entire  contract  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Board.  No  charge  or  dam- 
age shall  be  made  or  claimed  by  the  contractor  for  delay  or  hindrance 
resulting  from  any  reasonable  or  unavoidable  cause  during  the  progress 
of  any  portion  of  the  work  done,  but  it  shall  in  the  judgment  of  the 
Board  be  construed  as  entitling  him  to  an  extension  of  the  time  allowed 
for  the  completion  of  the  work. 

3.  Unless  otherwise  agreed,  the  contractor  shall  at  his  own  expense 
keep  all  work  in  good  condition  and  repair  until  the  entire  contract  is 
completed  and  accepted  by  the  commissioners. 

4.  Before  payments  are  made  and  before  final  acceptance  and  final 
payment  for  the  whole  of  the  proposed  work  the  contractor  shall  be 
required,  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Board,  to  protect  the  drainage  district 
harmless  against  all  liens  for  labor  and  material  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  said  proposed  work  and  also  against  all  claims  for  the  use  of 
patented  articles,  processes  or  appliances  used  in  connection  therewith, 
and  against  all  claims  or  demands  for  personal  injuries  in  whatsoever 
manner  arising  out  of  the  construction  of  said  proposed  work. 

5.  No  estimate  of  the  engineer,  other  than  the  estimate  provided  by 
sub-section  2 of  this  section,  shall  be  construed  as  a final  estimate  or 
acceptance  of  work  done;  nor  shall  any  payment  other  than  the  final 
payment  made  after  completion  of  the  work  to  the  satisfaction  of  the 
Board  be  construed  as  an  acceptance  of  any  work. 

6.  The  contractor  shall  submit  an  itemized  and  correct  statement  of 
the  cost  of  installing  approved  machinery  and  upon  the  satisfactory 
completion  of  such  installation  90  per  cent  of  such  cost  shall  be  due 
to  the  contractor. 

VII.  PROSECUTION  OF  WORK 

The  work  provided  for  in  the  contract  shall  be  begun  at  the  time  set 
forth  in  the  contract  or  as  otherwise  determined,  by  the  Board  and 
shall  be  diligently  prosecuted  in  a workmanlike  manner  until  its  com- 
pletion. 

VIII.  SUPERVISION  BY  CONTRACTOR 

If  the  contractor  shall  not  himself  take  immediate  charge  of  the  work 
in  the  field,  he  shall  provide  and  designate  to  the  Board  and  engineer  a 
competent  and  experienced  superintendent  or  foreman  to  take  his  place. 
In  case  the  superintendent,  foreman  or  other  workman  employed  by  the 
contractor  shall  neglect  his  or  their  duties  or  perform  his  or  their  work 
in  an  improper  manner  or  shall  persevere  in  misconduct  after  being 
warned  by  the  engineer  or  Board  the  contractor  shall  discharge  such 
superintendent,  foreman  or  workman. 

IX.  GRUBBING 

All  grubbing  or  clearing  of  stumps,  trees  or  brush,  and  the  removal 
of  all  loose  stone  necessary  for  the  construction  of  said  ditch,  shall  be 
done  by  the  contractor  and  shall  be  included  in  his  bid  for  construction. 

X.  TREES  AND  BRUSH 

All  trees  and  brush  within  the  area  occupied  by  the  ditch,  berms 
and  spoil  banks  shall  be  cut  by  the  contractor  and  either  burned  or 
piled  outside  of  that  area  before  the  spoil  bank  is  deposited. 

XI.  ROADS 

At  the  time  of  crossing  any  road  or  highway  in  the  construction  of 
any  ditch  or  drain,  the  contractor  shall  erect  barricades  in  such  road 
or  highway  on  both  sides  of  ditch  or  drain  at  a distance  of  at  least  200 
feet  from  the  point  of  crossing,  and  at  such  points  that  teams  and 
vehicles  may  be  readily  turned  and  in  the  night  time  shall  keep  lights 
burning  sufficiently  adequate  to  give  notice  to  travelers  along  such  road 
or  highway  and  to  protect  such  travelers  from  injury.  The  contractor 
shall  remove  all  bridges,  the  removal  of  which  shall  be  necessary  in  the 
construction  of  the  proposed  work  doing  no  unnecessary  damage  to  the 
same  and  such  barricades  and  lights  as  herein  provided  for  in  the  case 
of  crossing  of  roads  shall  be  maintained  until  such  bridges  are  recon- 
structed. The  contractor  shall  further  take  all  and  every  precaution 
necessary  to  protect  the  public  from  damage  or  injury  in  the  construc- 
tion of  any  ditch. 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


47 


Upon  crossing-  a railroad  or  other  obstruction  that  would  make  it 
difficult  to  retrace  the  work  with  the  machine,  the  board  shall  require 
the  contractor  to  complete  the  work  up  to  the  point  of  crossing,  permit 
the  machine  to  cross,  accept  the  work  up  to  such  crossing,  and  relieve 
the  contractor  of  the  responsibility  of  maintaining  the  accepted  work. 

XII.  LEDGE  ROCK 

In  case  ledge  rock  shall  be  encountered  in  the  construction  of  the 
work,  the  Board  shall  be  notified  immediately  and  will  give  instructions 
in  regard  to  the  removal  of  the  same,  and  estimates  and  payments 
shall  be  based  on  the  price  bid  for  ledge  rock.  If  no  bid  is  made  for 
ledge  rock  the  board  shall  allow  the  contractor  a fair  price  for  such 
excavation. 

XIII.  FENCES 

The  contractor  shall  remove  all  fences  the  moving  of  which  shall  be 
necessary  in  the  construction  of  said  proposed  work,  and  shall  not 
cover  up,  destroy  or  do  unnecessary  damage  to  same. 

XIV.  SUPERINTENDING  OF  WORK 

1.  Directions  shall  be  given  in  writing  by  the  Board  to  the  contractor, 
if  present  on  the  work,  or  to  his  superintendent  or  foreman  in  his 
absence,  and  such  directions  shall  be  received  and  obeyed  the  same  as 
if  given  to  the  contractor. 

2.  Any  work  condemned  by  the  engineer  shall  be  remedied  and  in 
case  the  contractor  shall  refuse  to  remedy  such  defect  as  ordered  then 
the  Board  may  cause  such  condemned  portion  to  be  remedied  or  repaired 
under  the  direction  of  the  engineer  and  deduct  the  expenses  thereof 
from  any  moneys  in  their  hands  due  the  contractor. 

XV.  BRIDGES 

In  the  construction  of  the  said  proposed  work  the  following  are  the 
principal  bridges  that  will  be  encountered: 


Provision  for  the  building  of  new  bridges  will  be  made  by  the  Board 
and  the  construction  of  the  same  shall  not  enter  into  the  contract  for 
excavation. 


XVI.  DECISION  OF  BOARD 

In  the  interpretation  of  these  specifications  and  the  contract  and  upon 
all  questions  concerning  the  execution  of  the  work,  the  decision  of  the 
Board  shall  be  final. 

XVII.  ABANDONMENT 

If  the  contractor  shall,  at  any  time  before  its  completion,  abandon 
the  work  he  has  contracted  to  perform,  he  and  his  bondsman  shall  not 
be  released  from  the  provisions  of  part  VI-4  of  these  specifications;  but 
he  shall  remit  to  the  board  as  liquidated  damages  all  moneys  then  due 
him  for  work  performed  and  he  and  his  bondsman  shall  be  liable  to  the 
district  for  all  loss  or  damage  occasioned  by  such  abandonment  and 
for  any  increased  cost  or  expense  to  which  the  district  may  be  put  in 
completing  the  work  according  to  the  contract. 

XVIII.  BONDS 

1.  Upon  being  awarded  the  contract  to  perform  the  whole  or  any 
part  of  the  work  herein  proposed  the  contractor  shall  give  his  bond 
conditioned  for  the  full  and  faithful  performance  by  him  of  such  work 
and  the  payment  for  all  labor  and  materials  used  under  these  specifi- 
cations. 

2.  The  amount  of  the  bond  shall  be  equal  to  one-half  of  the  contract 
price  and  must  be  approved  by  the  Board  both  as  to  amount,  form  and 
sufficiency  of  surety. 

3.  A copy  of  these  specifications  shall  be  attached  to  and  made  a 
part  of  the  bond  and  no  changes,  alterations  or  modifications  made  in 
the  plans  or  specifications,  or  in  the  contract  entered  into  shall  in  any 
way  release  the  contractor  and  his  surety  from  the  obligation  of  the 
bond;  nor  shall  any  acts  of  the  Board  or  their  engineers  impair  the 
obligation  of  the  bond  or  be  in  any  wav  a waiver  of  the  rights  of  the 
“Drainage”  with  respect  to  the  protection  of  the  bond;  but  the  bond 
shall  be  understood  to  be  given  for  a completed  job,  in  accordance  with 
these  plans  and  specifications  and  any  changes,  alterations  or  modifica- 
tions made  therein  of  whatever  nature  or  character. 


48 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


XIX.  INDUSTRIAL  INSURANCE 

The  contractor  shall  maintain  such  insurance  as  will  protect  him  from 
claims  under  the  workman’s  compensation  acts  and  from  any  other 
claims  for  damages  for  personal  injury,  including  death,  which  may 
arise  from  operations  under  this  contract.  Certificates  of  such  Insur- 
ance shall  be  iiled  with  the  Board  and  shall  be  subject  to  their  approval 
for  adequacy  of  protection. 

XX.  BIDS 

1.  No  bids  or  proposals  will  be  considered  unless  accompanied  bv  a 
guaranty,  executed  in  an  amount  equal  to  3 per  cent  of  the  amount  of 
the  bid,  but  in  no  case  shall  a guaranty  of  more  than  $500.00  be  required, 
and  all  guaranties  shall  be  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Board.  The 
guaranty  shall  be  considered  as  liquidated . damages  and  be  retained  by 
the  district  in  case  the  contractor  shall  refuse  or  fail  to  enter  into  a 
contract  as  provided  in  these  specifications,  after  acceptance  of  his  bid 
by  the  Board. 

2.  The  bids  and  guaranties  shall  be  enclosed  in  a sealed  envelope 

and  endorsed  “ County  Farm  Drainage  Board,  Bids  for  Construc- 
tion” and  delivered  at  the  office  of  the  Board  at  the 

Wisconsin.  The  Board  reserves  the  right  to  reject  any  and 

all  bids. 

XXI.  CONTRACT 

1.  A copy  of  the  advertisement  and  of  the  specifications  will  be 
attached  to  the  contract  and  form  a part  of  ic. 

2.  Any  changes  or  alterations  made  in  the  plans  or  specifications  shall 
constitute  and  be  a part  of  the  contract,  and  the  same  shall  be  consid- 
ered as  contained  within  the  contract,  although  the  same  shall  be 
made  after  the  execution  of  such  contract. 

3.  A transfer  of  the  contract  or  of  any  portion  thereof,  or  of  any 
interest  therein  or  the  subletting  of  any  portion  of  the  work  proposed 
to  be  done  thereunder  is  prohibited  without  the  written  consent  of  the 
Board. 

4.  Within  ten  days  after  the  successful  bidder  shall  have  been  noti- 
fied of  such  fact  by  the  Board,  such  successful  bidder  shall  be  prepared 
and  ready  and  shall  enter  into  a contract  with  the  Board  for  the  con- 
struction of  said  proposed  work. 

5.  The  contract  shall  provide  for  the  commencement  of  the  work 
under  such  contract  within  thirty  days  after  date  of  the  execution  of 
the  same  unless  otherwise  ordered  by  the  Board. 

6.  The  contract  shall  provide  for  the  faithful  and  continuous  prosecu- 
tion of  the  work  provided  therein  and  for  the  completion  of  the  same 
within  the  time  to  be  determined  therein  by  the  Board  upon  consulta- 
tion with  the  contractor. 

XXII.  EXPLANATION  AND  CORRECTIONS 

Any  doubt  as  to  the  meaning  of  these  specifications  and  any  obscurity 
in  the  wording  of  them  will  be  explained  by  the  Board,  who  shall  have 
the  right  to  correct  any  error  or  omissions  in  them  when  such  correc- 
tion is  necessary  for  the  proper  fulfillment  of  their  intention. 

XXIII.  CLASSIFICATION  OF  MATERIALS 

Rock  is  defined  as  any  material  that  requires  blasting  with  dynamite 
or  other  explosive  for  economical  excavation.  All  other  materials  shall 
be  called  earth. 


OPEN  DITCH 

I.  SLOPES 

The  slopes  desired  in  all  ditches  are  one  foot  horizontal  to  one  foot 
vertical;  should  the  contractor  not  be  able  to  slope  the  sides  in  con- 
formity to  the  above  one  to  one  form,  he  will  be  allowed  to  dig  the 
sides  in  steps,  but  the  inner  angle  of  the  steps  must  be  outside  of  the 
proposed  prism  of  the  ditch  so  as  to  leave  the  ditch  free  of  any  material 
within  the  designed  prism,  and  the  bottom  of  the  ditch  shall  not  be 
so  wide  as  to  make  the  slopes  too  steep.  (Make  slopes  1%  to  1 in  sand.) 

II.  BERMS 

All  material  removed  in  the  excavation  of  the  ditches  shall  be  removed 
to  a distance  of  not  less  than  8 feet  from  the  top  of  the  slope  of  the 
adjacent  side  of  ditch,  unless  a less  distance  is  ordered  by  the  Board. 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


49 


The  berms  shall  be  left  practically  free  from  all  sods,  roots,  earth 
and  other  material  excavated  from  the  ditch.  Any  deviation  of  the 
edge  of  the  ditch  from  a true  line  may  be  considered  a defect  and  upon 
the  order  of  the  engineer  shall  be  corrected  without  expense  to  the 

district. 

III.  SPOIL  BANKS 

1.  All  material  removed  in  the  excavation  of  the  ditches  and  laterals 
herein  provided  for  shall  be  placed  on  either  bank  in  as  nearly  equal 
quantities  as  can  be  determined  by  ordinary  care  and  shall  be  distrib- 
uted evenly  along  the  bank,  except  as  herein  provided  and  subject  to 
such  changes  by  the  Board  or  their  engineer  as  in  their  judgment  the 
condition  of  the  adjacent  lands  may  warrant. 

Whenever  a spoil  bank  would  obstruct  the  flow  of  surface  water 
from  a ditch  or  watercourse,  the  contractor  unless  otherwise  agreed, 
shall  furnish  and  install  a flume  or  pipe  to  conduct  the  water  from 
such  ditch  or  watercourse  to  the  bottom  of  the  outlet  ditch  to  to  avoid 
erosion  of  the  side  of  the  ditch. 

2.  Where  a ditch  is  wholly  within  the  land  of  one  person,  or  persons 
owning  such  land  jointly  or  as  tenants  in  common,  openings  in  the 
waste  bank  on  both  sides  of  the  ditch,  at  points  directly  opposite,  shall 
be  left,  so  that  a private  crossing  may  be  had  at  such  points  as  shall 
be  agreed  upon  by  the  Board  and  the  owner  or  owners  of  the  land. 

IV.  MEASUREMENTS  AND  PAYMENTS 

1.  The  material  removed  shall  be  measured  by  the  cubic  yard  in  the 
cut  prism  of  the  ditches,  and  the  yardage  shall  be  computed  from  the 
natural  ground  level,  and  no  deductions  will  be  made  for  old  channels. 
The  contractor  shall  furnish  every  facility  for  such  measurements  and 
will  make  no  claim  for  any  delay  incident  to  such  measurement.  The 
engineer  shall  take  accurate  measurements  upon  the  commencement 
and  after  the  completion  of  the  work,  and  from  such  measurements  will 
determine  the  amount  of  material  removed. 

2.  If  the  contractor  shall  construct  any  ditch  wider  or  deeper  than 
Called  for  in  the  specifications,  or  wider  and  deeper  than  is  otherwise 
agreed  upon  by  him  with  the  Board,  such  fact  will  not  entitle  him  to 
increased  compensation  by  reason  of  such  increased  width  or  depth  and 
shall  not  lessen  the  berm  elsewhere  provided  for  in  these  specifications. 

V.  QUICK  SAND 

If  quick  sand  is  encountered  in  prism  of  the  ditch  the  Board  shall  be 
notified  immediately  and  may  order  the  grade  of  ditch  lowered  one  or 
more  feet  and  continued  at  such  increased  depth  until  said  sand  dis- 
appears from  the  prism  of  the  ditch,  or  until  such  increased  depth  is 
considered  unnecessary  by  the  Board,  and  the  additional  material  re- 
moved will  be  paid  for  at  unit  prices.  Any  filling  of  the  ditch  because 
of  quick  sand  after  its  construction  in  accordance  with  the  directions 
of  the  Board  shall  not  be  cause  for  refusal  to  accept  the  ditch  when 
completed.  This  provision  applies  wherever  unstable  soil  is  encountered. 

VI.  FLOATING  DREDGES 

The  contractor  has  the  right  with  the  approval  of  the  board  to 
maintain  dams-  to  control  the  elevation  of  water  for  the  practical  oper- 
ation of  floating  dredges  and  shall  not  be  responsible  for  damages 
caused  by  the  reasonable  exercise  of  that  right. 

TILE 

I.  DETAILED  SPECIFICATIONS 

A.  STAKES,  STATION  LINES  AND  GRADES:  All  trenches  shall  be 

dug  accurately  to  the  line  and  grade  as  given  by  an  engineer,  which 
shall  be  indicated  by  stakes  set  at  station  numbers,  100  feet  apart  or 
oftener  as  he  may  determine.  The  contractor  shall  protect  and  pre- 
serve these  stakes  and  lines  until  the  work  shall  have  been  completed. 
Any  stakes,  bench  marks  or  other  information  unnecessarily  or  care- 
lessly disturbed  or  destroyed  by  the  contractor  shall  be  reset  at  the 
contractor’s  expense. 

B.  QUICKSAND.  If  quicksand  be  encountered  in  excavating  any 
trench,  the  work  shall  be  stopped  and  the  Board  or  engineer  be  at  once 
notified.  Instructions  for  the  prosecution  of  the  work  will  be  given 
the  contractor,  and  any  expense  caused  the  contractor  by  any  change 
in  plan  or  method  of  construction  shall  be  determined  by  the  engineer 
and  paid  by  the  board. 

C.  TRENCHING:  The  tile  trenches  shall  be  excavated  on  the  line 

indicated  and  of  such  width  and  depth  as  shall  be  necessary  to  lay  the 
tile  to  the  grade  line  as  given  by  the  engineer.  A sufficient'  space  'must 
be  allowed  between  the  side  of  the  tile  and  the  side  of  the  trench  so 


50 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


that  it  may  be  properly  blinded.  No  deviation  from  straight  lines  or 
curves  will  be  permitted  except  by  a written  consent  of  the  engineer  or 
Board.  In  deep  trenches,  in  soft  material,  bracing  and  sheeting  must 
be  used  in  order  to  properly  protect  the  work  during  construction. 

D.  LAYING  THE  TILE:  The  laying  of  the  tile  must  begin  at  the 

lower  end  and  proceed  up  grade.  The  tile  must  be  laid  as  closely  as 
practicable  and  in  lines  free  from  irregular  crooks,  the  tile  being  turned 
about  until  a close  fitting  joint  is  formed.  When,  in  making  turns,  or 
by  reason  of  irregular  shaped  tile,  a crack  of  one-fourth  inch  or  more 
is  necessarily  left,  it  must  be  securely  covered  with  broken  pieces  of 
tile.  Junction  with  branch  lines  must  be  carefully  and  securely  made. 

E.  BLINDING  TILE:  After  the  tile  have  been  laid  and  inspected, 

the  tile  shall  be  properly  blinded  with  top  soil  and  protected  so  they 
will  not  be  disturbed  when  the  trench  is  back-filled.  In  case  the  mate- 
rial in  the  trench  is  sand  or  other  loose  material,  and  is  likely  to  run 
into  the  joints  and  fill  the  tile,  the  joints  shall  be  protected  by  sod, 
top  soil,  good  building  paper  or  in  such  other  manner  as  the  engineer 
shall  direct. 

F.  BACKFILLING:  After  the  laying  and  blinding  of  the  tile  has 

been  inspected,  the  trenches  shall  be  back-filled  even  with  ground  sur- 
face, and  the  work  may  be  done  in  any  manner  acceptable  and  satis- 
factory to  the  engineer.  During  freezing  weather  the  filling  must  im- 
mediately follow  inspection.  In  case  the  soil  is  suitable,  the  last  spad- 
ing in  digging  the  trench  may  be  thrown  on  top  of  the  tile  already 
laid  and  properly  blinded  with  top  soil. 

In  trenches  more  than  6 feet  deep,  no  more  than  6 feet  shall  be 
back  at  one  time,  and  sufficient  time  shall  intervene  before  the  next 
filling  to  permit  packing. 

G.  BULKHEADS:  At  the  outlet  of  the  main  tile  there  shall  be  con- 

structed a bulkhead  of  concrete  according  to  dimensions  as  given  on 
plans.  The  bulkhead  shall  be  made  in  a form  consisting  of  planks  or 
boards  closely  nailed  together.  The  proportions  of  concrete  will  be 
1 cement,  3 sand  and  5 crushed  stone.  The  latter  ranging  in  size  from 
% in.  to  IV2  in.  or  one  part  of  cement  and  seven  parts  of  clean  gravel. 
The  outside  surface  of  the  concrete  must  be  spaded  during  pouring  and 
after  the  forms  are  removed  any  rough  places  should  be  made  smooth 
by  filling  in  with  mortar.  Open  outlets  of  the  tile  shall  be  protected 
by  one-half  inch  iron  rods  placed  vertically  at  a distance  apart  of  not 
more  than  2%  inches  from  center  to  center.  The  bulkhead  must  be 
completed  before  the  laying  of  tile  is  begun  unless  otherwise  ordered 
by  the  Board. 

H.  LATERAL  CONNECTIONS  TO  MAINS:  All  lateral  lines  of  tile 

shall  have  the  top  of  the  lateral  level  with  the  top  of  the  main.  Wher- 
ever it  is  necessary  to  connect  a small  tile  with  a large  size  without 
the  use  of  a wye  or  a Tee,  it  shall  be  properly  blinded  with  broken 
tile  or  by  means  of  cement  concrete.  All  junctions  shall  be  made  from 
the  side  of  the  main  tile  and  not  from  the  top.  Lateral  tile  at  a higher 
elevation  than  main  tile  will  have  the-  grade  changed  fifteen  feet  from 
the  main  tile,  so  as  to  approach  the  mam  at  a steeper  grade  and  inter- 
sect main  tile  at  the  side  near  the  top. 

K.  QUALITY  OF  TILE:  Drain  tile  shall  be  subject  to  the  inspec- 

tion of  the  engineer.  He  shall  reject  all  tile  that  appear  inferior  on 
visual  inspection.  He  shall  then  take  samples  of  poorest  of  the  superior 
grade  and  test  them  for  strength  and  absorption,  and  if  any  of  these 
samples  has  an  absorption  greater  than  10  per  cent  of  the  dry  weight 
of  the  tile  or  a supporting  strength  less  than  that  of  Extra  Quality 
tile  (A.  S.  T.  M.  Classification)  the  entire  shipment  shall  be  rejected. 
If  the  contractor  desires  a re-test,  the  engineer  shall  select  the  samples 
for  the  contractor  to  send  prepaid  to  the  State  Chief  Engineer,  whose 
test  and  decision  shall  be  final  and  binding. 

In  all  soils  except  peat  and  sand  under  peat,  press-made,  steam  cured, 
well  mixed  and  well  proportioned  concrete  tile  shall  be  considered  the 
equivalent  of  hard  burned  shale  tile. 

II.  CHANGES  AND  ALTERATIONS 

A.  The  location  of  a main  or  lateral  or  both,  and  the  size  of  the  tile 
shall  be  subject  to  change  by  and  under  the  direction  of  the  Board  and 
its  engineer. 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


51 


SPECIMEN  OF  FINAL  REPORT 

State  of  Wisconsin, 

County  Court  for  Dane  County, 


In  Re  Farm  Drainage  No.  7 (Berry)  L 


Now,  comes  the  Farm  Drainage  Board  of  Dane  County,  Wisconsin, 
and  files  its  final  report  in  the  above  entitled  drainage  as  directed  by 
the  order  of  the  above  entitled  court  dated  December  12,  1921,  and  in 
accord  with  Section  1368 — 8 of  the  Wisconsin  Statutes  as  follows: 

1.  That  subsequent  to  the  entry  of  the  above  mentioned  order,  the 
board,  with  the  aid  of  an  engineer,  approved  by  the  State  Chief  Engi- 
neer of  the  State  of  Wisconsin,  proceeded  to  lay  out  drains  of  suffi- 
cient depth  and  capacity  to  adequately  drain  the  lands  proposed  to  be 
drained  and  in  determining  the  depth  and  capacity  of  such  drains,  the 
board  and  its  engineer  considered  the  drainage  of  other  lands  lying 
above  and  draining  in  the  direction  of,  through  and  along  the  general 
course  of  the  proposed  drain;  and  that  the  location,  size,  length,  depth, 
grade  and  manner  and  method  of  construction  of  said  drains  are  more 
particularly  set  forth  in  the  specifications  on  file  in  the  office  of  the 
board  and  attached  hereto,  marked  Exhibit  A,  and  by  the  blue  print 
copies  of  the  map  and  profiles  heretofore  filed  in  the  above  entitled 
court. 

2.  That  in  assessing  the  benefits  that  will  accrue  to  the  various  par- 
cels of  land  and  corporations  benefited  and  in  assessing  the  benefits 
to  farm  lands,  the  board  has  ascertained  and  considered  the  depth, 
character  and  quality  of  the  surface  and  sub-soils,  the  thoroughness 
and  difficulties  of  drainage,  the  uses  to  which  the  land  when  drained 
will  be  adapted  and  all  other  elements  that,  in  the  judgment  and 
knowledge  of  the  members  of  the  board,  will  enter  into  any  increase 
in  the  value  of  such  parcels  of  land  resulting  from  the  proposed  work. 

3.  That  the  estimated  cost  of  construction  of  said  proposed  work, 
as  nearly  as  the  same  may  now  be  ascertained,  is  the  sum  of  $9,736.35 
and  amounts  to  approximately  46  per  cent  of  the  total  assessments  of 
benefits. 

4.  That  damages  should  be  awarded  to  such  lands  and  corporations 
as  in  the  judgment  of  the  board  will  be  damaged  thereby  and  that  the 
amount  of  such  damages  is  the  sum  of  $1,118.70. 

5.  That  the  names  of  the  owners  and  the  descriptions  of  the  lands 
and  corporations  benefited  and  damaged,  the  amounts  of  the  assess- 
ment of  benefits  and  cost  of  construction  levied  against  and  the  awards 
of  damages  awarded  to  such  lands  and  corporations,  together  with  the 
net  assessment  for  construction  against  the  same  are  as  follows: 


52 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


Names  of  owners  and  description 
of  lands 

Assessed 

benefits 

Assessed  for 
construction 

Damages 

Net  assess- 
ment for 
construction 

Sec.  24,  T.  8 R.  7,  Jacob  Nonn, 
Pt.  of  NE%  of  NE14  as  Des. 
in  Vol.  195  of  Deeds  Page  38 

Prank  Dermody,  NE14  of  NE^i 
less  parcel  Des.  in  Vol.  195  of 
Deeds  Page  38 

$ 188.10 

44.00 

1,721.00 

$ 88.53 

20.24 

791.66 

$ 86.53 

20.24 

676.26 

Prank  Dermody  SE1^  of  NE*4_- 

$115.40 

Here  follows  the  rest  of  the  assessment  roll  with  totals  for  each 
column. 

6.  The  above  lands  included  within  the  proposed  drainage  lie  be- 
tween steep  bluffs  from  which  the  waters  will  rush  in  considerable 
volume  in  times  of  freshets.  If  this  water  were  uncontrolled  and  were 
permitted  to  flow  over  the  berms  and  banks  of  the  ditches,  consider- 
able erosion  would  likely  result;  that  in  the  judgment  of  the  commis- 
sioners at  various  places  along  the  main  ditch,  it  would  be  advisable 
to  provide  flood  water  inlets  into  the  ditch  by  extending  sewer  pipes 
from  the  surface  of  the  water  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  outside  of 
the  waste  banks,  such  pipes  pointing  diagonally  down  stream.  The 
exact  location  of  these  inlets  has  not  been  determined  but  the  cost  of 
the  same  has  been  included  in  the  above  estimate  of  cost  of  construc- 
tion. 

7.  That  attached  hereto  and  made  a part  hereof,  is  a report  of  the 
Chief  Engineer  of  the  State  of  Wisconsin  marked  Exhibit  B. 

8.  The  statutes  permit  the  board,  upon  the  approval  of  the  court,  to 
borrow  money  and  issue  bonds  to  meet  the  cost  of  construction  and 
further  permit  that  the  assessments  for  cost  of  construction  may  he 
made  payable  at  once  or  in  annual  installments  not  exceeding  fifteen 
in  number.  The  board  is  not  informed  as  to  whether  any  of  the  own- 
ers of  lands  and  the  corporations  above  described  will  be  in  a position 
to  pay  or  will  pay  the  whole  or  any  considerable  portion  of  the  assess- 
ment of  costs  within  a short  period  of  time  after  the  confirmation  of 
this  order,  but  the  board  is  of  the  opinion  that  only  a few,  if  any,  will 
make  such  payments  of  the  cost  of  construction.  It  is  therefore  prob- 
able that  it  will  be  necessary  either  to  borrow  money  or  issue  bonds 
for  the  greater  portion,  if  not  all,  of  the  cost  of  construction.  For 
these  reasons  and  in  view  of  the  present  condition  of  the  bond  market, 
the  board  makes  no  recommendation  at  this  time,  believing  that  it 
will  be  to  the  advantage  of  the  drainage  to  defer  the  issue  of  bonds 
as  long  as  possible  and  therefore  leaves  the  determination  of  the  pro- 
cedure to  be  followed  in  financing  the  work  until  the  hearing  of  the 
court  upon  this  report. 

9.  The  board  further  reports  that  it  will  he  necessary  to  borrow 
money  at  once  to  meet  some  of  the  expenses  of  organization  prior  to 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


53 


the  date  that  may  be  determined  for  issuing  bonds  or  borrowing 
moneys  for  the  payment  of  the  cost  of  construction  and  recommends 
that  it  be  authorized  to  borrow  moneys  for  such  purposes  in  such  a 
sum  and  under  such  conditions  as  the  court  shall  determine  upon  the 
hearing  of  this  report. 

WHEREFORE,  the  Farm  Drainage  Board  of  Dane  County  submits 
this  report  for  the  favorable  consideration  of  the  court. 

Dated  February  1922. 

(Signed)  


Farm  Drainage  Board  of  Dane  County. 

SPECIMEN  ORDER  OF  JUDGE 

State  of  Wisconsin, 

County  Court  for  Dane  County, 


In  Re  Farm  Drainage  No.  6 (Middleton) 

J 

Whereas,  the  final  report  of  the  Farm  Drainage  Board  of  Dane 
County,  in  the  above  matter  has  been  filed  in  this  court  and  which 
report  sets  forth  the  assessments  of  benefits  and  cost  of  construction 
and  awards  of  damages  assessed  against  and  awarded  to  all  lands 
within  said  drainage; 

Now,  on  motion  of  , attorneys  for 

said  drainage, 

IT  IS  ORDERED:  That  said  final  report  be  heard  and  examined 

before  this  court  cn  the  day  of  September,  1921,  at 

o’clock  in  the noon  in  the  county  court  room 

in  the  court  house  in  the  city  of  Madison  in  said  Dane  County,  at 
which  time  and  place  all  interested  persons  may  appear  and  be  heard. 
All  objections  must  be  in  writing  and  comply  with  Subsection  8 of 
Section  1368 — 3 of  the  Wisconsin  Statutes. 

Dated  , 1921. 

By  the  Court. 


County  Judge. 

SPECIMEN  ADVERTISEMENT  INVITING  BIDS 

Exhibit  “B”  of  Contract. 


Office  of  Farm  Drainage  Board  of County,  Wisconsin. 

Wisconsin, 19. . . 


Notice  is  hereby  given  that  sealed  bids  will  be  received  at  the  office 

of in Wisconsin,  until  

o’clock  ....  M 19...,  for  the  construction  of  the 

following  work  in  Farm  Drainage  No : 


54 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  351 


Open  Ditches. 


miles  . . . 

. . . .cubic  yards 

average  depth  .., 

. . . .max. 

depth. 

miles  . . . 

. . . .cubic  yards 

average  depth  ... 

. . . .max. 

depth. 

miles  . . . 

. . . .cubic  yards 

average  depth  ... 

. . . .max. 

depth. 

feet 

. . . .diameter 

Tile. 

....  average  depth 

. . .max. 

depth. 

feet 

. . . .diameter 

....  average  depth 

depth. 

feet 

. . . .diameter 

....  average  depth 

, . . .max. 

depth. 

Extras. 


Maps,  plans  and  specifications  may  be  seen  at  the  office  of 

or  may  be  procured  by  writing  to  

at Wisconsin.  A certified  check  for per 

cent  of  the  amount  of  the  bid,  must  accompany  the  hid,  but  in  no  case 

shall  a check  in  excess  of be  required.  Bids  may  be 

on  all  or  any  portion  of  the  work. 

The  board  reserves  the  right  to  reject  any  or  all  bids. 

(Signed)  

Secretary  Farm  Drainage  Board, 
County,  Wisconsin. 


SPECIMEN  OF  AGREEMENT 

State  of  Wisconsin,  

County  of  

Farm  Drainage 

(Substitute  “commissioners”  for  “board”  in  the  case  of  drainage 
districts.) 

AGREEMENT 
Exhibit  “C”  of  Contract. 

THIS  AGREEMENT,  made  and  entered  into  this day 

of  19...,  by  and  between  

herein  called  the  Contractor  , and  the  Farm  Drainage 

Board  of  County  in  the  State  of  Wisconsin,  herein 

called  the  board,  in  accordance  with  an  act  of  the  legislature  of  the 
State  of  Wisconsin,  being  Chapter  446,  Laws  of  1919,  and  all  acts  sup- 
plementary and  amendatory  thereto. 

WITNESSETH,  That  the  Contractor for  and  in 

consideration  of  the  sum  of  approximately  

dollars,  to  be  paid  as  provided  in  the  Specifications,  hereby  covenants 
and  agrees  to  and  with  the  board  as  follows,  to-wit: 


An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm 


55 


ARTICLE  1.  That  the  Contractor will  construct  and 

finish  in  every  respect,  in  the  most  substantial  and  workftianlike  man- 
ner, and  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  board  and  the  Engineer  appointed  by 
the  above  named  board  to  survey  and  superintend  the  work  to  be  per- 
formed under  this  contract  the  following  work  at  the  following  sched- 
ule of  prices  in  accordance  with  the  Plans  and  Specifications  which  are 
made  Exhibit  “A”  of  this  contract 


ARTICLE  II.  That  the  Contractor ..  .will  fully  complete  the 

said  work  not  later  than  the  day  of  

19...,  and  that  time  shall  be  the  essence  of  this  Contract;  and  that  if 
the  Contractor. .. shall  fail  to  complete  said  work  within  the 

time  above  limited, shall  forfeit  and  pay  to  the  board 

as  liquidated  damages  for  such  default  the  sum  of  

Dollars  for  every  subsequent  day  that  such  failure  shall  continue,  un- 
less the  time  limit  is  extended  for  good  cause  by  the  board  in  writing. 

ARTICLE  III.  That  the  Contractor ...  .has  executed  a satisfactory 
bond  to  the  board  conditioned  upon  the  faithful  performance  of  this 
contract  and  saving  the  board  from  any  loss  due  to  the  failure  of 
the  Contractor  in  his  performance. 

ARTICLE  IV.  That  the  Contractor.  . agrees  to  start  excavation  on 

or  before  the day  of , 192.  . .,  providing  he 

has  been  duly  notified  by  the  board  that  it  has  funds  available  to  pay 
for  the  work  as  it  proceeds. 

IN  WITNESS  WHEREOF,  The  Contractor. . .and  the  board  have 

hereunto  affixed  their  signatures  this  day  of 

192... 


Contractor. 

Witnesses: 


Board. 

In  all  of  these  forms  for  drainage  districts  use  “District”  for 
“Farm  Drainage,”  “Commissioners”  for  “Board”  and  “Chapter  557 
Laws  of  1919”  for  “Chapter  446  Laws  of  1919.” 


W”\  SJo 


Bulletin  352  February,  1923 


FIVE  FARM  FACTS' 


1.  Progress  in  agriculture  is  possible  only  through 
use  of  better  methods. 

2.  Better  methods  can  come  only  by  finding  and 
trying  out  new  ideas. 

3.  The  individual  farmer  has  neither  the  time  nor 
the  money  to  work  out  many  new  ideas. 

4.  The  State,  therefore,  provides  the  Experiment 
Station  to  do  this  work  for  the  benefit  of  its  citizens. 

5.  This  report  gives  the  reader  the  experimental  re- 
sults found  and  tested  in  1921-1922. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Introduction  5 

Feeding  Eggs  to  Baby  Chicks  Gets  Results 7 

Quality  of  Hatching  Eggs  Depends  on  Ration 9 

The  Influence  of  Specific  Rations  on  Animal  Growth 10 

Do  Hay-Curing  Methods  Affect  Milk  Cows?... 15 

Recent  Studies  in  Vitamines 16 

Alcohol  and  Acetone  from  Waste  Materials 18 

Yellow  Versus  White  Corn  for  Swine  Feeding 18 

Efficient  Rations  for  Fall  Pigs 21 

Home-Grown  Rations  for  Milk  Production 22 

Feeding  Trials  with  Beef  Cattle 23 

Feeding  Trials  with  Draft  Foals 24 

New  Index  Shows  Quality  of  Animal  Body 25 

Inactive  Ovaries  Cause  of  Male  Plumage  in  Hens 25 

Inheritance  of  Milk  and  Meat  Production  in  Cattle 27 

Breeding  Improves  Strains  of  Sweet  Corn 28 

Breeding  Jimson  Weed  for  Higher  Atropine  Content 29 

Alfalfa,  Wisconsin’s  Best  Hay  Crop 29 

Alfalfa  in  the  Sandy  Sections 30 

Recent  Discoveries  for  Alfalfa  Growers 31 

Scarify  Alfalfa  Seed  Shortly  Before  Planting 36 

Lack  of  Snow  Causes  Heavy  Alfalfa  Losses 37 

Emergency  Hay  Crops  Often  Help 40 

Seeding  Clover  and  Timothy  on  Winter  Grains 41 

Soybeans  an  Important  Wisconsin  Crop 41 

Cold  Resistant  Corn  Fills  Need  of  North 42 

White  Cross  Oats  a New  Successful  Strain 44 

“Forward” — A New  High  Yielding  Oats 45 

Oat  Lodging  Problems  Studied 45 

Wheats  for  Wisconsin 45 

Producing  Barley  Seed  Free  from  Stripe  Disease 46 

Planting  Distance  of  Sunflowers  for  Silage 47 

Rutabagas  Outyield  Mangels  in  Northern  Wisconsin 47 

Kudzu  Not  Successful  in  Wisconsin 47 

New  Varieties  of  Peas  for  Wisconsin 48 

Improvement  of  Sweet  Corn  for  Canning  Purposes 48 

Purebred  Grains  an  Educational  Factor 49 

Recent  Developments  in  the  Hemp  Industry 50 

Recent  Work  in  Weed  Control 51 

Wildfire  Disease  in  Wisconsin  Tobacco 53 

Rotation  of  Crops  Pays  with  Tobacco 57 

Potato  Mosaic  Influenced  by  Temperature 58 

Nitrogen  Reserve  in  Apple  Trees 59 

Studies  in  Apple  Scab  Control 59 

Cherry  Leaf  Spot  Investigation 60 

Relation  of  Plant  Diseases  to  Temperature  and  Moisture 61 

Disease  Resistance  in  the  Onion 62 

Cucumber  Mosaic  Investigations 62 

Development  of  Cabbage  Resistant  to  Yellows 63 

Crown  Gall  Investigated 63 

Sprays  for  Anthracnose  in  Black  Raspberries 65 

How  to  Succeed  in  Wintering  Bees 65 

Fighting  American  Foulbrood  with  Sodium  Hypochlorite 66 

It  Pays  to  Spray  for  Potato  Leaf  hopper 67 

Effect  of  Nicotine  Dusts  on  Crop  Insects 68 

Controlling  the  S'triped  Cucumber  Beetle 70 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


Page 

Control  of  the  Pea  Aphis 72 

Sawdust  Cheapens  Grasshopper  Poison 73 

The  Red-Necked  Cane  Borer  on  Raspberries 73 

Moldy  Bread  Outbreak  Due  to  Infected  Flour 74 

Yeast  Causes  Sauerkraut  Discoloration 76 

Grouping  Legume  Nodule  Bacteria 76 

Experiments  with  Silage 77 

Lime  and  Inoculation  Affect  Nitrogen  Fixing  Capacity  of  Legumes.  77 

Plowing  Under  Green  Brush 78 

“Stinker”  Swiss  Cheese  Increasing 79 

High  Quality  Milk  Shut  Out  by  Laboratory  Tests 79 

Trials  with  Tuberculosis  Vaccine 80 

Fur  Farming  Increasing  in  Wisconsin 80 

Goiter  in  Calves  and  Sheep  Prevented  by  Iodine 84 

Infectious  Abortion  in  Swine 85 

Contagious  Abortion  in  Cattle 86 

Tuberculosis  in  Poultry 86 

Danger  Lies  in  Feeding  Horses  Silage 87 

Calf  Diphtheria  or  Stomatitis  in  Wisconsin 88 

Better  Methods  Important  in  Swiss  Cheese  Making 88 

Salts  Affect  Heat  Coagulation  of  Evaporated  Milk 90 

Use  of  Alcohol  Test  Limited 91 

Denatured  Alcohols  for  Fat  Extraction  Test 91 

Fishy  Flavor  of  Butter 92 

Cooperative  Butter  Marketing  Needed 92 

The  Town  as  the  Farmer’s  Service  Station 95 

Analysis  of  Cost  Shows  Why  Some  Farms  Pay 96 

Farm  Tenacy  Increasing  in  Wisconsin 97 

Fertilizer  Needs  of  Soils  Determined  by  Greenhouse  Tests 98 

Methods  of  Applying  Fertilizers 99 

Spots  on  Alfalfa  Leaves  May  Mean  “Potash  Starvation” 100 

Phosphate  Fertilizers  Produce  Well  at  Ashland 102 

Why  Some  Soils  Become  More  Acid  Than  Others 103 

Liming  Shows  Good  Results  at  Spooner 104 

Fertilizer  Work  at  Spooner 105 

How  Can  Stable  Manure  Be  Best  Utilized? 106 

Green  Manuring  Alone  Does  not  Maintain  Fertility 106 

Deep  Tillage  Trials  at  Ashland 106 

Managing  S'andy  Soils  at  Hancock 107 

Progress  of  the  Soil  Survey 108 

Deep  Ditches  and  More  Tile  for  Drainage 110 

Drain  Tile  Investigations Ill 

Brush  Plow  Improved  by  Staff  Engineers 113 

Marsh  Plowing  With  Tractors 116 

Worn  Parts  Greatly  Increase  Mower  Draft 116 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


H.  L.  Russell  and  F.  B.  Morrison 


00  OFTEN  the  business  of  farming  is  looked  upon  as  merely 


the  cultivation  of  the  soil  for  the  production  of  cereal  crops. 


In  Wisconsin,  in  earlier  years  at  least,  these  were  largely  mar- 
keted as  grain.  More  modern  methods  have  shown  the  superiority 
of  a system  of  livestock  husbandry  in  which  crop  production  is  only 
one  part  of  the  industry.  The  old  system  developed  grain  farming 
with  its  loss  of  soil  fertility  and  often  unsatisfactory  returns  to  the 
producer.  The  more  recent  system  markets  the  crops  through  the 
medium  of  animals,  thereby  conserving  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and 
providing  a better  remuneration  for  the  farmer.  In  these  times, 
when  the  economic  situation  of  the  farmer  is  relatively  trying  be- 
cause the  post-war  deflation  of  prices  has  greatly  disturbed  the 
balance  of  exchange  values  between  raw  materials,  such  as  the  farmer 
produces,  and  the  finished  commodities  of  commerce,  it  is  of  exceed- 
ing importance  that  the  products  of  agriculture  be  marketed  in  an 
orderly  fashion  through  the  most  suitable  channels  and  in  as  nearly 
a finished  form  as  possible. 

We  in  Wisconsin  have  learned  that  livestock  constitutes  the  main- 
stay of  our  agriculture.  By  marketing  the  products  of  the  soil 
through  the  medium  of  our  animal  industry,  this  state  has  carried 
through  the  period  of  hard  times  in  a manner  which  is  second  to 
none;  and  the  livestock  phase  of  our  farming  has  become  the  ideal 
of  many  states  less  fortunate  than  ours.  In  the  pursuit  of  this  in- 
dustry it  has  been  well  established  that  not  only  is  good  stock  re- 
quired, but  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  animals  be  well 
nurtured.  In  the  conversion  of  field  crops  into  animal  products,  feed- 
ing methods  are  of  prime  importance,  and  in  this  field  the  Experiment 
Station  plays  an  exceedingly  important  role. 

Modern  methods  have  long  passed  the  mere  feeding  trials  of  earlier 
days  which  simply  compared  one  feed  with  another.  More  and  more 
it  is  realized  that  the  work  of  the  chemist  and  the  physiologist  must 
now  precede  the  labor  of  the  practical  feeder.  The  new  discoveries 
in  nutrition,  many  of  which  have  come  directly  from  the  work  of  this 
Experiment  Station,  have  given  an  entirely  new  concept  to  the  whole 
field  of  animal  feeding.  Farmers  now  realize  the  part  which  vitamines 
play  in  the  nutrition  of  livestock  (even  though  their  character  is  not 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


yet  known) ; that  the  successful  growth  of  animal  life  is  quite  as 
dependent  upon  the  presence  of  these  hitherto  unrecognized  sub- 
stances as  upon  the  energy-producing  qualities  of  the  feeds  em- 
ployed; and  that  success  is  best  attained  when  these  growth-stimu- 
lating materials  are  furnished  in  abundance. 

For  the  purpose  of  rapid  experimentation  the  chick  with  its  early 
maturity  offers  peculiar  advantages.  The  importance  of  the  suc- 
ceeding studies  here  reported  is  of  special  significance  in  Wisconsin 
agriculture  as  poultry  is  rapidly  becoming  an  important  and  power- 
ful adjunct  to  the  dairy  cow.  In  the  decade  between  the  last  and 
the  foregoing  census,  the  value  of  poultry  products  in  this  state  has 
increased  250  per  cent.  In  1920  the  poultry  output  was  over  ten  and 
three-quarter  millions  of  dollars.  In  the  last  decade  Wisconsin  has 
passed  both  Michigan  and  New  York  in  total  poultry  on  farms,  Wis- 
consin registering  nearly  eleven  and  one-half  million  fowls.  In  the 
period  of  stress  through  which  agriculture  is  passing,  no  phase  of 
farming  has  been  more  stable  nor  maintained  better  prices  on  the 
whole  than  the  products  of  the  dairy  and  the  poultry  yard.  In  pull- 
ing out  of  the  present  economic  situation  in  agriculture,  the  state  of 
Wisconsin  can  do  no  better  than  to  combine  the  enviable  lead  which 
she  already  has  in  dairying  with  steady  advance  of  other  lines  of 
the  livestock  industry  in  a highly  diversified  system  of  general  farming. 


THE  KEEPING  OF  RECORDS  and  selective  breeding 
have  been  among  the  primary  factors  in  the  success  of 
Wisconsin’s  dairy  industry.  The  average  yearly  butterfat 
production  per  cow  in  the  United  States  is  only  127  pounds. 
The  average  production  of  Wisconsin’s  cows  exceeds  that 
figure  by  nearly  50  pounds;  while  those  in  the  Wisconsin  cow 
testing  associations  reach  an  average  of  265  pounds,  a record 
equaling  that  of  Holland  whose  development  has  long  stood 
as  a goal  in  the  dairy  world. 

Similar  achievements  are  possible  with  poultry.  The 
average  egg  production  of  the  United  States  (1920  census) 
was  only  53  eggs  per  year.  Wisconsin’s  production  exceeds 
this  average  but  slightly.  At  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station  150  hens  have  averaged  over  200  eggs  per  year,  and 
16  hens  have  individual  records  exceeding  250.  Careful 
breeding  and  selection  will  increase  profits  in  poultry  as  in 
the  dairy  industry. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


7 


Feeding  Eggs  to  Baby  Chicks  Gets  Results. 

AS'  THE  DAIRY  industry  has  developed  to  a stage  where  a large 
percentage  of  the  milk  is  produced  during  the  winter  months — 
a period  during  which  the  cows  of  the  early  pioneers  were 
usually  dry — so  the  poultry  industry  is  rapidly  going  into  the  produc- 
tion of  out-of-season  eggs. 

In  order  to  produce  winter  eggs  successfully  it  is  necessary  to  hatch 
the  pullets  early  in  the  spring  so  that  they  will  be  mature  and  capable 


FIG.  1.— HEALTHY  CHICKS  AT  SIX  WEEKS  OF  AGE 
These  chicks  were  fed  white  corn,  middlings,  eggs,  salt,  grit  and  bone. 

of  laying  during  the  period  of  high  pric.ed  eggs.  It  is  not  practicable 
to  force  immature  pullets  for  egg  production,  as  a pullet  must  be  well 
grown,  well  fleshed,  and  have  nearly  completed  her  adult  plumage  be- 
fore it  is  desirable  for  her  to  start  laying.  If  a pullet  starts  to  lay  too 
early  only  a few  small  eggs  will  be  produced  and  then  a false  molt 


FIG.  2. — CHICKENS  NEED  VITAMINES 
This  lot  of  six  were  fed  a ration  like  the  others  except  that  they  re- 
ceived no  eggs.  These  chicks  died  shortly  after  this  photograph  was 
taken.  A small  amount  of  egg  or  other  vitamine-rich  food  would  have 
saved  all  of  them. 


with  a two  or  three  months  rest  period  is  likely  to  follow.  November 
and  December  eggs  bring  the  highest  price,  and  consequently  progres- 
sive farmers  are  hatching  their  chicks  early  enough  in  the  spring  so 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


as  to  have  them  well  growg  and  ready  to  start  laying  in  October  or 
November.  In  raising  early  spring  chicks,  especially  when  it  is  done 
on  a large  scale,  the  problem  of  greatest  importance  is  that  of  pro- 
viding a proper  ration.  The  speckled  hen  that  in  former  days  reared 
her  nondescript  brood  in  the  summer  months  did  not  require  much 
attention,  for  whatever  deficiency  may  have  existed  in  the  ration  was 
easily  corrected  by  the  food  which  nature  supplied  to  the  chicks;  but 
the  poultryman  of  today  finds  such  methods  impracticable. 

In  an  effort  to  determine  just  what  feeds  are  needed  to  grow  vig- 
orous chicks  in  large  lots  and  in  confinement,  such  as  is  necessary  for 


PIG.  3.— STRONG  NORMAL  CHICKS  CAN  BE  GROWN  IN 
CONFINEMENT 

This  group  of  chicks  fed  yellow  corn,  dried  liver,  middlings,  lime, 
salt  and  skimmilk  weighed  500  grams,  or  over  one  pound  at  seven 
weeks  of  age.  They  received  no  green  or  scratch  feed,  but  the  dried 
liver  contained  the  necessary  vitamines. 


the  profitable  production  of  early  spring  pullets,  J.  G.  Halpin  (Poultry) 
and  E.  B.  Hart  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  undertook  a series  of  feed- 
ing trials.  The  value  of  whole  milk  in  the  ration  for  baby  chicks  was 
one  of  the  early  findings,  but  subsequent  work  showed  that  skimmilk 
was  not  sufficient  for  growth  except  in  certain  combinations.  It  was 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


9 


found  that  a ration  of  white  corn,  skimmilk  and  middlings  would 
not  produce  proper  growth,  while  the  use  of  yellow  corn  and  clover 
with  skimmilk  gave  much  better  results. 

Experiments  conducted  during  the  past  year  have  shown  that  the 
addition  of  very  small  amounts  of  egg  to  the  ration  for  baby  chicks 
will  give  surprisingly  good  results.  Chicks  fed  on  white  corn,  mid- 
dlings, and  skimmilk  grow  for  a few  weeks  and  then  die;  but  when 
one  egg  per  day  to  each  thirty  chicks  is  added,  normal  growth  results. 
Chicks  fed  yellow  corn,  middlings,  and  skimmilk  grow  fairly  well,  but 
not  nearly  so  well  as  when  eggs  are  added  to  the  ration.  The  depart- 
ment recommends  the  use  of  infertile  eggs  from  the  incubator,  or  old 
eggs  for  the  purpose;  thus  giving  the  poultryman  an  opportunity  to 
utilize  material  that  formerly  was  considered  of  little  value.  It  is 
desirable  to  break  the  eggs  into  a dish  with  skimmilk  and  then  beat 
the  mixture  thoroughly.  The  resulting  liquid  is  used  to  moisten  the 
mash  of  the  chicks ; feeding  the  eggs  without  beating  makes  the  mash 
less  palatable. 

Where  no  milk  is  available,  good  growth  can  be  secured  by  the  use 
of  eggs  alone.  About  one  egg  per  day  to  30  chicks  is  the  amount 
recommended  during  the  first  two  weeks  of  feeding,  but  after  that  a 
gradual  increase  in  the  quantity  of  eggs  used  seems  desirable.  Or- 
dinarily in  chick  feeding  trials  good  results  are  obtained  by  the  use  of 
green  feed  in  the  ration;  but  when  eggs  are  used,  there  appears  to  be 
no  advantage  in  it.  In  case  eggs  are  not  available,  whole  milk  can  be 
used  very  satisfactorily  as  a substitute  during  the  first  three  weeks 
of  feeding. 

Quality  of  Hatching  Eggs  Depends  Upon  the  Ration 

IT  IS  a well-known  fact  that  to  produce  100  pullets  in  the  fall  too 
many  eggs  are  incubated  in  the  spring.  On  an  average  about 
two  eggs  are  used  for  each  chick  that  is  hatched,  and  considerable 
loss  due  to  weakness  of  the  chicks  also  commonly  occurs.  Poultry- 
men  have  long  recognized  this  economic  loss  but  have  been  powerless 
to  reduce  it.  As  the  poultry  industry  slowly  becomes  more  dependent 
upon  commercial  hatching,  the  importance  of  this  factor  becomes 
apparent,  because  the  success  of  commercial  hatcheries  is  almost  en- 
tirely dependent  upon  the  viability  of  the  eggs  which  are  incubated. 

That  factors,  such  as  exercise,  bear  an  important  relation  to  the 
viability  of  the  eggs  produced  by  the  flock  has  been  generally  be- 
lieved. But  last  year  J.  G.  Halpin  (Poultry)  and  H.  W.  Steenbock 
(Agricultural  Chemistry)  began  work  to  determine  what  influence  the 
ration  fed  to  hens  had  upon  the  viability  of  the  eggs  which  were 
produced. 

Though  this  work  has  been  in  progress  only  a short  time,  some 
surprising  results  have  already  been  obtained  opening  up  a relatively 
new  field  of  research. 

In  these  experiments  pens  of  White  Leghorn  pullets,  all  of  which 
were  sisters  from  the  same  lot  of  eggs,  were  fed  rations  of  white 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


corn  versus  yellow  corn.  Those  fed  white  corn  and  casein  gave  an 
average  hatch  of  only  15.3  per  cent  of  the  fertile  eggs;  whereas,  when 
yellow  corn  was  used  instead  of  white,  the  average  hatch  increased 
to  23.6  per  cent  of  the  fertile  eggs.  When  a vitamine-rich  feed,  such 
as  pork  liver,  was  added  to  these  rations,  the  average  hatch  of  the 
lot  receiving  white  corn  rose  to  53.2  per  cent  of  the  fertile  eggs  and 
of  the  birds  receiving  yellow  corn,  to  62  per  cent.  When  skim  milk 
powder  was  used  in  the  ration  instead  of  pork  liver,  the  white  corn 
lot  gave  an  average  hatch  of  20.9  per  cent  and  the  yellow  corn  lot 
50  per  cent  of  the  fertile  eggs.  When  dried  pig’s  heart  was  used  in- 
stead of  liver,  the  results  were  no  better  than  those  from  skim  milk 
powder. 

These  experiments  point  unmistakably  to  the  fact  that  such  in- 
gredients as  yellow  corn  and  pork  liver  exert  a very  potent  influence 
in  the  ration  of  the  hens  if  eggs  high  in  hatchability  are  to  be  pro- 
duced. In  no  case  were  satisfactory  results  obtained  with  rations 
low  in  the  fat-soluble  vitamine.  These  results  have  a definite  bear- 
ing on  the  method  of  flock  feeding  where  eggs  are  produced  that  are 
intended  for  hatching  purposes.  In  late  winter  and  early  spring 
care  must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  ration  used  with  the  laying  hen 
is  sufficiently  rich  in  this  vitamine  if  a maximum  production  of 
hatchable  eggs  is  to  be  secured. 

Many  successful  poultry  keepers  believe  that  their  hens  should 
rest  during  the  winter  if  they  are  to  produce  the  best  hatching  eggs 
in  the  spring.  They  believe  that  market  eggs  should  be  produced 
by  the  pullets  and  only  eggs  from  older  hens  incubated.  The  low 
hatchability  produced  by  white  corn  and  casein  or  white  corn  and 
skim  milk  rations  was  more  pronounced  during  the  latter  part  of  the 
hatching  season.  This  seems  to  show  that  to  a certain  extent  at 
least  a hen  stores  the  vitamines  in  her  body  and  gradually  lays  out 
her  store  unless  it  is  replenished  by  the  ration.  For  several  years 
careful  records  have  been  kept  of  the  viability  of  the  eggs  from 
different  hens,  and  frequently  hens  that  laid  most  during  the  winter 
produced  the  highest  percentage  of  vigorous  chicks.  This  seems  to 
indicate  that  vigorous  hens  if  mated  to  vigorous  males  and  provided 
with  rations  sufficiently  high  in  vitamine  content  should  produce 
high  priced  market  eggs  during  the  winter  and  good  hatching  eggs 
in  the  spring. 


Influence  of  Specific  Rations  on  Animal  Growth 


Leg  Weakness  in  Chickens. — Leg  weakness  in  chickens  frequently 
makes  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  raise  these  birds  well  in  con- 
finement, and  a further  study  of  the  problem  has  been  made  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  Hart  and  Mr.  Halpin.  Though  the  roughage  fac- 
tor in  the  diet  seems  to  be  an  important  one,  recent  results  indicate 
that  the  factor  of  primary  importance  in  avoiding  this  trouble  in  the 
rearing  of  baby  chicks  under  confinement  is  the  provision  of  an 
ample  supply  of  the  fat-soluble  vitamine — or.  more  accurately,  those 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


11 


vitamines  contained  in  cod  liver  oil.  With  the  water-soluble  and 
antiscorbutic  (anti-scurvy)  vitamine  supplied  by  white  corn  and 
skimmed  milk,  excellent  and  uniform  growth  was  made  by  the  baby 
chicks  from  an  initial  weight  of  40  grams  each  to  a final  weight  of 
800  grams,  provided  the  vitamine  complex  of  cod  liver  oil  was  also 
available  in  comparatively  generous  quantities. 

No  leg  weakness  developed  under  these  conditions.  The  birds  were 
usually  active  and  vigorous,  and  pronounced  as  normal  specimens  by 
experienced  poultrymen.  When  the  cod  liver  oil  was  withheld  from 
the  time  of  hatching,  the  growth  ceased  in  four  to  six  weeks,  fol- 
lowed in  many  cases  by  sudden  death.  Occasionally  the  fowls  con- 


(A)  (B) 

FIG.  4.— THE  DIFFERENCE  BETWEEN  WHOLE  AND  SKIMMED 

MILK 

The  larger  chick  (B)  received  white  corn,  wheat,  bran,  lime,  salt 
and  whole  milk.  It  weighed  400  grams  at  the  end  of  8 weeks.  The  other 
chick  (A)  received  the  same  ration  except  that  skimmed  milk  was 
used  in  place  of  whole  milk.  It  weighed  160  grams  at  the  end  of 
6 weeks  and  then  began  to  decline. 


fined  to  a ration  of  white  corn  and  skimmed  milk  grew  for  a longer 
period  of  time,  but  showed  symptoms  of  nutritional  disturbances,  such 
as  ruffled  feathers,  a squatting  position,  eye  trouble,  and  leg  weak- 
fiess,  which  in  all  cases  ultimately  ended  in  premature  death.  From 
these  experiments  it  appears  that  the  considerable  variations  ex- 
perienced in' the  rearing  of  baby  chicks  on  various  diets  are  due  to 
the  variation  in  the  vitamine  content  of  the  food  supply. 

Blood  analyses  for  inorganic  phosphorus  seem  to  show  that  rickets 
accompanied  by  low  inorganic  phosphorus  content  of  the  serum  can 
be  induced  in  this  species,  and  while  the  term  leg  weakness  may  be 
used  to  cover  a variety  of  symptoms  and  disturbances,  it  seems  to  b9 
due  to  a low  supply  of  the  vitamine  complex  of  cod  liver  oil  in  the 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


diet.  It  appears  that  it  is  in  this  connection  that  green  material 
serves  its  extraordinary  usefulness  in  the  rearing  of  baby  chicks,  and 
that  they  can  be  reared  with  success  under  confinement  when  this 
factor  is  supplied  from  other  sources.  It  is  possible  that  even  the 
introduction  into  the  ration  of  tomatoes,  rich  in  the  three  classes  of 
vitamin, es,  will  be  a practical  solution  of  the  problem. 

Rickets  in  Swine. — Breakdowns  in  swine  under  certain  conditions 
have  been  called  rickets  or  rheumatism  and,  at  other  times,  the  effects 
of  toxic  material;  but  there  has  never  been  any  very  definite  investi- 
gation as  to  whether  these  animals  are  subject  to  rickets  or  not.  It 


FIG.  5.— COD-LIVER  OIL  REVIVES  RICKETY  HOGS 

Feeding  white  corn  and  skimmed  milk  brought  on  rickets  in  this 
pig  (upper).  When  10  c.c.  of  cod-liver  oil  were  added  to  the  daily  ration, 
the  animal  recovered  (lower). 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


13 


has  been  shown  that  this  condition  developed  readily  from  the  use 
of  certain  grain  rations  and  that  it  could  be  prevented  by  incorporat- 
ing a fraction  of  certain  roughage  material,  such  as  clover  or  alfalfa 
hay.  Tankage  also  was  used  with  success  in  avoiding  it,  while  skim- 
milk  used  as  a supplement  to  the  grain  or  grain  mixture  alone  always 
brought  bad  results. 

Why  alfalfa  saved  tl^ese  animals  from  this  trouble  was  a problem. 
Whether  it  was  the  effect  of  the  roughage  itself  or  whether  it  was  due 
to  some  specific  substance  introduced  by  the  alfalfa  was  not  known. 
Studies  so  far  made  by  Mr.  Hart  and  H.  Steenbock  (Agricultural 
Chemistry)  indicate  that  roughage  itself  will  not  save  these  animals 
from  this  trouble.  Young  growing  pigs  placed  upon  a ration  of  yel- 
low corn,  oil  meal,  floats,  common  salt,  and  paper  showed  distinct  nu- 
tritional disturbances  after  three  months  on  th,e  ration.  When  cod 
liver  oil  was  administered  at  the  rate  of  10  c.  c.  per  day,  it  never 
failed  to  correct  this  nutritional  deficiency,  showing  that  probably 
the  trouble  was  caused  by  a lack  of  a supply  of  antirachitic  (anti- 
rickets) vitamine. 

It  has  recently  been  shown  in  the  study  of  rickets  in  children  that 
during  the  height  of  the  trouble  the  inorganic  phosphorus  content  of 
the  blood  is  gr,eatly  reduced.  Invariably  when  the  swine  got  into  this 
condition  without  development  of  pneumonia,  the  inorganic  phos- 
phorus content  of  the  blood  has  been  low.  Where  the  condition  was 
complicated  by  pneumonia,  this  condition  of  low  phosphorus  content 
of  the  blood  does  not  seem  to  occur.  It  appears  also  that  rickets  is 
likely  to  be  produced  in  the  winter  feeding  of  swine  when  the  ration 
is  one  of  white  corn  and  skimmed  milk,  and  less  likely  to  occur  if  the 
ration  is  made  from  yellow  corn  and  skimmed  milk,  though  this  lat- 
ter ration  is  not  the  best  carrier  of  the  antirachitic  vitamine,  and  some 
pigs  fail  to  do  well  on  it.  A ration  made  from  any  of  the  grains  other 
than  yellow  corn  and  supplemented  with  skimmed  milk  only  will 
cause  trouble,  and  the  mere  addition  of  calcium  salts  does  not  act  as 
a preventive,  although  it  may  delay  the  appearance  of  the  disease. 
The  trouble  always  yields  to  the  feeding  of  cod  liv.er  oil  even  in  the 
advanced  stages,  but  the  practical  way  to  avoid  it  is  to  use  some  al- 
falfa or  clover  in  the  ration. 

Chemistry  of  the  Anti-scurvy  (Antiscorbutic)  Vitamine. — Work 
oontinued  on  the  solubilities  and  fermentability  of  the  antiscorbutic 
vitamine  by  Mr.  Lepkovsky  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  shows  that  this 
substance  is  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol  but  insoluble  in  chloroform, 
ether,  ethyl  acetate,  benzine,  and  petroleum  ether,  which  indicates 
that  it  is  not  of  fat  or  lipoid  character.  It  has  been  observed  that  it 

t 

is  not  present  in  silage  and  that  it  disappears  from  sauerkraut.  From 
studies  made  of  its  destruction  by  different  fermentations,  it  appears 
that  it  is  actually  destroyed  by  certain  organisms  but  not  by  others. 
The  data  obtained  indicate  that  it  is  not  a hexose  sugar  and  that  it 
is  destroyed  by  certain  types  of  organisms  which  are  lactic  acid  form- 
ers. This  explains  why  this  substance  disappears  from  such  materials 
as  silage  and  sauerkraut  where  such  organisms  predominate.  The 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


fact  that  it  is  fermentable  by  certain  types  of  organisms  as  ferment 
sugars  would  indicate  that  it  may  belong  to  the  carbohydrates  or 
closely  allied  substances. 

Vitamine  A in  Whole  Milk,  Skimmed  Milk,  and  Filled  Milk. — In  or- 
der to  determine  the  distribution  of  vitamine  A between  whole  milk 
and  skimmilk.  Mr.  Steenbock  and  Miss  M.  T.  Sell  (Agricultural 
Chemistry)  have  devoted  some  time  to  this  subject.  The  results  ob- 
tained in  the  comparative  growth  of  rats  indicate  that  skimmed  milk 
contained  only  about  20  to  25  per  cent  as  much  of  vitamine  A as 
whole  milk.  These  figures  vary  somewhat  from  previous  results,  but 
they  are  considered  somewhat  nearer  the  truth. 

The  work  in  this  connection  was  done  with  baby  chicks  to  de- 
termine their  capacity  to  grow  upon  rations  low  in  fat-soluble  vita- 
mine- White  corn  and  skimmed  milk,  and  white  corn  and  whole  milk 
rations  were  used  to  bring  out  the  difference  between  skimmed  milk 
and  whole  milk  in  respect  to  their  fat-soluble  vitamine  content.  The 
chicks  receiving  the  white  corn  and  skimmed  milk  died  in  from  four 
to  six  weeks,  while  those  receiving  the  white  corn  and  whole  milk 
grew  well  without  exhibiting  the  leg  weakness  or  cessation  of  growth. 


FIG.  6.— FILLED  MILK  DOES  NOT  MAKE  ANIMALS  GROW  LIKE 

WHOLE  MILK 

The  rat  on  the  left  received  a purified  ration  plus  5 c.c.  of  whole 
milk  daily  and  grew  well.  The  one  on  the  right  received  the  same  ra- 
tion plus  an  equivalent  of  filled  milk.  Both  are  the  same  age;  note 
the  difference  in  size. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


15 


Trials  have  also  been  made  to  determine  the  nutritive  value  of 
whole  milk  compared  with  filled  milk,  using  for  the  purpose  one  of 
the  widely  advertised  brands.  These  experiments  were  conducted 
with  rats  from  the  same  litter  and  with  the  filled  milk  diluted  to  the 
same  solid  content  as  normal  whole  milk.  Also,  the  daily  consump- 
tion of  food  has  been  alike  in  th,e  two  groups.  As  shown  in  Figure 
6,  the  rats  receiving  the  filled  milk  did  not  grow  nearly  so  well 
as  those  receiving  the  whole  milk. 

Do  Hay  Curing  Methods  Affect  Milk  Cows? 

IT  HAS  BEEN  shown  in  experiments  of  the  past,  especially  trials 
conducted  by  E.  B.  Forbes  at  Ohio,  that  milk  cows,  especially 
heavy  milkers,  are  usually  in  a negative  calcium  balance  where 
loss  of  calcium  from  the  body  occurs.  This  was  even  true  when  alfal- 
fa hay  was  used  in  the  ration. 

The  problem  has  been  further  studied  under  the  direction  of  Mr. 
Hart;  and  in  the  earliest  experimental  work  conducted  with  three  cows 
placed  first  upon  a ration  of  grain,  silage,  dry  alfalfa  hay,  and  later 
upon  the  same  grain  ration  plus  green  alfalfa  hay,  the  results  were 


FIG.  7.— CURING  HAY  UNDER  CAPS  IMPROVES  THE  QUALITY 

Protection  from  sun  and  weather  preserves  the  vitamines  which  are 
so  essential  in  animal  nutrition. 


then  contrary  to  those  made  by  the  previous  investigators.  A positive 
calcium  balance  was  obtained  on  dry  alfalfa  hay  and  a more  pro- 
nounced positive  calcium  balance  on  green  alfalfa  hay.  This  is  in 
harmony  with  the  theory  that  green  material  has  a more  abundant  sup- 
ply of  the  vitamine  assisting  in  calcium  storage. 

In  order  to  verify  the  work  another  trial,  modified  to  some  extent, 
was  carried  on.  Three  cows  were  again  used  and  fed  on  definite  ra- 
tions as  follows : (1)  on  a silage  and  grain  mixture  plus  timothy  hay; 
(2)  on  grain,  silage,  and  dry  alfalfa  hay;  and  (3)  on  grain,  silage, 
timothy  hay,  and  steam  bone  meal.  On  all  of  these  rations  negative 
calcium  balances  were  observed,  which  was  in  agreement  with  the 
work  of  the  earlier  investigators  and  contrary  to  the  results  of  the 
previous  year. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


In  tracing  the  history  of  the  alfalfa  hays  used  in  these  two  experi- 
ments, it  was  found  that  the  one  by  which  a positive  calcium  balance 
was  established  had  been  cured  under  caps  and  not  exposed  unduly 
to  the  weather.  The  second  alfalfa  hay  used  had  been  cured  on  the  Hil1 
Farm  in  windrows  and  exposed  to  the  sun  and  weather  for  several  days 
It  is  tentatively  suggested  that  in  this  difference  of  curing  lies  the 
cause  of  the  difference  obtained  in  the  results  of  the  feeding  trials  and 
that  the  method  of  curing  will  determine  the  content  of  the  vitamine 
influencing  calcium  assimilation.  Correspondence  with  Dr.  Forbes 
elicited  the  fact  that  part  of  the  alfalfa  used  in  his  early  experiments 
was  western  hay,  the  curing  process  of  which  was  unknown,  and  a 
part  of  it  was  hay  produced  in  southern  Ohio  where  the  curing  was 
done  in  the  windrow.  It  appears  from  this  that  the  nature  of  the  cur- 
ing processes  of  hay  may  be  of  considerable  importance  in  determin- 
ing its  intrinsic  feeding  value  from  the  standpoint  of  mineral  metabol- 
ism. Of  course,  further  study  will  be  necessary  upon  the  subject  to 
check  these  results. 

Mineral  Metabolism  of  Milking  Goats. — To  determine  the  influence 
of  certain  natural  foods  upon  calcium  assimilation,  work  has  been 
continued  by  C.  A.  Hoppert  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  with  goats. 
With  grain  and  straws  negative  calcium  balances  were  established; 
and  then  there  were  added  to  the  ration  various  amounts  of  cabbage, 
yellow  carrots,  and  the  alcoholic  extract  of  alfalfa  hay.  In  this  year’s 
work,  as  in  previous  experiments,  no  influence  upon  the  calcium 
assimilation  was  observed  by  the  feeding  of  a large  amount  of  fresh 
cabbage  or  yellow  carrots.  The  animals  remained  in  practically  the 
same  negative  calcium  balance  as  when  these  materials  were  left  out 
of  the  ration. 

When  the  alcoholic  extract  of  alfalfa  was  fed,  however,  there  was 
a distinct  change  which  indicated  that  something  had  been  dissolved 
out  of  the  alfalfa  hay,  which,  when  added  to  the  ration,  had  a decided 
influence  upon  the  calcium  storage.  It  is  believed  that  with  this  work 
some  light  may  be  obtained  on  the  effect  of  the  curing  processes  of 
the  various  roughages  on  their  calcium  storage  efficiency. 


Recent  Studies  in  Vitamines 


Relation  of  Vitamine  A to  Rickets. — Following  the  trials  of  a year 
ago,  when  an  eye  (ophthalmic)  reaction  was  demonstrated  with  dogs, 
which  were  kept  on  a ration  low  in  vitamine  A,  various  experiments 
by  Mr.  Steenbock  and  J.  H.  Jones  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  have  been 
carried  out  to  ascertain  the  conditions  necessary  for  normal  bone 
development.  The  criteria  upon  which  conclusions  have  been  based 
have  been  the  appearance  of  the  animal,  the  presence  or  absence  of 
convulsive  spasms  (tetany),  deformation  of  the  chest  as  shown  by  the 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


17 


thoracic  arch  formed  by  the  fifth  ribs  together  with  sections  of  ad- 
herent breastbone  (sternum)  and  vertebra,  phosphorus  and  calcium 
of  the  blood,  and  ash  content  of  the  ether-alcohol  extracted  bones. 
These  criteria  have  shown  that  as  much  as  60  grams  of  fresh  green 
alfalfa  or  42  c.  c.  of  orange  juice  daily  will  not  prevent  rickets  in  rapidly 
growing  dogs.  The  antirachitic  substance,  however,  whatever  it  may 
be,  shows  in  its  resistance  to  destruction  by  saponification  (soap 


FIG.  8. — ABNORMAL  BONE  DEVELOPMENT  IS  A SYMPTOM  OF 

RICKETS 


The  rachitic  bone  (a)  is  an  X-ray  picture  of  the  left  hind  leg-  of  a 
dog  fed  on  a ration  low  in  fat-soluble  vitamine.  Note  the  abnormal 
joint  development. 

The  clean  cut  healthy  bone  (b)  is  an  X-ray  photograph  of  the  left 
hind  leg  of  a dog  fed  .a  ration  like  the  one  given  the  other  dog,  but  5 
grains-  of  cod-liver  oil  were  added. 


making)  a property  entirely  analagous  to  vitamine  A.  This  was 
determined  by  feeding  two  dogs  twice  saponified  cod  liver  oil  as  a sup 
plement  to  a basal  ricket-producing  diet.  Calcification  (laying  down 
of  lime  in  the  bones)  was  found  to  be  entirely  normal. 

Of  late  considerable  evidence  has  been  presented  that,  on  diets 
tending  to  a deficiency  of  the  antirachitic  factor,  rickets  is  induced 
most  rapidly  in  animals  kept  in  the  dark.  This  has  been  verified  in  a 
trial  with  four  dogs  from  one  litter,  two  of  which  were  kept  in  the 
dark  with  the  result  that  failure  occurred  sooner  with  them  than  in 
those  kept  in  the  light.  While  all  failed  ultimately,  lung  deformations 
with  attendant  abnormal  locomotion  was  first  observed  in  the  animahj 
kept  in  the  dark. 

In  order  to  demonstrate  some  of  the  effects  of  light  on  rats.  Miss 
Jean  Dow  (Agricultural  Chemistry),  working  under  Mr.  Hart,  under- 
took a special  study  of  this  subject.  She  was  able  to  sensitize  rats  to 
sunlight  by  feeding  buckwheat,  germinated  buckwheat,  or  green  buck 
wheat  straw.  When  exposed  to  the  light,  rats  fed  buckwheat  at  first 
scratch  and  bite  themselves;  an  abnormal  redness  of  the  ears,  nose, 
feet,  and  tail  develops;  the  eyes  become  swollen;  salivation  increases 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


to  an  extreme  degree;  and  sometimes  convulsions  follow  which  termi- 
nate in  collapse  and  death.  Animals  kept  in  the  dark  remained  per* 
fectly  normal. 

The  Origin  of  Vitamine  B.  Yeast  has  hitherto  been  one  of  the  most 
important  sources  of  vitamine  B and  the  question  was  raised  as  to 
whether  it  produced  this  vitamine  or  merely  absorbed  it  from  its 
nutrient  solution.  Though  scientists  do  not  agree  upon  the  subject, 
experiments  carried  out  with  organisms,  such  as  Bacillus  tuberculosis , 
Azotobacter,  and  others,  have  shown  that  they  do  not  contain  any  of 
this  vitamine  when  grown  on  a vitamine-free  medium. 

Does  Diet  Influence  Concentration  of  Vitamine  B in  Milk?  There 
remains  no  question  but  that  milk  is  relatively  much  richer  in  vitamine 
A than  in  vitamne  B with  respect  to  the  requirements  of  rats  for 
growth.  It  has  been  thought  that  this  might  be  dependent  upon  the 
composition  of  the  ration  from  which  the  milk  was  produced.  Experi- 
ments were  undertaken  in  which  the1  vitamine  B content  of  the  cow’s 
rations  was  increased  many  times  by  feeding  large  amounts  of  wheat 
germ.  On  feeding  the  milk  so  produced  at  different  levels  of  intake 
of  this  material  to  rats,  no  change  in  the  vitamine  B content  was  ob- 
served, which  leaves  unexplained  some  of  the  results  obtained  by 
other  experimenters. 

Alcohol  and  Acetone  From  Waste  Materials 

THE  PRODUCTION  of  acetone  and  alcohol  from  agricultural 
waste  products  by  bacterial  fermentation  has  been  continued 
by  E.  B.  Fred  (Agricultural  Bacteriology)  and  W.  H.  Peterson 
(Agricultural  Chemistry).  Corncobs,  oat  hulls,  and  peanut  hulls  have 
been  found  to  yield  large  quantities  of  fermentable  sugars.  From 
100  pounds  of  oat'hulls  may  be  obtained  2 to  3 pounds  of  acetone,  5 
to  6 pounds  of  alcohol,  and  3 pounds  of  volatile  acid.  That  eventually 
such  waste  of  agricultural  materials,  as  corncobs  and  oat  hulls  will  be 
put  to  use  in  the  manufacture  of  these  commercial  products  seems 
probable.  The  process  used  in  obtaining  these  materials  is  one  of 
hydrolysis  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (H2S04),  in  which  from  25  to 
30  per  cent  of  reducing  sugars,  mainly  xylose,  are  produced  from  the 
dry  weight  of  corncobs.  The  xylose  sirup  is  readily  fermented  by  an/ 
organism  ( Bacillus  acetoethylicum ) to  produce  various  products.  On 
this  basis  100  pounds  of  corncobs  yield  about  2.7  pounds  of  acetone 
6 to  8 pounds  of  alcohol,  and  3.4  pounds  of  volatile  acids. 

Yellow  Versus  White  Corn  for  Swine  Feeding 

IT  HAS  BEEN  previously  reported  that  yellow  corn  has  proved  de- 
cidedly superior  to  white  corn  for  feeding  swine  not  on  pasture 
and  fed  such  supplements  as  tankage,  skimmilk,  or  linseed  meal. 
This  superiority  is  due  to  the  fact  that  yellow  corn  contains  consid- 
erable fat-soluble  vitamine,  while  white  corn  has  little  or  none.  Ex- 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


19 


periments  on  this  question  have  been  continued  by  F.  B.  Morrison 
and  J.  M.  Fargo  (Animal  Husbandry)  during  the  past  year. 

That  white  corn  is  an  unsafe  feed  for  young  pigs  in  dry  lot  when 
fed  with  skimmilk  alone  was  shown  again  in  a trial  conducted  last 
winter.  Pigs  fed  yellow  corn  and  skimmilk  gained  1.02  pounds  per 
head  daily  at  a feed  cost  of  only  $5.59  for  each  100  pounds  gain.  On 
white  corn  and  skimmilk  one  pig  died  within  nine  weeks  from  rickets 
and  another  was  in  such  condition  that  he  would  have  died  in  a few 
days.  This  pig  was  removed  from  the  experiment  and,  when  given 
a small  amount  daily  of  cod-liver  oil,  which  is  exceedingly  rich  in 


FIG.  9.— WHITE  CORN  LACKS  FAT-SOLUBLE  VITAMINE 


Above. — Pigs  fed  yellow  corn  and  skimmilk  from  a weight  of  65 
lbs.  These  pigs,  fed  at  the  Wisconsin  Station,  are  all  thrifty  and  have 
made  good  gains. 

Below. — Pigs  fed  white  corn  and  skimmilk.  Four  of  the  pigs  in  this 
lot  died,  because  of  the  lack  of  fat-soluble  vitamine  in  the  ration. 

the  fat-soluble  vitamine,  slowly  recovered.  At  the  end  of  the  trial 
all  but  four  out  of  the  ten  pigs  in  the  lot  had  died  or  showed  the 
effects  of  the  lack  of  the  vitamine. 

This  trial,  together  with  the  experiments  previously  reported,  shows 
clearly  that  white  corn  and  skimmilk  alone  do  not  make  a safe  com- 
bination for  young  pigs  not  on  pasture.  Well-grown  pigs  weighing 
100  pounds  or  more  may  come  through  safely  if  fed  this  ration,  though 
white  corn  and  skimmilk  alone  cannot  be  recommended  even  for  such 
pigs.  In  a trial  carried  on  this  last  summer  with  pigs  averaging  142 
pounds  in  weight  when  placed  on  feed,  those  fed  white  corn  and 
skimmilk  made  the  satisfactory  daily  gain  of  1.57  pounds,  while  those 
fed  yellow  corn  and  skimmilk  gained  1.65  pounds.  The  pigs  fed  white 
corn  and  skimmilk  required  slightly  more  feed  for  100  pounds  gain 
than  those  fed  yellow  corn  and  skimmilk,  but  the  difference  was  not 
marked.  These  pigs  had  been  raised  on  excellent  rations  and  had 
been  on  good  pasture  before  the  experiment  started.  Under  sucl| 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


conditions  their  livers. and  certain  other  organs  undoubtedly  had  a 
considerable  store  of  the  fat-soluble  vitamine  at  the  beginning  of  the 
trial.  This  store  carried  them  through  safely  to  a weight  of  250 
pounds  even  on  the  ration  of  white  corn  and  skimmilk. 

How  Can  We  Feed  White  Corn  to  Young  Pigs  in  Winter?  This 
question  naturally  arises  in  the  minds  of  all  who  are  raising  white 
corn,  and  many  farmers  prefer  some  varieties  of  white  corn  to  all 
others.  To  answer  this  problem  a series  of  trials  is  being  carried  on. 
In  the  experiment  conducted  last  winter,  young  pigs  made  excellent 
gains  when  only  5 per  cent  of  chopped  alfalfa  was  added  to  the  un- 
satisfactory ration  of  white  corn  and  skimmilk.  This  combination 
was  tested  out  because  good  legume  hay  is  especially  rich  in  the  fat- 
soluble  vitamine,  and  it  therefore  appeared  probable  that  a small 


FIG.  10.— LEGUME  HAY  MAKES  GOOD  THE  DEFICIENCY  OF  WHITE 

CORN 

Above. — Pigs  fed  mixture  of  95  per  cent  yellow  corn  and  5 per  cent 
alfalfa  hay  with  skimmilk.  Average  daily  gain,  1.1  lbs. 

Below. — Pigs  fed  mixture  of  95  per  cent  white  corn  and  5 per  cent 
alfalfa  hay  with  skimmilk.  This  small  amount  of  alfalfa  hay  has 
saved  the  pigs  from  disaster.  All  are-  thrifty  and  have  made  as  good 
gains  as  those  fed  yellow  corn. 

amount  of  alfalfa  hay  might  save  the  pigs.  A larger  proportion  of 
hay  was  not  used  because  the  digestive  tracts  of  young  pigs  are  not 
well  suited  to  handle  such  hays  or  other  dry  roughage. 

This  small  amount  of  chopped  alfalfa  prevented  any  trouble  from 
rickets  or  paralysis  and  the  pigs  were  all  thrifty.  The  alfalfa  was 
chopped  by  running  it  through  a silage  cutter  equipped  with  an  alfalfa 
screen.  Hay  can  be  chopped  sufficiently  fine  for  all  purposes  at  small 
expense  on  the  farm  by  this  method,  and  there  is  no  necessity  for 
buying  alfalfa  meal.  Quite  probably  chopped  clover  or  soybean  hay 
would  serve  the  same  purpose  as  chopped  alfalfa.  If  one  does  not 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


21 


have  a suitable  cutter,  he  can  scrape  up  the  leaves  and  chaff  from 
the  floor  where  the  legume  hay  is  pitched  down  from  the  mow  and 
mix  this  with  the  corn  and  skimmilk  or  other  feeds  to  form  a slop, 
thus  forcing  the  pigs  to  eat  the  hay. 

Brood  sows  will  commonly  eat  plenty  of  alfalfa  hay  of  good  quality 
if  it  is  fed  uncut  in  a suitable  rack  where  they  have  access  to  it 
at  all  times.  Usually  they  do  not  like  clover  hay  nearly  so  well  as 
alfalfa.  Young  pigs  will  not  eat  much  long  alfalfa  from  a rack  and 
often  will  not  take  enough  to  provide  themselves  with  a sufficiency 
of  the  fat-soluble  vitamine. 

Efficient  Rations  for  Fall  Pigs 

IN  ALL  the  northern  states  an  exceedingly  important  problem  is 
to  find  rations  which  will  make  fall  pigs  grow  approximately  as 
well  as  spring  pigs  when  fed  properly  balanced  rations  on  good 
pasture.  A few  years  ago  animal  husbandmen  thought  that  a ration 
of  corn  and  tankage  was  well-nigh  ideal  for  growing  and  fattening 
pigs,  but  experiments  by  Messrs.  Morrison  and  Fargo,  as  well  as 
trials  at  other  stations,  have  clearly  shown  that  pigs  fed  in  the  dry 
lot  on  only  corn  and  tankage  will  often  become  unthrifty,  even  though 
the  corn  is  yellow  corn.  Just  what  the  deficiency  in  this  ration  is  we 
‘do  not  yet  know.  It  may  be  there  is  some  lack  of  vitamines,  or 
the  proteins  may  not  be  the  most  efficient,  or  there  may  be  a de- 
ficiency in  mineral  matter.  Whatever  the  difficulty  is,  it  seems  to 
be  largely  overcome  by  adding  a very  small  amount  of  alfalfa. 

Even  better  results  have  been  secured  where  both  alfalfa  hay  and 
linseed  meal  have  been  added  to  the  corn  and  tankage  for  pigs  not 
on  pasture.  In  three  different  trials  during  the  past  year  pigs  fed 
yellow  corn  and  tankage  have  gained  .95  pounds  a head  daily  on 
the  average  while  those  receiving  linseed  meal  and  alfalfa  in  addi- 
tion have  gained  1.21  pounds.  With  feeds  at  present  prices  the  cost 
of  100  pounds  gain  was  but  $5.91  for  the  pigs  fed  the  efficient  com- 
bination of  corn,  tankage,  linseed  meal,  and  alfalfa,  while  it  was 
$6.37  for  those  fed  only  corn  and  tankage.  At  first  it  may  appear 
that  this  difference  in  rate  and  cost*  of  gains  is  not  . very  great,  but 
sometimes  it  is  enough  to  make  the  difference  between  profit  and  loss. 

This  ration  has  proved  the  best  of  any  thus  far  used  for  feeding 
fall  pigs  where  there  are  no  dairy  by-products  available.  This  ration 
may  be  fed  by  either  of  the  following  two  methods: 

(1)  Self-feed  the  corn  separately  in  one  compartment  of  a self- 
feeder.  In  another  compartment  of  the  self-feeder  feed  a mixture  of 
50  pounds  tankage,  25  pounds  linseed  meal,  and  25  pounds  chopped 
alfalfa.  The  pigs  will  take  about  enough  of  this  protein-rich  mixture 
to  balance  their  ration. 

(2)  Self-feed  or  hand-feed  a mixture  of  all  four  feeds  in  the  proper 
proportions  to  make  a well-balanced  ration  for  pigs  of  the  particular 
age  you  are  feeding.  This  method  apparently  produces  somewhat  the 
most  rapid  gains,  but  it  necessitates  grinding  the  corn. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


Home-Grown  Rations  for  Milk  Production 

IT  IS  A MATTER  of  much  practical  importance  to  determine 
whether  dairymen  can  provide  a simple,  cheap,  home-grown  ra- 
tion which  will  maintain  high  production.  If  just  as  good  results 
could  be  secured  from  such  a home-grown  ration  as  from  one  con- 
taining a considerable  amount  of  high-priced  purchased  concentrates, 
farmers  could  often  greatly  increase  their  profits.  Without  question, 
the  main  source  of  protein  in  an  economical  home-grown  ration  must 
be  a legume  hay,  usually  clover  or  alfalfa. 

The  results  of  metabolism  trials  by  the  Agricultural  Chemistry  De- 
partment have  been  previously  reported  in  which  it  was  found  that, 
on  rations  of  alfalfa  hay,  corn  silage,  and  corn  or  barley,  good  dairy 
cows  could  be  kept  in  positive  nitrogen  balance;  i.  e.,  without  losing 
nitrogen  from  their  bodies.  When  clover  hay  was  fed  in  place  of 
alfalfa,  the  cows  lost  nitrogen  and  their  milk  yi,eld  fell  rapidly.  This 
was  because  clover  hay  did  not  furnish  sufficient  protein  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  cows  for  nitrogen  nutrients. 

To  study  further  the  effect  of  a home-grown  ration  in  which  alfalfa 
hay  was  the  chief  source  of  protein,  Messrs.  Morrison,  Hulce  and 
Humphrey  have  carried  on  feeding  trials  during  the  past  two  winters. 
In  each  trial  a ration  of  alfalfa  hay,  corn  silage,  and  a concentrate 
mixture  of  corn  and  oats  was  compared  with  a ration  made  up  of 
the  same  feeds  plus  linseed  and  cottonseed  meal.  In  the  first  ex- 
periment each  group  of  cows  was  continued  on  the  same  ration  through- 
out the  entire  winter  period.  This  was  done  as  it  seemed  possible 
that  the  home-grown  ration  might  maintain  a high  production  for 
a brief  period,  but  that  the  amount  of  protein  in  the  ration  might 
be  too  low  to  keep  up  the  production  throughout  the  winter.  In 

the  second  trial  the  double  reversal  method  was  used  so  as  to  elim- 

\ 

inate  the  effects  of  the  individuality  of  the  cows. 

In  each  trial  the  home-grown  ration  containing  no  purchased  con- 
centrates maintained  the  yield  of  milk  and  of  butter  fat  as  well  as 
the  ration  to  which  linseed  meal  and  cottonseed  meal  had  been 
added.  These  trials,  together  with  the  results  of  the  previous  meta- 
bolism experiments,  show  that,  when  cows  have  plenty  of  choice 
alfalfa  hay,  there  is  no  need  of  purchasing  expensive  protein-rich 
concentrates  to  keep  up  good  production.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  alfalfa  hay  is  sufficiently  rich  in  protein  to  balance  the  ration. 
In  these  trials  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  home-grown,  alfalfa-hay 
ration  was  1:6.8  to  1:7.1.  For  cows  forced  to  maximum  production 
on  official  test,  it  is  undoubtedly  desirable  to  increase  the  amount 
of  protein  in  the  ration  by  the  use  of  protein-rich  concentrates,  even 
when  plenty  of  choice  alfalfa  hay  is  available.  With  such  animals 
the  object  sought  is  the  largest  possible  yield  of  milk  without  much 
regard  for  the  economy  of  production. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


23 


Feeding  Trials  With  Beef  Cattle 

Baby  Beef  Production. — A fourth  trial  in  the  feeding  and  finish- 
ing of  well  bred  beef  calves  for  baby  beef  was  conducted  during  the 
past  year  by  J.  G.  Fuller  (Animal  Husbandry).  Thirteen  calves, 
ranging  in  age  from  9 to  12  months  and  weighing  from  600  to  650 
pounds  at  the  start,  were  fed  in  two  lots  for  140  days.  When  *fed 
an  average  ration  of  1.8  pounds  of  cracked  corn,  2.6  pounds  of  crushed 
oats,  1.9  pounds  of  bran,  .68  pound  oil  meal,  14.1  pounds  corn  silage, 
and  3 pounds  of  mixed  hay  per  day,  the  six  heifers  in  Lot  I made 
an  average  daily  gain  of  1.6  pounds.  The  return  for  the  lot  was  $27.87 
over  the  cost  of  feed.  Seven  steers  which  were  fed  a fattening  ration 
of  7.1  pounds  cracked  corn,  1.3  pounds  oil  meal,  14.7  pounds  corn 
silage,  and  3 pounds  of  mixed  hay  made  an  average  daily  gain  of 


FIG.  11. — BABY  BEEVES  THAT  MADE  A PROFIT 

This  lot  of  seven  steers,  fed  an  average  ration  of  7.1  pounds  cracked 
corn,  1.3  pounds  oil  meal,  14.7  pounds  corn  silage,  and  3.0  pounds 
mixed  hay,  made  a return  of  $62.85  over  feed  cost. 

1.8  pounds;  and  the  lot  made  a return  of  $62.85  over  the  feed  cost. 

As  in  trials  previously  conducted,  these  experiments  showed  that 
under  favorable  feeding  conditions  young  cattle  will  return  a fair 
profit.  From  the  results  obtained  in  experimental  work  with  baby 
beef  extending  over  a period  of  four  years  in  which  seven  different 
lots  fed  on  different  rations  were  used,  it  seems  probable  that  the 
production  of  baby  beef  can  be  followed  with  profit  in  southern  Wis- 
consin during  ordinary  times. 

Sunflowers  Versus  Corn  Silage  for  Fattening  Steers.— In  the  past 
year  a feeding  trial  was  also  conducted  to  determine  the  value  of  sun- 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


flower  silage  as  compared  with  corn  silage  for  fattening  a medium 
grade  of  two-year-old  feeder  steers.  Two  lots  of  ten  animals  each 
were  equally  divided,  and  the  trial  covered  a period  of  154  days.  The 
first  lot  was  fed  an  average  daily  ration  of  8.6  pounds  of  broken  ear 
corn,  1.5  pounds  cottonseed  meal,  24  pounds  of  corn  silage,  and  3.1 
pounds  of  mixed  hay.  The  second  lot  was  fed  in  exactly  the  same 
manner  except  that  sunflower  silage  in  equal  quantity  was  substituted 
for  the  corn  silage.  At  the  beginning  of  the  trial  the  average  weight 
of  the  animals  was  677  pounds,  and  at  the  close  those  in  the  lot  re- 
ceiving corn  silage  in  the  ration  weighed  1001  pounds,  and  those  in 
the  lot  receiving  sunflower  silage  averaged  1004  pounds.  The  average 
daily  gain  for  the  first  lot  was  2.10  pounds  and  for  the  second  lot  2.12. 
Hogs  following  these  animals  returned  a pork  profit  per  steer  in 
Lot  I of  $5.70,  and  in  Lot  II  $3.71,  which  becomes  a large  factor  in 
the  total  profit  made  in  these  lots.  When  both  lots  were  sold  at 
the  close  of  the  trial  at  $8  per  hundred  weight,  the  profit  per  steer 
over  the  cost  of  feed  for  Lot  I was  $11.32  and  for  Lot  II,  $9.22. 

From  these  returns  it  is  calculated  that  sunflower  silage  was  worth 
78  per  cent  as  much  as  corn  silage  for  fattening  two-ycar-old  steers 
in  this  particular  trial. 


Feeding  Trials  With  Draft  Foals 

NDER  ECONOMIC  conditions,  such  as  obtain  in  agriculture  to- 


day, it  seems  rather  surprising  that  good  draft  horses  command 


the  prices  which  are  still  paid  for  them.  The  value  of  the  draft 
horse  is,  of  course,  largely  determined  by  individual  excellence.  If 
the  farmer  raises  horses  at  all,  it  will  certainly  pay  him  to  raise 
only  the  best. 

Proper  feeding  is  one  of  the  primary  factors  involved  in  the  mak- 
ing of  a good  draft  horse  out  of  a high-class  foal.  In  order  to  deter- 
mine what  rations  are  best  suited  for  the  proper  development  of 
the  size  and  weight  which  is  essential  in  these  animals  for  ideal 
draft  conformation,  Mr.  Fuller  conducted  some  feeding  trials  on  this 
subject. 

A lot  of  seven  purebred  draft  foals  was  fed  for  182  days  during 
the  winter  of  1921-1922  on  an  average  daily  ration  of  11.4  pounds 
of  concentrates  and  6.4  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay.  The  grain  mixture  con- 
sisted of  90  pounds  of  crushed  oats  and  10  pounds  of  wheat  bran. 
The  foals  made  an  average  daily  gain  of  1.9  pounds  and  averaged 
1141.4  pounds  in  weight  at  an  average  age  of  377  days.  The  result 
of  this  work  checked  very  closely  with  the  trials  of  previous  years, 
and  it  appears  safe  to  conclude  that  by  proper  care  and  liberal  feed- 
ing, good  draft  foals  can  easily  be  made  to  weigh  1,000  pounds  at 
one  year  of  age. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


25 


New  Index  Shows  Quality  of  Animal  Body 

NIMALS  of  apparently  the  same  size  and  type  often  differ  con- 


siderably in  weight.  The  age  factor  and  the  manner  of  growth, 


the  relative  proportion  of  bone,  muscle  and  fat  all  bear  im- 
portant relations  to  the  type  of  animal  body;  and  very  frequently 
the  difference  between  types  is  not  readily  detected  by  the  eye. 

There  has  long  been  a need  for  some  single  index  which  describes 
with  reasonable  accuracy  the  type  of  animal.  Especially  in  experi- 
mental work  and  breeding  and  feeding  trials,  weight  measurements 
alone  are  unsatisfactory.  C.  R.  Yapp,  working  in  the  Department  of 
Genetics  under  L.  J.  Cole,  has  devised  such  an  index  which,  under 
certain  conditions  at  least,  serves  as  a satisfactory  description  of  type. 
This  index  is  based  on  the  proportion  any  animal  would  fill  of  a 
rectangular  solid  determined  by  the  animal’s  major  dimensions.  The 
weight  must  be  translated  into  volume,  and  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
animal  also  enters  into  the  process.  The  specific  gravity  was  deter- 
mined directly  by  experiment  with  animals  in  the  genetics  herd.  The 
formula  worked  out  for  this  work  is  as  follows: 


(Wh€re  I=the  dimension-weight  index; 

H=height  at  withers; 

L— length  (horizontal  distance  between  pinbone  and  point  of 
shoulder) ; 

W=weight  of  animal  in  pounds;  and 
475.8=constant  for  the  volume  per  pound  of  the  animal. 

The  application  of  this  index  to  the  growing  cattle  in  the  experi- 
mental herd,  which  have  been  measured  and  weighed  at  regular  in- 
tervals during  their  lives,  showed  a gradual  change  in  body  type 
from  birth  to  maturity.  The  average  index  value  of  calves  one  week 
old  was  found  to  be  7.9,  and  for  animals  at  the  age  of  22  months,  when 
they  were  approaching  maturity,  it  was  4.7.  The  decrease  in  the 
index  value  was  fairly  regular  and  consistent,  which  indicates  the 
gradual  change  of  type  as  animals  grow  from  birth  to  maturity. 

In  other  words,  the  results  of  these  experiments  showT  that  a calf 
one  week  of  age  occupies  only  12.6  per  cent  of  the  volume  of  a 
rectangular  solid  determined  by  its  height  and  length  and  that  at 
the  age  of  22  months  the  animal  occupied  21.2  per  cent  of  the  volume 
of  a solid  obtained  in  a similar  way.  It  is  believed  that  this  index 
will  be  of  considerable  value  in  genetics  as  well  as  in  different  phases 
of  animal  husbandry  work,  such  as  teaching  and  experimentation. 

Inactive  Ovaries  Cause  of  Male  Plumage  in  Hens 

EVER  SINCE  days  of  the  Middle  Ages  there  have  b en  on  record 
occasional  cases  of  so-called  egg-laying  roosters.  It  was  the 
usual  custom  in  former  times  to  explain  phenomena  of  this  sort 
by  means  of  witchcraft,  sorcery,  or  some  other  phase  of  the  super 
natural.  One  case  is  on  record  where  back  in  the  fifteenth  century 


H2  x L 


I—W  x 475.8 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


a so-called  egg-laying  rooster  was  brought  to  trial  with  due  solemnity, 
found  to  be  a sorcerer,  and  condemned  to  be  burned  at  the  stake. 

Early  in  the  spring  of  1922,  Mr.  Halpin  received  a bird  closely  re- 
sembling a Brown  Leghorn  cock  in  plumage,  but  reputed  to  lay  eggs 
The  case  was  studied  by  the  department  of  Genetics  in  cooperation 
with  D.  H.  Reid  of  Poultry  Husbandry.  Previous  investigations  of  L. 
J.  Cole  (Genetics)  and  W.  A.  Lippincott  have  shown  that,  when  the 


PIG.  12.— THE  ROOSTER  HEN  AND  SOME  OF  THE  EGGS 

This  hen  with  cock  plumage  grew  a new  crop  of  normal  hen  feath- 
ers when  she  molted  after  her  ovaries  became  active. 

ovary  of  a hen  becomes  inactive  through  disease  or  otherwise  so  that 
it  no  longer  supplies  certain  specific  characteristics  to  the  blood,  the 
bird  will,  if  she  molts  under  those  conditions,  assume  a characterstic 
male  plumage.  If  active  ovarian  tissue  is  then  introduced  and  a molt 
induced,  the  incoming  feathers,  developing  under  the  influence  of  the 
ovarian  secretions,  will  be  hen  feathers. 

After  a study  of  the  case,  it  was  decided  that  the  ovaries  of  this 
hen  had  temporarily  ceased  to  produce  their  usual  secretion.  As  a 
molt  had  occurred  during  that  time,  the  bird  assumed  clearly  a male 
plumage.  When  subsequently  the  ovary  resumed  normal  activity, 
egg  production  resulted;  but  there  having  been  no  molt  during  that 
time,  the  hen  still  wore  her  characteristic  male  feathers.  When  later 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


27 


some  of  the  feathers  of  this  bird  were  artificially  removed,  new  normal 
hen  feathers  grew  in  their  place;  and  when  a complete  molt  was  un- 
dergone, the  hen  assumed  a complete  covering  of  normal  female 
plumage. 


Inheritance  of  Milk  and  Meat  Production  in  Cattle 

DEFINITELY  planned  experimental  work  for  the  purpose  of  find- 
ing how  milk  and  meat  characteristics  of  cattle  are  transmit- 
ted was  begun  by  L.  J.  Cole  (Genetics)  in  1912.  In  order  to 
support  adequately  any  theory  which  may  be  formulated  about  the 
transmission  of  animal  characteristics  by  inheritance,  the  number  of 
individual  animals  involved  and  the  number  of  generations  observed 
must  be  relatively  large.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  work  an  Aber- 
deen-Angus  bull  was  crossed  with  Jersey  cows,  and  a Jersey  bull 
with  Angus  cows.  The  result  of  these  crosses  was  that  the  first 
generation  of  crossbreeds  were  all  black  polled  like  the  Angus,  but 
in  most  other  respects  were  to  a degree  intermediate  between  the 
two,  and  there  was  a great  deal  of  individual  variation.  The  second 
generation  offspring,  produced  by  breeding  the  crossbreeds  to  one 
another,  showed  an  even  greater  variation  in  type,  especially  in  the 
matter  of  color  and  horns.  These  characteristics  were  inherited  in 
definite  Mendelian  fashion,  approximately  three  fourths  of  the  second 
generation  offspring  being  polled  and  one  fourth  having  well  developed 
horns. 

Pursuant  to  the  work  conducted  with  the  Jersey  cattle,  it  was  con- 
cluded that  more  definite  information  could  be  obtained  by  crossing 
Holsteins  with  Aberdeen-Angus  in  a fashion  similar  to  that  of  the 
previous  work  for  the  reason  that  these  two  breeds  exhibited  greater 
differences  in  type  than  the  ones  formerly  used.  With  this  greater 
difference  in  type  it  was  thought  that  the  matter  of  tracing  the  courses 
of  the  various  characteristics  through  successive  generations  would 
be  less  difficult.  Accordingly  in  1917-1918  work  was  begun  in  crossing 
Holstein  and  Angus.  The  results  obtained  in  this  work  so  far  show 
the  dominance  of  the  black  color,  which  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  pre- 
vious experiment.  The  crossbred  Holstein-Angus  cattle  were  all 
black  except  for  small  areas  of  white,  usually  a small  spot  on  the  fore- 
head, a little  on  the  underline,  and  occasionally  a little  on  the  feet. 
The  polled  condition  of  the  Angus  is  dominant  over  the  horns  as  in  tho 
case  of  the  previous  work. 

The  Holstein-Angus  cross-breeds  are  strong,  quick-growing,  relatively 
meaty  animals;  and  it  seems  that,  if  calves  were  used  for  vealing  pur- 
poses only  or  fed  to  an  early  beef  age,  something  might  be  gained  by 
breeding  a herd  of  ordinary  grade  Holstein  cows  to  an  Angus  rather 
than  to  a Holstein  bull.  Such  cross  breeding,  however,  cannot  be  advised 
if  the  calves  are  to  be  retained  for  breeding  purposes.  The  milking 
qualities  of  such  crossbred  heifers  will  be  determined  as  the  experi- 
mental work  progresses. 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


Breeding  Improves  Strains  of  Sweet  Corn 

THE  WORK  of  breeding  improved  varieties  of  sweet  corn  for  the 
canning  industry  in  Wisconsin  has  been  continued  by  E.  W. 
Lindstrom  (Genetics)  and  E.  D.  Holden  (Agronomy).  Over  200 
rows  of  inbred  pedigreed  grain,  field  selections,  and  first  and  second 
generation  crosses  of  the  common  sweet  corn  varieties  were  grown. 
Several  of  the  inbred  strains  of  Evergreen  sweet  corn  have  stood  up  re- 
markably well  and  will  be  used  for  future  selection.  In  the  process  of 
inbreeding  many  of  the  poor  characteristics  have  been  eliminated  from 
strains,  though  their  vigor  and  yield  have  been  maintained. 

Of  the  Crosby  sweet  corn  two  distinct  strains  were  isolated,  one 
like  the  well-known  Crosby,  the  other  a variation  of  the  16-rowed  type. 
From  the  Golden  Bantam  sweet  corn  an  excellent  strain  has  been  ob 
tained  which  proved  to  be  unusually  early  and  combined  with  vigor 
and  high  yield.  Some  promising  material  was  also  obtained  from 
second  generation  crosses  of  hybrids  produced  from  crosses  between 
the  various  sweet  corn  varieties.  When  a crossbred  corn  produced 


FIG.  13.— A FEW  EARS  OF  INBRED  GOLDEN  BANTAM  SWEET  CORN 

The  defective  kernels  shown  in  the  picture  were  brought  to  light 
by  inbreeding-  this  well-known  strain. 


from  Golden  Bantam  and  Evergreen  and  another  produced  from 
Golden  Bantam  and  Crosby  were  again  crossed,  ears  were  isolated  in 
which  the  yellow  color  of  the  Golden  Bantam  parents  had  been  com- 
bined with  the  12  and  16-rowed  condition  of  the  other  parent.  It  is 
hoped  that  with  a continuation  of  this  work  the  fine  quality  of  the 
Golden  Bantam  corn  can  be  successfully  combined  with  types  of 
higher  yield  and  better  vigor  than  this  strain  now  possesses. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


29 


The  Effect  of  Inbreeding  on  the  Kernel.  Much  emphasis  was  placed 
this  year  on  the  effect  of  inbreeding  on  kernel  characteristics,  and 
by  this  method  several  new  types  of  hereditary  defective  kernels  were 
isolated  as  shown  in  the  photograph.  These  ears  of  the  Golden  Ban 
tarn  variety  came  as  a result  of  inbreeding  a good  commercial  variety 
for  three  years.  The  original  variety  showed  less  than  1 per  cent  of 
poor  kernels,  while  two-thirds  of  the  ears  of  this  strain  showed  de- 
fective kernels  to  the  extent  of  25  per  cent  on  each  ear  after  in 
breeding.  Though  these  defective  kernels  will  not  germinate  well 
the  defects  would  never  be  eliminated  by  ordinary  selection,  which 
illustrates  how  poor  characteristics  may  tend  to  remain  in  a common 
variety  of  corn  and  appear  when  close  selection  is  practised. 

Other  types  of  hereditary  abnormal  kernels  were  found  in  flint,  dent, 
and  sweet  corn;  and  there  is  probably  a surprising  amount  of  such 
abnormality  in  good  varieties  of  corn.  By  careful  attention  much 
permanent  improvement  is  still  possible. 

Breeding  Jimson  Weed  for  Higher  Atropine  Content 

HE  FIFTH  year’s  crop  of  self-pollinated  selections  for  high 


and  low  alkaloid  content  of  the  Jimson  weed  (Datura  stram- 


onium) was  grown  during  the  past  season.  The  work  served 
a two-fold  purpose:  it  served  as  a study  in  inheritance  in  plants,  and 
at  the  same  time  there  are  being  isolated  strains  of  the  plants  which 
are  uniformly  high  in  atropine  content.  (Atropine  is  an  organic  com- 
pound extensively  used  in  medicine.) 

The  first  generation  of  hybrids  of  the  high  and  low  testing  strains 
was  grown  in  cooperation  with  the  Department  of  Pharmacy,  and 
duplicate  plantings  of  last  year’s  selections  were  made  also.  The 
analysis  of  these  crops  showed  that  high  and  low  selection  lines  re- 
mained separate  so  far  as  the  production  of  the  alkaloid  was  con- 
cerned. 

Practically  no  work  has  been  done  to  improve  the  qualities  of 
plants  grown  for  medicinal  purposes.  If  this  work  proves  successful, 
it  opens  up  a new  field  for  extensive  experimentation  in  connection 
with  the  Pharmaceutical  Experiment  Station. 


THE  GROWTH  of  more  alfalfa  is  ope  of  the  ways  in  which  Wis- 
consin farmers  will  find  relief  from  the  economic  depression 
or  after  effects  of  the  war.  During  the  past  two  years  some 
crops  have  been  so  low  in  price  that  after  deducting  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction, the  balance  has  often  been  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  ledger, 
All  during  this  time  alfalfa  hay  has  been  purchased  by  Wisconsin 
farmers  at  prices  ranging  from  $20  to  $27.50  a ton.  With  high  market 
values  and  the  possibility  of  producing  yields  of  three  tons  or  more 


Alfalfa,  Wisconsin’s  Best  Hay  Crop 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


an  acre,  the  financial  advantages  of  alfalfa  have  appealed  to  manv 
farmers  who  have  begun  growing  this  remarkable  crop. 

This  situation  has  resulted  in  a tremendous  demand  for  informa- 
tion about  successful  alfalfa  growing  under  the  varied  soil  and 
climatic  conditions  in  Wisconsin.  Several  years  of  .extensive  inves- 
tigations at  the  Wisconsin  Station  made  by  L.  P.  Graber  (Agronomy) 
and  numerous  cooperative  trials  out  in  the  state  with  the  members  of 
the  Alfalfa  Order  have  demonstrated  that  an  abundance  of  lime  in  the 
soil,  inoculation,  good  surface  and  und,er-drainage,  a reasonable  de- 
gree of  fertility,  a firm,  well  prepared  seed  bed  and  the  use  of  early 
ripening  or  early  removed  nurse  crops  are  the  main  essentials  for 


Alfalfa  in  the  Sandy  Sections.— Application  of  these  principles  to 
the  growing  of  alfalfa  has  resulted  in  success  on  some  of  the  light 
sand  areas  in  the  central  part  of  Wisconsin.  Experienced  growers 
declare  alfalfa  a surer  crop  on  a properly  treated  sandy  soil  than  red 
clover  because  of  the  deeper  rooting  and  greater  drought  resistance 
With  the  opportunity  to  produce  from  two  to  four  tons  of  alfalfa 
hay  an  acre  on  the  light  soils,  the  sand  farmer  is  finding  his  way  to 


^^NCREASE^^WE^DS^^i^^I)  STAND> 

reSVaMgK  Trim  4 to®  Th°i  alfaJffa'  cut  whenever  it 

exhausted  the  root  reserves  and  ^ermUtP,?^  e*and  four  Sting's  yearly 

The  alfalfa  cut  in  the  blS?&  Weed  encroachments. 

growth  and  yielded  in  two  cutUnis  Ts^on^  of  weed-free  healthy 
with  a total  of  only  l.i  ton/for  ?feS  /our^eVea^f/  cmtfnga  compared 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


31 


profits  which  heretofore  hav.e  not  been  realized  and  at  the  same  time 
he  is  building  up  his  soil  to  a higher  plane  of  fertility  which  will 
make  all  other  crops  yield  a greater  profit  per  acre.  Splendid  success 
has  been  obtaii^ed  with  alfalfa  on  the  sandy  soils  at  the  Hancock 
Branch  Station,  and  on  a measured  acre  at  the  Spooner  Branch  Sta- 
tion the  average  yield  for  four  years  has  been  over  three  tons  per 
acr,e  in  two  cuttings.  On  an  old  worn-out  sandy  soil  in  Green  Lake 
County  a stand  of  alfalfa  was  started  five  years  ago  by  means  of  lime, 


FIG.  15.— HEAVY  ALFALFA  ON  LIGHT  SAND 

This  alfalfa  field  near  Plainfield,  Wisconsin,  yielded  three  tons  of 
hay  an  acre  and  is  an  excellent  example  of  what  lime,  inoculation, 
and  manure  will  do  on  sandy  land  to  make  alfalfa  doubly  sure. 

fertilizer,  and  inoculation,  and  has  since  produced  continuously  from 
two  to  three  crops  annually  with  a total  yield  of  not  less  than  three 
tons  to  the  acre.  At  the  tim,e  the  alfalfa  was  sown,  the  average  yield 
of  rye  on  this  field  was  from  nine  to  eleven  bushels  per  acre. 

New  Discoveries  For  Alfalfa  Growers. — While  the  problems  of  get- 
ting alfalfa  well  started  have  required  the  greatest  attention  in  the 
past,  the  maintenance  of  stand  and  yields  in  reference  to  the  proper 
cutting  stage  appears  to  be  of  surprisingly  great  importance.  During 
the  past  summer  inquiries  have  come  from  farmers  in  various  parts 
of  the  state  in  regard  to  the  yellowing  and  short  growth  of  the  second 
crop  of  alfalfa  on  soils  that  formerly  produced  good,  healthy  alfalfa 
in  abundance.  Cutting  trials  conducted  on  the  Experiment  Station 
Farm  by  Messrs.  Kraus  (Applied  Botany),  Graber  and  N.  T.  Nelson 
(Agronomy)  have  given  a satisfactory  explanation. 

Sev,en  plots  of  one-year-old  Grimm  alfalfa  were  cut  when  partly  in 
bloom  on  June  20,  1922,  and  an  average  yield  of  1.0  ton  per  acr.e  was 
obtained.  Four  days  later  five  other  plots  of  the  same  alfalfa  were 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


cut  with  a yield  of  1.3  tons  per  acre.  Th,e  early  cut  crop  seemed  to 
do  well  for  a time,  but  after  about  thirty  days  the  leaves  began  to 
turn  yellow,  while  the  plots  which  were  cut  later  continued  to  pro- 
duce a h,ealthy  dark  green  growth.  The  second  crop  on  all  of  these 
plots  was  cut  on  August  19,  at  which  time  the  early  cut  alfalfa  was 
only  8 inches  high,  decidedly  yellow,  and  yielded  only  .35  tons  an 
acre,  while  the  later  cut  alfalfa  reached  a height  of  13  inches  and 
produced  twice  as  much  hay.  Like  results  were  obtained  in  three 
other  trials  of  a similar  character. 

The  alfalfa  used  in  these  experiments  was  sown  on  June  14,  1921, 
and  cut  three  times  during  the  month  of  August  that  year  in  order 
to  check  we,ed  growth.  It  is  probable  that  this  frequent  cutting  to- 
gether with  the  unfavorable  winter  weather  which  followed  so  weak- 
ened the  plots  of  hardy  alfalfa  as  to  make  them  unusually  sensitive 
to  the  cutting  treatment.  While  in  all  probability  the  four  days’  differ- 
ence in  time  between  the  cuttings  of  alfalfa  two  or  more  years  of  age 
would  not  produce  such  striking  differences  in  yield,  in  trials  at  West 
Bend  practically  the  sam,e  results  were  produced  in  two  and  three- 


EARLY  AND 
FREQUENT 
CUTTINGS 


CUT  AT 
FULL  BLOOM 
STAGE 


FIG.  16.— CUTTING  FIRST  CROP  EARLY  CAUSES  “YELLOWING”  OF 
SECOND  GROWTH 

Especially  with  new  seedings  and  following  hard  winters  alfalfa  is 
sensitive  to  early  cutting  treatments.  The  later  cut  hay  may  be  some- 
what inferior  in  quality  but  to  maintain  yields,  health,  vigor,  freedom 
from  weeds,  and  permanence  of  stand  require  later  cutting  treatment 
than  has  been  previously  recognized.  The  yields  of  weed-free  hay  for 
the  second  crop  here  shown  were  reduced  50  per  cent  on  account  of 
early  cutting. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


33 


year  old  alfalfa  fields  by  allowing  a difference  of  eight  days  in  the 
cutting  of  the  first  crop. 

Too  Frequent  Cutting  Kills  Alfalfa. — Trials  were  conducted  with 
Grimm  and  Turkestan  alfalfa  where  parts  of  these  two-year-old  plots 
were  cut  twice  during  the  season  at  the  full  bloom  stage,  while  other 
portions  were  cut  three  times  at  the  early  bud  stage,  and  still  other 
portions  were  cut  four  times  at  a much  earlier  period  when  the  plants 
were  from  4 to  8 inches  high.  The  last  cutting  for  all  of  these  plots 
was  made  on  August  21,  1922. 

The  results  showed  that  the  four-cutting  treatment  gave  a yield  of 
only  1.1  tons  of  hay  per  acre  and  practically  eliminated  the  stand  of 
alfalfa.  After  the  first  two  crops  had  been  removed,  the  plants  rapidly 
lost  vigor,  turned  yellow,  grew  very  slowly,  and  became  very  weedy. 
Those  plots  cut  twice  in  the  full  bloom  stage  maintained  a thrifty, 
weed-free  growth,  and  yielded  4.3  tons  of  hay  per  acre,  while  the 
three  early  bud  cuttings  reduced  the  vigor,  thinned  the  stand,  and 
gave  a hay  yield  of  only  3.0  tons  an  acre. 

Two  Crops  Yield  More  Than  Three. — The  injurious  effects  of  fre- 
quent cutting  at  very  early  stages,  are  beginning  to  appear  on  the 
station  farm  in  the  cutting  trials  which  are  being  made  at  the  three 
practical  cutting  stages;  namely,  the  bud,  “tenth”,  and  full  bloom 
stages. 

Two  year  trials  indicate  quite  clearly  the  wisdom  of  adopting  a 
two-crop  system  in  the  management  of  alfalfa  fields.  This  year  two 
crops  in  the  full  bloom  stage  yielded  3.5  tons  of  weed-free  hay  an 
acre  compared  with  an  average  of  1.9  tons  of  hay  from  three  crops 
cut  in  the  bud  and  “tenth  bloom”  stages.  Following  the  hard  winter 
of  1921-22  the  full  bloom  plots  comprising  the  three  varieties — Grimm, 
Common,  and  Turkestan,  have  yielded  1.6  tons  more  hay  an  acre  than 
has  been  obtained  with  three  cuttings  of  these  varieties  at  earlier 
stages.  Further  yields  are  indicated  in  the  following  table: 


CUTTING  TRIALS 

With  Grimm,  Turkestan  and  Common  Alfalfa  (1921-1922) 


Stage  of 
cutting 

No.  of 
cuts 

Average  yields  of  cured  weed- free  hay  an  acre 

1921 

1922 

Average 

Bud  stage 

3 

3.1  tons 

' 

1.8  tons 

2.5  tons 

Tenth  bloom  _ 

3 

4.4  “ 

2.0  - 

3.2  “ 

Pull  bloom 

2 

4.4  “ 

3.5  “ 

4.0  “ 

The  weakening  effect  of  cutting  alfalfa  in  the  early  stages  shows 
itself  in  a natural  decrease  of  the  vigor  of  the  plant  and  at  the  same 
time  makes  the  crop  more  susceptible  to  winter  injury  when  hard 
winters  occur.  These  two  factors  seem  to  explain  the  rather  para- 
doxical situation  where  two  crops  a season  produce  a greater  ton- 
nage than  three. 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


Two  Crops  System  Fits  Wisconsin  Farming. — Two  of  the  great 
objections  which  have  long  been  urged  against  the  growth  of  alfalfa 
have  been  the  competition  which  the  harvesting  of  the  first  crop 
early  in  June  occasions  with  the  early  cultivation  of  the  corn  crop 
during  this  critical  period.  It  has  also  been  claimed  with  much  jus- 
tice that  the  cutting  of  the  first  crop  early  in  June  has  caused  great 
difficulty  in  the  curing  process  on  account  of  the  abundant  rains  and 
the  natural  succulence  of  the  hay.  Cutting  alfalfa  in  the  full  bloom 


FIG.  17. — MORE  HAY  FROM  TWO  CROPS  CUT  IN  FULL  BLOOM  THAN 
FROM  THREE  CUT  EARLIER 

There  are  about  three  weeks  between  the  bud  and  full  bloom  stages 
during  which  alfalfa  may  more  than  double  its  weight  in  dry  matter. 
The  picture  shows  the  yield  of  the  first  crop  from  equal  parts  of  Grimm 
alfalfa.  When  cut  in  the  bud  stage,  the  plot  yielded  1.2  tons  per  acre: 
in  the  tenth  bloom  1.8  tons;  and  in  full  bloom  the  yield  increased  to 
2.9  tons.  Total  yield  of  season  for  two  and  three  cuttings  are  shown. 

stage  obviates  these  difficulties.  It  delays  the  alfalfa  harvest  until 
about  the  last  week  in  June  at  which  time  the  weather  is  very  often 
more  favorable  and  the  hay  more  easily  cured. 

It  is  true  that  alfalfa  hay  cut  in  the  full  bloom  stage  is  of  a coarser 
quality  than  that  obtained  from  earlier  cuttings  and  where  soils  pro- 
duce an  exceedingly  rank  growth  of  alfalfa  and  lodging  occurs,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  cut  the  first  crop  somewhat  earlier  in  order  to 
secure  good  hay.  But  because  of  the  fact  that  the  succeeding  growths 
are  usually  much  finer,  they  can  often  be  cut  in  the  full  bloom  stage. 
The  first  crop  of  one  year  old  seedings  of  alfalfa  is  often  very  fine 
stemmed  and  can  be  cut  at  the  full  bloom  stage  without  serious  re- 
duction in  the  quality  of  the  hay  and  with  considerable  increase  in 
the  yields  of  the  following  cuttings.  It  is  believed  that  where  the 
alfalfa  growth  is  very  luxuriant  on  account  of  exceptionally  favor- 
able soil  and  climatic  conditions,  the  plant  does  not  appear  so  sen- 
sitive to  early  cutting  as  indicated  in  the  previously  described  experi- 
ments. Generally  speaking,  alfalfa  should  be  cut  as  near  the  full 
bloom  stage  as  possible  without  getting  the  hay  too  coarse. 

Cutting  Off  Young  Crown  Shoots  Not  Injurious. — For  many  years 
the  warning  has  been  sounded  as  to  the  danger  of  cutting  alfalfa 
when  the  new  crown  shoots  had  reached  a height  where  they  would 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


35 


be  clipped  by  the  mowing  machine.  It  has  been  observed  that,  when 
alfalfa  is  allowed  to  reach  the  seed  pod  stage,  many  of  these  new 
shoots  are  6 inches  in  height.  Plots  in  the  pod  stage  cut  twice  an- 
nually for  the  past  two  years  showed  no  injury  to  the  stand  or  vigor 
of  the  plants.  These  plots  are  now  among  the  very  best  in  stand 
and  freedom  from  weeds.  This  work  justifies  a change  in  statement 
as  to  the  supposed  injury  from  the  cutting  of  crown  shoots. 

Root  Reserves  Produce  Frame  Work. — In  the  proper  functioning 
of  the  alfalfa  plant  the  crown  and  roots  develop  certain  food  re- 


FIG.  18. — ALFALFA  SHOOTS  ARE  HARDIER  THAN  THE  CROWN 

OR  ROOT 

In  many  instances  shoots  that  produced  healthy  leaves  were  found 
to  originate  from  crowns  which  had  completely  winterkilled  and  de- 
cayed. As  these  crowns  dried  the  source  of  food  for  the  shoots  was 
cut  off  and  they  gradually  passed  away. 

(a)  Healthy  shoots  from  winterkilled  and  decayed  crown. 

(b)  Healthy  part  of  root. 

(c)  Winterkilled  and  decayed  root. 


36 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


serves  which  are  stored  up  in  these  structures.  If  frost,  drought, 
or  cutting  injures  the  old  leaf  structure,  new  shoots  start  to  de- 
velop. These  root  reserves  are  used  in  the  production  of  the  frame 
work  of  the  plant.  When  the  blossom  stage  is  reached,  the  old 
vegetation  growth  gradually  ceases.  The  plant,  through  its  leaves 
and  stems,  manufactures  food  materials  not  only  to  form  the  seed 
but  also  to  replenish  the  root  reserves  which  have  been  used  in  the 
growing  process. 

It  is  obvious  that,  when  alfalfa  is  cut  very  early  and  frequently, 
there  will  follow  a gradual  exhaustion  of  these  root  reserves,  which 
may  cause  a marked  reduction  in  the  ability  of  the  plant  to  recover. 
This  results  in  a stunted  growth,  yellowing,  and  may  cause  subse- 
quent death.  Apparently  this  is  what  occurred  in  the  plots  where 
frequent  and  early  cuttings  were  tried.  On  the  other  hand,  where 
the  plants  are  allowed  to  reach  the  full  bloom  or  seed  pod  stage, 
the  root  reserves  are  replenished,  thereby  giving  great  strength  and 
vigor  to  produce  increased  yields  and  to  eliminate  yellowing  and 
weed  encroachment. 

Scarify  Alfalfa  Seed  Shortly  Before  Planting 

THAT  scarification  is  an  effective  means  of  increasing  immediate 
germination  of  hard  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover  seed  has  been 
repeatedly  demonstrated.  Samples  of  Grimm  alfalfa  giving 
a germination  of  70  per  cent  and  containing  about  25  per  cent  of  hard 
seed  have  been  scarified  and  the  viability  increased  to  90  per  cent 
or  higher.  This  process  of  scratching  the  hard  surface  coat  of  the 
seed  so  that  it  may  germinate  more  readily  is  accomplished  by 
forcing  the  seed  by  means  of  an  air  blast  through  a sandpaper  lined 


tube,  which  removes  particles  of  the  outer  seed  coat. 


FIG.  19.— SCARIFIED  SEED  SHOULD  BE  SOWN  WITHIN  A YEAR 


Both  scarified  and  unscarified  alfalfa  seed  were  stored  for  three  years 
in  a cool  dry  basement.  At  the  end  of  this  period  the  untreated  seed 
(1),  which  originally  germinated  85  per  cent,  gave  a test  of  70  per 
cent.  The  scarified  seed  (2)  with  an  original  germination  of  89  per 
cent  dropped  to  32  per  cent. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


37 


While  the  effect  of  this  process  is  to  increase  the  immediate  ger- 
minating power  of  the  seed,  recent  experiments  conducted  by  Mr. 
Graber  show  that  this  process  has  a very  pronounced  and  detri- 
mental .effect  upon  the  keeping  quality  of  the  seed.  Scarified  and 
unscarified  seed  of  four  lots  stored  in  a cool  dry  basement  for  two  and 
three  years  showed  an  average  loss  of  54  per  cent  in  germination  at 
the  end  of  these  periods  while  unscarified  samples  of  the  same  seed 
stored  under  the  same  conditions  maintained  their  original  viability- 
From  a practical  standpoint  scarification  is  often  used  extensively 
for  the  improvement  of  the  immediate  germination  of  legume  seeds, 
but  where  such  seed  is  to  be  stored  for  more  than  one  year,  as  some- 
times is  done  in  the  seed  industry  and  frequently  in  experimental 
work,  the  wisdom  of  delaying  this  treatment  until  a few  months  be- 
fore seeding  becomes  very  apparent. 

Lack  of  Snow  Causes  Heavy  Alfalfa  Losses 

INDICATIONS  are  that  about  25  per  cent  of  Wisconsin’s  alfalfa 
was  lost  last  year  through  winter  killing.  The  southern  counties, 
where  about  75  per  cent  of  the  state’s  alfalfa  acreage  is  located, 
were  practically  devoid  of  snow.  Periods  of  unusually  low  temper- 
ature and  an  ice  sheet  of  unusual  thickness  and  duration  formed  in 
February  1922,  which  caused  the  destruction  of  many  thousands  of 
acres  of  alfalfa  of  all  varieties;  in  some  cases  even  the  hardiest 
strains  were  lost.  The  northern  three-fourths  of  the  state,  where 
there  was  an  abundance  of  snow,  suffered  practically  no  losses  from 
winterkilling.  The  winter  of  1920-21  also  was  characterized  by  a 
relatively  light  snowfall,  but  the  alfalfa  crops  came  through  in  splen- 
did shape  for  the  reason  that  they  were  not  .exposed  to  frequent  low 
temperatures,  smothering  sheets  of  ice,  or  heavy  fall  and  winter 
rains. 

According  to  Mr.  Graber,  heavy  fall  rains  in  1921  stimulated  a 
succulent  late  autumn  growth  which  in  some  varieties  did  not 
permit  of  the  development  of  that  protective  dormant  condition 
which  is  now  believed  to  be  so  essential  in  the  winter  maintenance 
of  alfalfa.  An  excess  of  soil  moisture  tends  to  increase  the  in- 
tensity of  injury  from  alternate  freezing  and  thawing.  Furthermore, 
the  favorable  fall  growing  weather  resulted  in  a great  deal  of  late  cut- 

Sting  in  September  1921;  some  fourth  crops  of  alfalfa  were  even  re- 
moved early  in  October,  a dangerous  practice  in  Wisconsin. 

Low  Temperatures  Injure  Alfalfa.— Tests  conducted  by  Mr. 
Graber  and  Mr.  Nelson  with  alfalfa  plants  from  four  to  sixteen 
months  old  of  the  Grimm,  Turkestan,  and  common  varieties  in 
greenhouses  gave  significant  results  when  exposed  to  low  temper- 
atures ( — 4°F.)  twice  in  December  and  three  times  in  January.  The 
common  variety  was  winterkilled  to  a much  greater  extent  than  were 
the  Grimm  or  Turkestan;  and  when  exposed  to  low  temperatures, 
the  younger  plants  seemed  to  suffer  less  than  the  older  ones.  In  these 


38 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


trials  84  per  cent  of  the  common  plants  were  killed  while  only  18  per 
cent  of  the  Grimm  were  lost. 

When  the  injury  of  an  ice  sheet  of  a month’s  duration  was  added  to 
that  of  low  temperatures,  the  winterkilling  of  all  strains  was  very 
severe — reaching  100  per  cent  in  the  case  of  common  alfalfa  and 
over  82  per  cent  with  the  hardy  Grimm  variety. 

From  these  data  it  is  evident  that  the  frequent  low  temperatures  may 
have  winterkilled  many  bar,e  fields  of  common  alfalfa  before  the  ice 
sheets  occurred  the  latter  part  of  February  1922. 

Heavy  Fall  Rains  Help  Winterkilling. — Heavy  rains  in  September, 
October,  and  November,  1921,  compared  with  the  light  rains  for  the 
same  months  of  the  previous  year  seem  to  have  had  a distinct  bearing 
on  the  winter  injury  of  alfalfa  during  the  past  year.  It  is  apparent  that 
the  accumulation  of  excess  moisture  in  the  soil  augments  the  injury 
from  low  temperatures,  alternate  freezing  and  thawing,  and  heaving. 
In  both  experimental  and  field  tests  it  has  been  noted  that  the  winter 
injury  was  decidedly  less  on  the  high  land  where  the  surplus  moisture 
could  readily  drain  away  than  it  was  on  the  flat  areas  where  the  soil 
moisture  accumulated.  The  theory  is  held  that  heavy  fall  rains  and 
favorable  growing  weather  tend  to  prevent  the  alfalfa  from  becoming 
dormant,  in  which  state  it  is  apparently  less  susceptible  to  winter  in- 
jury, especially  the  weaker  strains  of  common  alfalfa.  The  hardier 
varieties,  such  as  the  Grimm,  Baltic,  etc.,  have  a tendency  to  develop 
this  state  of  dormancy  regardless  of  weather  and  growing  conditions. 

Late  Fall  Cutting  Injurious. — Three  or  four  cuttings  of  the  crop 
are  often  made  in  Wisconsin.  When  conditions  are  favorable,  the 
plants  may  survive  in  spite  of  late  fall  cutting,  but  under  adverse 
conditions — and  one  never  knows  when  these  conditions  will  set  in — 
serious  damage  may  result.  In  one  trial  late  fall  cropping  increased 
the  winterkilling  of  hardy  Grimm  alfalfa  from  7 to  32  per  cent  and 
of  common  from  65  to  98  per  cent.  In  another  trial  where  three 
crops  of  common  were  cut  in  the  full  bloom  stage  95  per  cent  winter- 
killing  occurred  compared  to  only  24  per  cent  winterkilling  where 
only  two  crops  of  the  common  were  removed.  In  this  same  test  the 
removal  of  the  third  growth  of  Grimm  in  the  full  bloom  stage  in- 
creased the  winterkilling  from  8 to  24  per  cent. 

Late  fall  cutting  not  only  increases  the  percentage  of  winterkilling 
but  previous  experiments  have  shown  that  it  reduces  the  vigor  of  the 
following  season’s  growth. 

New  Seedings  Lessen  Winterkilling  Losses. — The  age  factor  of  al- 
falfa is  an  important  one  in  reference  to  the  winterkilling  problem. 
Numerous  tests  of  the  station  have  shown  that  new  seedings  of  al- 
falfa are  much  hardier  than  old  stands.  In  this  year’s  trials  eight 
year  old  Grimm  winterkilled  seriously  while  adjacent  plots  of  two 
year  old  Grimm,  receiving  the  same  cutting  treatment,  came  through 
with  very  slight  injury.  The  superior  hardiness  of  the  younger  alfalfa 
offers  a partial  solution  to  the  winterkilling  difficulty.  If  the  soil  con- 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


39 


ditions  on  the  farm  can  be  made  sufficiently  favorable  so  that  alfalfa 
may  be  included  in  a four,  fiv,e,  or  six  year  rotation,  new  seedings 
will  be  started  every  year  or  so  and  a total  loss  of  the  alfalfa  acreage 
on  the  farm  is  not  apt  to  obtain,  particularly  if  the  seed  of  hardy 
strains  is  used.  In  Jefferson,  Waukesha  and  Green  Counties,  tremen- 
dous winterkilling  losses  occurred  and  to  a considerable  extent  they 
have  been  due  to  a lack  of  new  seedings.  From  1918-21  inclusive,  the 


FIG.  20— NEW  SEEDINGS  OF  ALFALFA  AVOID  WINTERKILLING 

LOSSES 

A good  stand  of  four-year-old  Grimm  winterkilled  because  of  late  cut- 
ting and  the  severe  winter  of  1921-22.  A heavy  growth  of  timothy  and 
blue  grass  followed.  Adjacent  was  a new  seeding  of  Grimm  which 
came  through  the  winter  with  practically  no  injury.  New  seedings 
of  alfalfa  are  much  hardier  than  old.  The  inclusion  of  alfalfa  in  a 
regular  rotation  so  that  some  new  seedings  will  be  established  every 
one  or  two  years  reduces  winterkilling  losses. 


old  stands  produced  such  abundant  yields  of  hay  that  the  necessity  of 
new  seedings  was  not  felt.  Where  dependence  is  placed  on  old  stands 
of  alfalfa  for  the  next  season’s  crop,  disappointment  is  very  apt  to  be 
experienced  when  hard  winters  occur. 

Location  of  Winter  Injury  in  Alfalfa  Plants. — An  examination  of 
several  fields  of  alfalfa  which  looked  quite  promising  in  the  month 
of  April  showed  that  they  gradually  dried  up  and  died  out  as  warm 
weather  followed.  What  appeared  to  be  a fairly  healthy  growth  and 
good  stand  in  the  early  spring  vanished  almost  completely.  An  exam- 
ination of  1600  plants  from  five  to  eight  years  old  was  made  by  Messrs. 
Graber  and  Nelson  to  determine  the  fundamental  cause  of  this  phenom- 
enon. Three  hundred  and  thirty-four  of  these  plants  had  live  green 
crown  sprouts  at  the  time  the  examination  was  made-  The  roots 
were  all  healthy  and  firm,  but  34  per  cent  of  the  crowns  were  decayed 


40 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


and  soft,  while  the  remaining  66  per  cent  wer,e  partially  injured  and 
rotted.  In  all  instances  living  or  green  shoots  of  the  plants  could 
be  easily  pulled  out  of  the  rotted  crown.  During  warm  weather  which 
normally  would  stimulate  growth,  the  injured  crowns  or  portions  of 
the  crown  dried  up  and  the  sprouts  soon  died. 

These  results  indicate  that  the  buds  and  shoots  are  more  hardy 
than  either  the  crown  or  the  root  of  the  plant  and  that  the  crown 
and  upper  portions  of  the  root,  which  are  more  directly  exposed  to 
climatic  conditions,  are  the  parts  of  the  plant  which  first  suffer  from 
winter  injury.  A similar  condition  was  observed  by  these  investiga- 
tions in  fields  of  alsike  and  red  clover  that  had  suffered  from  winter 
injury  and  on  which  green  sprouts  appeared  early  in  the  spring,  but 
later  dried  up  and  disappeared. 

Emergency  Hay  Crops  Often  Help 

BECAUSE  of  the  excessive  winterkilling  of  alfalfa  and  the  clovers 
in  the  southern  portion  of  the  state,  many  farmers,  especially 
dairymen,  found  it  necessary  to  resort  to  emergency  hay  crops 
to  provide  suitable  roughage  during  1922.  The  work  of  G.  B.  Mortimer 
(Agronomy)  extending  over  a period  of  years  has  shown  that  if  right 
amounts  and  proper  varieties  of  seed  are  used,  there  are  a number  of 
combinations  which  the  Wisconsin  farmer  can  successfully  use  to  pro 
vide  good  quality  hay  by  means  of  emergency  crops. 

Oats  and  Field  Peas. — For  an  early  seeded  emergency  hay  crop  a 
combination  of  oats  and  field  peas  is  outstanding  on  soils  adaptable  to 
pea  growing.  During  the  past  year  yields  ranging  from  2 to  3 tons  of 
air-dried  hay  per  acre  were  secured.  Though  the  quality  of  this  hay 
was  not  equal  to  clover  or  alfalfa,  it  is  readily  eaten  by  dairy  cattle 
and  the  digestible  protein  content  is  about  equal  to  that  of  good  red 
clover  hay. 

Sudan  Grass  and  Soybeans. — Another  year  of  trials  has  shown  that 
a mixture  of  Sudan  grass  and  soybeans  can  be  used  to  provide  one  of 
the  most  satisfactory  emergency  hay  crops.  The  results  obtained  show 
that  the  most  satisfactory  rate  of  seeding  is  about  10  pounds  of  sudan 
grass  and  from  1.5  bushels  to  2 bushels  of  soybeans.  For  this  purpose 
the  early  varieties  of  soybeans  seem  to  be  best  suited. 

Sudan  Grass  Alone. — It  has  been  demonstrated  over  a period  of  five 
years  that  the  best  results  may  be  obtained  by  broadcasting  or  drill 
ing  sudan  grass  at  the  rate  of  20  to  25  pounds  of  seed  per  acre.  This 
rate  seems  to  be  most  effective  for  seed  production  or  for  hay  when 
this  plant  is  grown  alone.  The  crop  has  the  additional  advantages 
of  making  an  excellent  yield  of  hay  even  when  sown  at  a time  as  late 
as  the  first  week  in  July.  As  a smother  crop  to  be  combined  with  a 
partial  fallow  for  the  eradication  of  quack  grass,  sudan  grass  is  urn 
excelled. 

Soybeans  Alone. — Excellent  hay  crops  were  also  obtained  during 
the  past  year  by  the  use  of  soybeans  alone.  The  use  of  1.5  bushels 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


41 


of  seed  per  acre  with  Black  Eyebrow  variety  gave  the  most  satisfac 
tory  results,  over  3.5  tons  of  air-dried  hay  being  obtained  per  acre. 

The  following  table  shows  the  results  obtained  from  the  various 
seeding  rates  and  combinations: 


TABLE  I.— RATES  OF  SEEDING  AND  YIELDS  OF  EMERGENCY  HAY  CROPS 


Combination  and  rates  of  seeding 


Average  in 
tons  per  acre 


1.5  bu.  Canada  peas  with  1.5  bu.  oats 

2 bu.  Canada  peas  with  1.5  bu.  oats 

2 bu.  Marrowfat  peas  with  1.5  bu.  oats 

1.5  bu.  Scotch  peas  with  1.5  bu.  oats 

1.5  bu.  Wis.  G'reen  peas  with  1.5  bu.  oats 

1.2  bu.  Scotch  peas  with  1.5  bu.  oats— Kherson  seeded  latter  part  of  May 

10  lbs.  Sudan  with  1.5  bu.  Black  Eyebrows 

10  lbs.  Sudan  with  2 bu.  Black  Eyebrows 

10  lbs.  Sudan  with  2.5  bu.  Black  Eyebrows 

10  lbs.  Sudan  with  2 bu.  Hollybroods 

10  lbs.  Sudan  with  2 bu.  Manchus 

1.5  bu.  Black  Eyebrows  seeded  alone 

2 bu.  Black  Eyebrows  seeded  alone 

2.5  bu.  Black  Eyebrows  seeded  alone 


3.69 

3.34 

3.11 

3.10 

3.32 

1.95 

3.46 


4.69 

4.00 

3.91 

3.85 


Seeding  Clover  and  Timothy  on  Winter  Grains 

TO  DETERMINE  the  best  time  of  seeding  clover  and  timothy 
on  winter  grains,  trials  were  conducted  by  H.  W.  Albertz 
(Agronomy).  The  winter  of  1921-1922  being  an  unusually  open 
one,  conditions  were  ideal  for  such  work.  It  was  found  that  clover 
seeding  between  March  1st  and  April  15th  produced  an  excellent  stand, 
while  all  others  failed  to  do  so.  Timothy  seedings  between  Decem- 
ber 15th  and  April  15th  all  produced  excellent  stands.  These  re- 
sults seem  to  show  that  seeding  red  clover  on  winter  grains  can 
be  secured  when  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  ground  occurs 
in  the  spring  time,  while  timothy  may  be  seeded  any  time  after  the 
fifteenth  of  December,  provided  there  is  no  snow  on  the  ground  at 
the  time  of  sowing. 

Soybeans  an  Important  Wisconsin  Crop 

THE  SOYBEAN  seems  destined  to  become  a crop  of  considerable 
economic  importance  in  Wisconsin.  A great  deal  of  interest 
has  been  aroused  in  recent  years  in  the  growing  of  this  crop,  es- 
pecially among  the  farmers  on  light  and  sandy  soils.  Some  of  them 
are  now  depending  almost  wholly  for  their  silage,  hay,  and  concen- 
trated feeds  on  the  soybean  plant.  For  the  beginner  on  light  Jack- 
pine  soils  especially,  this  crop  is  an  important  one,  because  it  grows 
well  under  these  conditions  and  it  can  be  put  to  a great  variety  of  uses. 

Experimental  work  with  soybeans  during  the  past  year  under  the 
direction  of  B.  D.  Leith  (Agronomy)  has  been  confined  very  largely 
to  tne  selection  of  the  most  satisfactory  strains  for  seed  production 
with  some  attention  also  given  to  the  growing  of  the  crop  for  hay. 
As  a result  of  the  experimental  work  at  Madison,  it  appears  that 


42 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


the  Manchu  variety  (Wisconsin  Ped.  No.  39)  has  on  the  whole  given 
the  most  satisfactory  yield,  an  average  of  21.7  bushels  being  obtained 
during  the  past  year  and  an  average  of  20.9  bushels  for  the  past 
five  years.  In  growing  the  plant  for  hay,  a yield  of  4.2  tons  per  acre 
was  obtained  from  seedings  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  acre  with 
a grain  drill.  Ordinarily,  however,  considerable  difficulty  is  ex- 
perienced with  the  curing  of  soybean  hay,  and  work  on  this  subject 
will  be  continued. 

Due  to  the  rapid  increase  in  soybean  acreage  in  the  state,  an  un- 
usually large  supply  of  seed  has  been  produced.  In  former  years 
there  was  considerable  demand  from  surrounding  states  for  seed,  but 
as  considerable  quantities  of  this  crop  are  now  grown  in  these  states 
the  market  demand  for  our  surplus  seed  is  limited.  There  will  re- 
main a considerable  need  of  seed  for  seeding  purposes,  but  other  than 
a seed  outlet  must  sooner  or  later  be  developed. 

Flax  seed  production  in  the  West  is  gradually  declining,  due  largely 
to  the  ravages  of  the  wilt  disease.  The  problem  of  the  adaptability 
of  soybean  oil  as  a substitute  has  been  given  much  attention  and  much 
effort  has  been  made  by  both  the  agronomy  and  genetics  departments 
to  improve  the  oil  qualities  of  the  soybean.  To  some  extent  soybean 
oil  is  now  used  in  industry.  Several  mills  have  been  .established  in 
neighboring  states,  but  at  present  the  oil  interests  are  somewhat  re- 
luctant to  establish  the  milling  industry  in  Wisconsin.  One  of  the 
problems  has  been  to  dispose  of  the  soybean  meal,  which  is  a by- 
product remaining  after  the  oil  is  expressed.  Experiments  have  shown 
that  this  soybean  meal  has  a feeding  value  about  equal  to  that  of 
linseed  meal.  In  dairy  states,  such  as  Wisconsin,  it  seems  probable 
that  it  should  not  be  very  difficult  to  dispose  of  this  by-product,  and 
it  is  possible  that  a satisfactory  outlet  for  our  surplus  of  soybeans 
may  be  obtained  through  the  oil  industry. 

Cold  Resistant  Corn  Fills  Need  of  North 

IN  WISCONSIN  and  neighboring  states  there  exists  a general  need 
for  an  early  variety  of  corn  which  will  produce  a stalk  growth 
large  enough  to  enable  farmers  to  fill  their  silos  with  a reasonable 
acreage.  In  order  to  meet  this  need  B.  D.  Leith  (Agronomy)  has 
for  several  years  been  developing  strains  of  Golden  Glow  (Wisconsin 
No.  12)  by  selecting  it  upon  the  basis  of  resistance  to  low  tempera- 
ture, early  maturity,  and  stalk  growth. 

While  practically  one-half  of  the  corn  in  Wisconsin  at  present  is  of 
the  Golden  Glow  variety,  it  has  been  found  that  the  new  resistant 
strain  is  much  more  satisfactory  in  the  northern  counties  of  the 
state  where  the  crop  must  needs  encounter  a much  cooler  climate  than 
is  found  in  the  southern  counties.  Fields  of  this  strain  of  corn  grown 
in  Forest  and  Florence  counties  seem  to  be  fully  as  large  as  the 
Golden  Glow  which  was  grown  on  the  Station  Farm  at  Madison.  The 
demand  for  this  seed  has  become  very  insistent  from  Wisconsin  and 
from  neighboring  states  as  well.  A considerable  amount  of  it  has 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


43 


been  grown  on  northern  soils  and  will  be  available  for  dissemination 
in  1923. 

Through  selection  from  ice  box  germination  tests,  Mr.  Leith  has 
been  able  to  adapt  this  corn  so  that  it  will  germinate  and  develop  dur- 
ing the  cool  weather  of  spring  or  early  summer. 


FIG.  21.— SELECTING  “COLD  RESISTANT”  SEED  CORN 

This  field  of  “cold  resistant”  Golden  Glow,  grown  by  Roman  Muska- 
vitch  of  Shawano,  yielded  111  bushels  to  the  acre. 


Germinated  in  ice  box  temperatures  ranging  from  42°  to  50°  F., 
ordinary  Golden  Glow  corn  only  germinated  82.5  per  cent  as  many 
kernels  as  this  cold-resistant  strain.  Planted  in  the  field  with  com- 


44 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


FIG.  22.— A FIELD  OF  WHITE  CROSS  OATS 
Earliness,  high  yield,  and  white  color  are  the  outstanding  qualities  of 
this  new  variety. 

19)  which  has  been  grown  in  several  parts  of  the  state  during  the 
past  year.  The  White  Cross  oat  is  a white  kerneled  oat  and  is  much 
larger  and  heavier  than  the  other  early  varieties.  The  oat  stands  up 
well  on  the  richer  soils,  and  it  will  be  a valuable  addition  to  our 
varieties  of  pedigreed  oats.  On  an  8-acre  field  on  the  station  farm, 
it  produced  62.8  bushels  per  acre. 


mon  Golden  Glow  on  April  29th,  41.2  per  cent  of  the  cold  resistant 
was  ripe  on  August  23,  117  days  after  planting,  while  only  21.6  per 
cent  of  the  ordinary  Golden  Glow  was  mature.  This  early  germina- 
tion and  early  maturity  makes  this  type  an  especially  valuable  quality 
for  northern  needs. 

In  order  to  have  this  corn  retain  its  cold  resistant  characteristics, 
it  is  necessary  to  grow  it  in  the  north  where  the  environment  is  such 
as  to  maintain  this  cold  resistant  power. 

Last  year  about  2500  bushels  of  this  cold  resistant  corn  were  dis- 
seminated. The  demand  from  other  northern  sections,  such  as  Canada, 
North  Dakota,  Northern  Michigan  and  Northern  Minnesota,  has  been 
very  great.  In  a few  years  more  time  it  seems  reasonable  to  believe 
that  the  silage  problem  for  our  northern  dairy  farms  will  be  solved. 

White  Cross  Oats  a New  Successful  Strain 

DURING  THE  PAST  eight  years  efforts  have  been  made  to  breed 
a new  oats  for  Wisconsin,  the  object  being  to  get  an  oat  that 
had  somewhat  taller  straw  than  the  Wisconsin  No.  7 and  pure 
white  instead  of  yellow.  B.  D.  Leith  (Agronomy)  has  now  produced 
such  a strain  that  has  been  named  the  White  Cross  oat  (Ped.  No. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


45 


“Forward” — A New  High  Yielding  Oats 

THERE  HAS  recently  been  bred  at  the  Ashland  Station  a new 
pedigree  oats,  Forward  (Ped.  1241),  by  E.  J.  Delwiche  (Agron- 
omy). This  new  strain  produced  56-3  bushels  per  acre  or  over 
6.5  bushels  more  than  its  nearest  competitor,  and  it  led  the  well- 
known  and  commonly  grown  variety,  Swedish  Select  oats,  by  over 
17.5  bushels  per  acre.  As  an  eight-year  average,  it  has  yielded  52.9 
bushels  per  acre  which  exceeds  all  other  varieties  by  an  average  of 
about  4 bushels  per  acre.  Several  hundred  bushels  of  this  strain  will 
be  available  for  1923  distribution. 

Oat  Lodging  Problems  Studied 

IN  ORDER  to  determine  the  factors  influencing  the  lodging  of  oats, 
work  on  this  subject  has  been  continued  at  the  Marshfield  Station 
by  E.  J.  Delwiche.  Observations  during  the  past  year  plainly  in- 
dicate that  the  variety  used  as  seed  is  one  of  the  primary  factors  con- 
cerned in  lodging.  Wisconsin  Pedigree  No.  1 (Wisconsin  Wonder) 
easily  takes  first  rank,  showing  practically  no  lodging  in  the  experi- 
mental plots;  Pedigree  1214  (White  Russian)  is  second,  (5  per  cent 
lodging),  while  many  of  the  varieties  tested  lodged  to  the  extent  of 
50  or  75  per  cent.  Because  of  its  high  rating  in  straw  resistance  and 
its  high  yield,  Wisconsin  Wonder  is  now  recommended  for  central 
Wisconsin. 

The  rate  of  seeding  also  was  found  to  exert  a considerable  influence 
on  lodging,  the  lighter  seeding  showing  the  least  lodging,  and,  of 
course,  a considerably  smaller  yield. 


TABLE  II.— YIELDS  AND  PERCENTAGE  OF  LODGING  WITH  PED.  NO.  1 (Wis- 
consin Wonder)  OATS 


Rate  sown 
pecks  per  acre 

Lodging 

percentage 

Date  of 
ripening 

Yield  per  acre 
bushels 

4 

None 

August  0 

45.5 

8 

10% 

August  5 

55.5 

12 

10% 

August  5 

61.3 

16 

30% 

August  2 

67.8 

These  results  indicate  that  8 to  10  pecks  per  acre  is  the  right  seeding 
for  Wisconsin  Wonder  oats. 

Experiments  with  mineral  fertilizers  to  control  lodging  showed  no 
satisfactory  results. 


Wheats  for  Wisconsin 

Spring  Wheat. — The  experimental  work  conducted  with  spring  wheat 
has  been  centered  principally  around  the  production  of  a variety  of 
high  rust  resistance  by  E.  J.  Delwiche  (Agronomy).  Mr.  Delwiche. 
after  many  thousands  of  selections  from  hybrid  and  mixed  breecis 


46 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


since  this  work  began  in  1909,  has  one  strain,  the  M.  1611  (Early  Java), 
which  has  consistently  shown  a marked  resistance  to  stem  rust,  no^ 
only  in  his  hands,  but  in  tests  made  with  farmers  in  upper  Wisconsin 
and  Michigan.  One  farmer  at  Wausau  reported  a yeield  of  28  bushels 
per  acre  in  1921  and  25  bushels  in  1922.  This  wheat  is  also  of  high 
gluten  content  (16.6  per  cent  in  1921),  and  work  with  it  will  be  con-, 
tinued.  About  1,000  bushels  of  this  seed  will  be  available  for  1923 
planting. 

Winter  Wheat. — Winter  wheats  are  so  much  better  yielders  in  upper 
Wisconsin  that  they  are  favored  by  most  farmers.  At  Ashland  this 
year  Ped.  No.  408  (Bacska)  gave  an  average  yield  of  41.9  bushels  per 
acre.  Two  other  varieties  (Ped.  No.  2 and  Ped.  11825)  were  close  rivals 
with  40  bushels  per  acre.  For  six  years  winter  wheats  have  produced 
an  average  of  1,938  pounds  per  acre,  while  the  best  oats  only  made 
1,857  pounds  per  acre.  Either  as  feed  or  grain  for  market,  winte 
wheat  is  decidedly  superior  to  oats  for  the  Superior  red  clay  belt,  says 
Mr.  Delwiche.  At  Marshfield,  Bacska  again  led  with  a yield  of  42.9 
bushels  per  acre  or  over  30  bushels  more  per  acre  than  the  best  spring 
wheat.  Winter  wheats,  however,  are  lower  in  gluten  and  therefore  less 
desirable  from  the  miller’s  standpoint.  Efforts  will  be  continued  to 
see  if  harder  and  higher  gluten  strains  can  be  bred.  Some  selections 
from  1920  and  1921  hybrids  show  a decidedly  high  percentage  of  har 
berries. 

Producing  Barley  Seed  Free  From  Stripe  Disease 

BECAUSE  of  the  prevalence  of  stripe  disease  in  the  barley  fields 
of  Wisconsin,  A.  G.  Johnson  * (Plant  Pathology)  and  E.  D.  Holden 
(Agronomy)  for  several  years  have  been  experimenting  to  obtain 
barley  seed  free  from  the  barley  stripe  organism,  Helminthosporium 

gramineum. 

Several  plots  were  tested  with  formaldehyde  solution  in  1921  in 
order  to  remove  the  disease,  and  later  by  a process  of  roguing  out  in- 
fected plants  apparently  disease-free  seed  was  obtained.  This  was 
planted  in  1922,  and  though  frequent  inspections  were  made,  no  striped 
plants  were  discovered. 

From  this  work,  the  experimenters  have  concluded  that  stripe-free 
barley  can  be  obtained  from  infected  stock  if  the  infected  plants  are 
not  allowed  to  mature  to  the  point  where  discharging  lesions  occur. 
Entire  removal  of  infection  was  accomplished  by  seed  treatment  with 
formaldehyde  solution  combined  with  planting  at  a period  which  was 
naturally  unfavorable  to  the  development  of  the  disease  within  the 
plants  themselves.  If  the  disease  is  one  that  can  be  entirely  removed, 
it  will  not  appear  again  until  infection  occurs  from  an  outside  source. 

* Tn  cooperation  with  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


47 


Planting  Distance  of  Sunflowers  for  Silage 

CONTINUED  work  with  sunflowers  for  silage  purposes  by  E.  D, 
Holden  (Agronomy)  has  shown  that  the  yields  are  fairly  uniform 
regardless  of  the  planting  distance  as  long  as  it  remains  be- 
tween 6 and  20  inches.  Work  during  the  past  year  has  shown,  how- 
ever, the  ratio  of  the  amounts  of  stalks  to  leaves  in  the  silage  increases 
as  the  distance  between  the  plants  in  the  row  becomes  less.  When 
the  plants  are  as  close  together  as  6 inches,  there  is  a pronounced 
drying  up  of  the  lower  leaves  long  before  cutting,  which  results  in 
a considerable  loss.  During  the  past  year  it  was  found  that  planting 
sunflowers  8 to  12  inches  apart  in  the  row  will  produce  the  most  sat- 
isfactory results,  and  the  Department  of  Agronomy  is  now  recommend* 
ing  that  rate  because  it  overcomes  the  loss  of  leaves  experienced  when 
planting  is  too  close.  Though  the  relative  proportion  of  leaves  in  the 
silage  increases  as  the  planting  spaces  increase  up  to  12  inches,  no 
further  gains  are  obtained  by  spacing  the  plants  beyond  that  distance. 


Rutabagas  Outyield  Mangels  in  Northern  Wisconsin 

THE  RESULTS  of  a comparative  study  of  the  yields  of  rutabagas 
and  mangels  conducted  at  the  various  branch  stations  during 
the  year  confirm  the  findings  of  former  years.  In  each  case  the 
rutabagas  outyielded  the  mangels,  and  their  cost  of  production  was 
less  both  per  ton  and  per  acre.  A very  fine  type  of  rutabaga  is  being 
developed  at  the  Ashland  Station,  which  seems  especially  well  adapted 
to  the  clay  and  silt  loams  of  central  and  northern  Wisconsin.  This 
seed  will  probably  be  available  for  distribution  next  year. 


RUTABAGAS  AND  MANGELS  COMPARED-ASHLAND,  1922 


Variety 

Yield  per  acre 

Cost  per  acre 

Cost  per  ton 

Rutabagas  (Monarch)  _ 

16.12  tons 

$38.86 

$2.41 

4.82 

Mangels  (Sludstrup) 

9.3  “ 

44.78 

Kudzu  Not  Successful  in  Wisconsin 

FURTHER  experiments  were  conducted  during  the  year  with 
Kudzu,  a viny  leguminous  forage  plant  introduced  from  Japan, 
that  has  been  much  advertised.  The  observations  made  at  this 
Station  during  the  past  year  have  revealed  no  characteristics  which 
warrant  its  use  by  Wisconsin  farmers.  While  a dense  growth  of  vines 
was  produced  by  fall,  the  winter  of  1921-1922  completely  killed  the 
stand,  although  red  clover  growing  beside  it  was  uninjured. 


48 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


New  Varieties  of  Peas  for  Wisconsin 

FOR  A NUMBER  of  years  E.  J.  Delwiche  (Agronomy)  has  been 
breeding  canning  peas  at  the  Ashland  Station  until  now  we  have 
the  largest  collection  of  pedigreed  strains  known.  By  hybridiza- 
tion and  selection  several  excellent  varieties  have  been  developed, 
and  there  remains  now  the  matter  of  fixing  these  best  types  and 
studying  their  relation  to  disease  before  dissemination  of  the  varieties 
can  be  made. 

Some  new  early  Alaskan  type  strains  known  as  Hustler,  Alcross, 
and  Double  Alaska  have  been  found  to  be  about  a week  earlier  than 
the  earliest  types  of  Alaskan  peas  so  far  tested.  Of  the  new  Badger 
and  Horal  varieties,  considerable  seed  is  also  available  for  next 
spring’s  planting,  and  at  that  time  a rather  wide  dissemination  for 
these  varieties  is  planned. 

Continued  experimental  work  at  the  Marshfield  Station  has  also 
shown  the  desirability  of  long  rotations  (six  years)  to  reduce  the  like- 
lihood of  disease.  The  value  of  inoculation  was  again  tested,  and  the 
results  w.ere  definitely  in  favor  of  the  use  of  culture.  (19.7  bushels 
per  acre  no  inoculation;  23.3  bushels,  inoculated.) 

The  adaptability  of  the  stronger  clay  and  silt  soils  of  upper  Wis- 
consin to  pea  culture  has  now  been  thoroughly  demonstrated.  Com- 
mercial interests  have  been  encouraged  to  develop  the  canning  in- 
dustry in  the  Lake  Superior  region.  The  pea  cannery  at  Marengo  in 
Ashland  County  has  been  in  successful  operation  for  the  past  three 
years.  The  cooler  climatic  conditions  that  prevail  in  this  section 
make  it  possible  to  extend  the  factory  run  considerably  longer  than 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  state- 

The  obvious  advantage  of  a cash  crop  that  will  bring  from  $50  to 
$90  per  acre  as  well  as  securing  pea  vine  hay  which  is  so  highly  prized 
makes  this  industry  very  promising  for  these  new  northern  sections 

Improvement  of  Sweet  Corn  for  Canning  Purposes 

DURING  THE  PAST  three  years  Mr.  Holden  has  been  engaged 
in  breeding  sweet  corn  for  canning  purposes.  The  work 
has  been  largely  carried  on  in  connection  with  fields  of  dif- 
ferent canning  companies,  most  of  it  being  done  at  Columbus.  The 
primary  purpose  of  these  experiments  was  to  determine  the  merits 
of  the  different  corns  used  by  Wisconsin  canners  and  to  obtain  data 
as  to  the  yields  of  the  different  strains  and  of  the  amount  and  value 
of  the  fodder  that  remains  for  feeding  purposes  after  the  corn  has  been 
husked. 

Some  very  satisfactory  progress  has  been  made  up  to  the  present 
time,  and  it  appears  probable  that  as  a result  of  this  work  higher 
yielding  strains  of  corn  will  be  available  for  use  by  Wisconsin  can- 
ners. Two  strains  of  the  Early  Evergreen  are  especially  promising, 
and  several  other  varieties  have  shown  outstanding  vigor  and  yields. 
Sufficient  seed  is  now  available  to  give  these  strains  more  extended 
field  trials  in  1923. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


49 


Purebred  Grains  an  Educational  Factor 

GRONOMIC  research  has  sought  everywhere  to  lengthen  the 


Wisconsin  crop  list,  and  by  breeding  and  selection  most  of  our 


present  strains  of  field  crops  have  been  produced.  In  many 
cases  the  varieties  now  grown  have  been  so  improved  that  they  re- 
semble but  slightly  those  from  which  they  were  originally  obtained. 

In  recent  years  the  studies  of  grains  and  crops  have  entered  to 
an  increasing  degree  into  educational  work.  Junior  departments  have 
been  added  to  state  shows  and  to  the  International  as  well,  and  com- 
petition is  keen  among  boys  and  girls  in  high  schools  and  even  in 
the.  grades. 

At  the  1922  State  Grain  Show  held  at  Green  Bay,  the  exhibits  and 
judging  contests  of  the  boys  and  girls  made  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting features  of  the  entire  display.  Here,  in  a’  show  sponsored  by 


FIG.  23. — NEARLY  1000  SAMPLES  WERE  EXHIBITED  AT  WISCON- 


The  state  purebred  grain  exhibit  at  Green  Bay  was-  one  of  the  largest 
on  record.  The  junior  exhibits  comprised  one  of  the  strong  features 
of  the  show — the  young  folks  often  compete  successfully  even  with 
experienced  seed  growers. 

the  purebred  seed  growers  of  the  state,  where  the  high  points  of  the 
production  of  quality  grains  were  represented — where  the  best  samples 
of  our  best  varieties  grown  by  our  leading  growers  were  assembled 
— the  young  folks  held  their  own. 

With  the  remarkable  junior  showing  made  at  the  Green  Bay  Grain 
Exhibit,  which  was  one  of  the  best  of  its  kind  in  many  years,  it  is 
apparent  that  our  purebred  grains  are  playing  an  important  part  in 
our  educational  system  and  that  in  time  these  efforts  must  become 
a distinct  factor  in  our  agricultural  development. 


SIN’S  1922  GRAIN  SHOW 


50 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


Recent  Developments  in  the  Hemp  Industry 

THOUGH  THE  economic  situation  in  the  hemp  industry  has 
shown  no  improvement  during  the  last  year,  research  work 
in  this  field  has  been  continued  by  A.  H.  Wright  (Agronomy). 
Efforts  were  largely  concentrated  on  the  development  of  new  uses 
for  hemp  fiber  in  order  to  stimulate  the  market.  A certain  amount 
of  trade  has  been  established  among  cordage  manufacturers,  and  a 
promising  field  has  been  found  in  rug  manufacture.  Already  rugs 
are  being  made  from  hemp  and  designs  outlined  so  that  it  is  hoped 
hemp  rugs  will  become  a standard  article  of  commerce.  The  foreign 
markets  are  now  peculiarly  inactive,  the  low  rate  of  exchange  making 
it  most  difficult  for  America  to  produce  hemp  at  a figure  that  will 
meet  Italian  competition. 

Wisconsin-Grown  Hemp  Seed. — In  the  past  we  have  been  dependent 
upon  Kentucky  for  our  seed.  But,  as  a result  of  eight  years  of  work 
and  selection  at  the  Experiment  Station,  a variety  known  as  the 


FIG.  24.— THE  RESULT  OF  USING  BOTH  POTASH  AND  PHOS- 
PHORUS FOR  HEMP  ON  MARSH  SOIL 

When  both  phosphorus  and  potash  were  used  on  hemp  on  marsh  soil 
at  Union  Grove,  the  increased  growth  was  pronounced.  The  plot  on 
the  right  received  400  pounds  of  potassium  chloride  an  acre,  while  the 
plot  on  the  left  received  600  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  in  addition  to 
the  400  pounds  of  potassium  chloride. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


51 


Ferramington  has  been  developed  to  such  a degree  that  it  can  be 
utilized  for  seed  production  in  this  state.  During  1922  experimental 
fields  of  this  variety  were  grown  at  Union  Grove  and  Beaver  Dam. 
These  fields  were  grown  for  fiber  in  competition  with  fields  planted 
with  Kentucky  seed,  and  it  appears  now  that  they  are  entirely  satis- 
factory. The  Ferramington  variety  matured  fully  two  weeks  earlier 
than  did  the  fields  of  Kentucky  seed.  Though  the  height  of  the  plants 
was  a little  less  than  that  of  the  Kentucky  varieties,  they  were  suffi- 
ciently high  to  make  very  satisfactory  straw.  The  present  results 
indicate  that  the  Ferramington  variety  is  altogether  satisfactory,  and 
if  future  occasion  requires  it,  Wisconsin  can  depend  upon  this  variety 
for  seed  producton. 

Fertilizing  Hemp  on  Marsh  Soil. — Some  interesting  results  were  ob- 
tained from  fertilizer  tests  made  with  hemp  on  marsh  soil  at  Union 
Grove  which  was  drained  three  years  ago.  This  is  a non-acid  marsh 
and  considered  typical  of  the  marshes  of  that  section  of  the  state. 

In  these  trials  the  plots  fertilized  with  potash  only  showed  no  ap- 
preciable superiority  over  the  unfertilized  check  plots;  but  the  plots 
receiving  phosphorus  as  well  as  potash  showed  great  additional  growth. 
The  plants  on  the  check  plots  and  the  potash  plots  averaged  less  than 
two  feet  in  height,  which  means  that  the  crop  on  such  land  was  prac- 
tically worthless  for  fiber  purposes.  On  the  other  hand,  the  crops 
on  the  plots  receiving  potash  and  phosphorus  and  those  receiving 
potash,  phosphorus,  and  nitrogen  reached  a height  of  from  7 to  8.5 
feet.  Where  nitrogen  was  added  to  the  phosphorus  and  potash,  only 
slight  additional  growth  was  obtained,  also  a somewhat  later  maturity 
and  a coarser  straw. 


Recent  Work  in  Weed  Control 


ONE  OF  THE  HEAVIEST  taxes  to  which  the  Wisconsin  farmer 
is  subjected  is  that  which  is  imposed  upon  him  by  weeds. 
Very  often  the  farmer’s  most  valuable  acres  are  most  infested 
and  the  land  which  is  naturally  suited  to  produce  abundantly  may  be- 
come the  least  productive  on  the  farm.  The  great  number  of  pests 
with  which  the  farmer  must  contend  makes  it  necessary  that  the  best 
methods  available  be  applied  in  combating  the  invaders  that  have 
already  established  themselves  in  the  fields  as  well  as  in  keeping 
down  those  which  have  not  yet  had  the  opportunity  to  spread. 

Austrian  Field  Cress. — Several  years  ago  a plant,  member  of  the 
mustard  family,  Austrian  Field  Cress  (Radicula  Palustris),  an  alien 
enemy  of  European  origin,  appeared  in  one  of  the  fields  of  the  University 
Farm.  Methods  were  immediately  used  to  exterminate  the  invader, 
but  recently  the  plant  again  appeared  in  several  areas.  After  several 
unsuccessful  attempts  had  been  made  to  rid  the  field  of  this  infesta- 
tion by  means  of  tar  paper  and  intensive  cultivation  of  the  smaller 


52 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


patches  in  which  it  appeared,  it  was  decided  to  summer  fallow  the  en- 
tire field  in  order  to  insure  the  complete  eradication  of  the  pest.  This 
treatment  seems  to  have  been  very  effective,  and  apparently  the  weed 
has  been  eradicated. 

The  extreme  persistence  and  vitality  of  the  cress  plants  make  drastic 
measures  for  their  destruction  necessary.  The  vitality  of  the  roots 
is  amazing.  In  October  1919  a piece  of  root  six  inches  long  was  put 
into  a quart  jar  of  water  in  the  laboratory.  It  still  bore  green  leaves 
in  October  1921,  having  lived  in  the  water  for  two  years.  The  roots 
in  the  soil  seem  to  possess  an  even  greater  degree  of  vitality,  and 
sometimes  new  plants  appear  where  none  had  been  for  two  years. 

Canada  Thistles.— Areas  of  Canada  thistles  again  appearing  on  a 
field,  from  which  this  weed  had  been  eradicated  some  years  ago,  were 
treated  by  fall  plowing  followed  by  a year  of  cultivation,  in  which  the 
field  was  plowed  twice  and  cultivated  four  times  during  the  summer. 
This  plan  of  attack  seems  to  be  a successful  one,  inasmuch  as  after 
the  summer  fallow  the  eradication  of  the  thistle  is  apparently  as- 
sured. 

Quack  Grass. — The  lower  portion  in  one  of  the  fields  of  the  Uni- 
versity Farm  became  so  badly  infested  with  quack  grass  that  the 
affected  area  covered  approximately  10  acres.  The  worst  infestation 
seemed  to  appear  in  a portion  of  the  field  which  was  low  and  flat.  To 
overcome  this  weed  encroachment,  the  entire  field  was  planted  to 
Murdock  corn,  and,  after  the  crop  was  harvested  in  1921,  it  was  fall 
plowed.  In  the  spring  of  1922  the  infested  area  was  dug  up  with  a 
deep-digging  cultivator,  using  tractor  power,  and  then  followed  by 
three  cultivations  with  a spring  tooth  harrow  during  the  spring  and 
summer  of  1922.  Very  little  quack  grass  could  be  seen  by  the  last 
week  of  June,  and  on  June  28  and  29  the  field  was  seeded  to  S*udan 
grass  at  the  rate  of  25  pounds  per  acre.  The  crop  was  very  heavy 
when  grown  to  maturity  and  cut  for  seed,  and  this  heavy  smother 
crop  seems  to  have  successfully  eradicated  the  quack  grass  infesta- 
tion. 

White  Campion. — A bad  infestation  of  White  Campion  (Lychnis 
alba)  has  appeared  in  one  of  the  fields  on  the  Hill  farm.  This  plant 
is  a biennial,  and  its  seeds  precede  in  ripening  those  of  many  culti- 
vated crops,  and  when  buried  in  the  soil  are  very  long-lived.  In  many 
sections  of  the  state  this  weed  is  proving  itself  extremely  troublesome 
in  grass  lands.  The  method  of  attack  employed  against  this  pest  is 
the  gathering  and  burning  of  all  the  vegetation  on  the  ground,  fol- 
lowed by  cultivated  crops,  such  as  corn  and  potatoes,  which  is  ap- 
parently eliminating  this  biennial  plant. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


53 


Wildfire  Disease  in  Wisconsin  Tobacco 


THE  DISEASE  of  tobacco  known  as  wildfire,  which  has  caused 
large  losses  to  tobacco  growers  in  other  states,  made  its  ap- 
pearance in  Dane  county  early  in  1922;  and  it  is  important 
that  growers  use  all  practical  precautions  to  prevent  its  spread.  So 
far  as  is  known,  the  first  serious  outbreak  of  wildfire  occurred  in 
North  Carolina  in  1917,  from  where  it  spread  rapidly  to  other  to- 
bacco sections  causing  severe  losses. 

In  the  Dane  county  outbreak  the  infected  area  has  been  relatively 
small.  The  first  diseased  plants  from  seed  beds  were  brought  to 
the  Experiment  Station  on  June  14,  1922,  from  the  town  of  Deerfield. 
Subsequently  it  spread  over  most  of  the  seed  beds,  from  which  about 
12  acres  of  tobacco  were  transplanted.  Shortly  after  this,  another 
case  was  reported  from  the  town  of  Burke.  A detailed  survey  showed 


DANE 

COUNTY^ 

WINDSOR 

• 

. * * * 
H * 

BRISTOL 

• • 

• 

• 

• 

WESTPORT 

• • 

• 

BURKE- 

* < 

-yV 

• SUN 

X PRAIRIE 

• 

j 

/ LAKE,  C 

NENDOTA  1 
MADISON  ^ 

• 

BLOOMING 

4 

• • 

COTTAGE 

GROT 

• 

• 

DEERKELD 

j 

••  * 

DUNN  ^ 

• • 

PLEASANT 
3 SPRINGS 

“ 1 

CHRISTIANA 

* 

DUNKIRK 

» 

FIG.  25.— WHERE  WILDFIRE  APPEARED  IN  WISCONSIN 

The  tobacco  wildfire  outbreak  in  1922  was  confined  to  a small  area  in 
Dane  county.  With  careful  control  measures  it  may  be  possible  to  pre- 
vent its  further  spread. 

that  the  infection  existed  on  about  90  farms,  all  of  which  were  located 
in  eastern  Dane  county,  and  arrangements  were  made  with  the  State 
Department  of  Agriculture  to  apply  measures  of  checking  the  disease. 

Wildfire  Starts  in  Plant  Beds. — In  practically  every  case  field  in- 
fection was  traced  to  the  seed  bed,  the  disease  attacking  plants  at 


54 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


almost  any  stage  of  their  growth.  The  typical  symptoms  are  round 
bleached  or  yellowish  areas  on  the  leaves  sometimes  as  large  as  a 
dime,  in  the  center  of  which  is  a dried  area  often  only  the  size  of 
a pin  point  but  varying  up  to  as  much  as  one-half  inch  and  often 
with  a distinct  yellow  border.  These  spots,  when  numerous,  run  to- 
gether and  .cause  the  whole  leaf  to  collapse  and  dry  up.  In  some  of 
the  seed  beds  observed,  the  disease  had  practically  destroyed  all  of 
the  leaves  on  the  plants.  “Bud  infection,”  in  which  the  young  leaves 
surrounding  the  bud  turned  to  a light  yellow  color  without  any  spots 
being  present,  seemed  to  be  common  in  Wisconsin  though  not  gen- 
erally found  in  other  districts. 

For  identification  two  facts  should  be  noted:  (1)  Wildfire  spots 

sometimes  occur  without  any  bleached  area  surrounding  them  and  so 
may  easily  be  mistaken  for  ordinary  rust.  (2)  At  least  one  kind  of 
rust,  the  true  old-fashioned  rust  of  Wisconsin  may  resemble  wildfire. 
In  the  laboratory  it  is  easy  to  determine  all  cases  of  true  wildfire  by 
the  use  of  special  methods. 

By  reason  of  their  position,  longer  exposure  to  infection,  and  higher 
susceptibility,  the  lower  leaves  of  the  plant  are  most  likely  to  show 
infection,  though  the  disease  seems  to  attack  with  vigor  any  of  the 
leaves  of  the  plant  and  even  the  suckers  and  seed  pods.  Cigar  binder 
and  wrapper  tobaccos  may  be  rendered  worthless  for  such  purposes 
by  comparatively  few  infections  per  leaf,  and  heavily  infested  leaves 
are  ordinarily  not  worth  harvesting. 

The  Cause  of  Wildfire. — Wildfire  is  caused  by  an  organism  known 
as  Bacterium  tobacum.  The  germ  can  be  readily  isolated  and  grown 
in  pure  cultures.  Infection  of  fresh  plants  can  be  easily  produced 
by  inoculation. 

Comparison  With  Other  Rusts  of  Tobacco. — Ordinary  tobacco  rust 
is  quite  similar  to  wildfire  in  many  respects,  but  it  is  due  to  a differ- 
ent bacterium  and  is  much  less  serious  and  rare  in  its  attacks.  Its 
spots  are  ordinarily  brown  and  show  less  of  the  yellow  band  around 
the  center  of  infection.  Rust  occurs  rarely,  usually  only  in  small 
parts  of  the  field,  and  it  does  not  spread  so  rapidly  as  wildfire. 

Spread  and  Control  of  the  Disease. — Once  infection  occurs  in  the 
spring,  the  disease  is  readily  spread.  In  addition  to  being  carried 
through  the  air  under  certain  conditions,  men,  animals,  tools,  and 
other  equipment  may  transmit  it.  It  is  most  easily  spread  when  the 
tobacco  is  wet,  and  at  such  times  it  is  well  to  stay  out  of  the  field, 
One  of  the  easiest  means  of  spreading  the  disease  from  farm  to  farm 
is  by  the  transfer  of  infected  plants  for  transplanting.  During  driv- 
ing rain  storms,  a general  spread  in  the  direction  of  the  wind  takes 
place,  and  a few  infected  plants  in  the  field  may  cause  a general 
infection  to  occur  later. 

To  control  the  disease  on  farms  where  it  has  once  occurred,  James 
Johnson  (Horticulture)  made  the  following  recommendations:  Pre- 

vent seed  bed  infection  by  locating  seed  beds  at  a considerable  dis- 
tance from  old  tobacco  beds,  fields,  or  tobacco  sheds;  old  plant  bed 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


55 


FIG.  26.— WILDFIRE  SPOTS  PRODUCE  HOLES  IN  THE  LEAF 

Tobacco  leaves  heavily  infested  with  wildfire  disease  are  ordinarily 
not  worth  harvesting1,  and  when  the  infection  is  general,  serious  losses 
are  caused  by  it. 


56 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


boards  can  be  disinfected  by  sprinkling  or  painting  with  a solution 
of  1 part  of  formalin  to  25  parts  of  water,  and  old  covers  by  boiling 
for  one  hour.  The  tobacco  seed  should  be  disinfected  unless  it  is 
known  to  come  from  districts  where  wildfire  has  not  occurred. 

Where  wildfire  infection  is  found  in  seed  beds,  it  should  be  de- 
stroyed at  once  by  drenching  with  formalin  (1  part  to  25  parts  of 
water)  and  covering  with  some  material  to  hold  the  fumes  or  by 
cutting  the  plants,  sprinkling  the  area  with  kerosene  and  burning 
over.  When  weeding  and  pulling  plants,  the  disease  is  frequently 
spread  throughout  the  bed  from  such  areas  unless  destroyed.  If  no 


FIG.  27. — GOOD  RESULTS  FROM  CLOVER  ROTATED  WITH 

TOBACCO 

These  adjacent  plots  show  the  benefits  of  clover  in  rotation  with 
tobacco  in  comparison  with  no  rotation.  The  experiment  was  planned 
to  determine  how  much  root-rot  might  be  carried  over  from  year  to 
year  by  clover. 


urther  signs  of  the  disease  are  noticed,  it  is  fairly  safe  to  use  the 
remaining  plants  from  such  a bed,  but  it  is  best  not  to  use  those 
within  several  feet  of  the  infected  areas.  To  be  entirely  safe,  plants 
from  infected  beds  should  not  be  used  at  all. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


57 


Rotation  of  Crops  Pays  With  Tobacco 

DETERMINING  the  best  crop  rotation  for  tobacco  is  a com- 
plex problem  on  account  of  the  large  number  of  factors  involved. 
While  it  is  quite  generally  regarded  as  good  practice  to  rotate 
tobacco  with  corn,  grain,  and  clover,  or  alfalfa  in  Wisconsin,  very  often 
poor  crops  are  produced  in  spite  of  such  a rotation  under  apparently 
ideal  conditions  of  growtlj.  In  some  cases  low  soil  fertility,  poor 
preparation  of  soil,  and  other  factors  are  probably  the  primary  cause 
of  the  results,  but  in  others  the  ordinary  black  rot  retains  a foot  hold 
in  the  soil  over  a period  of  years,  and  the  ordinary  rotation  is  not 
sufficient  to  eliminate  it  from  the  soil. 


FIG.  28.— IT  PAYS  TO  GIVE  TOBACCO  LAND  A REST 

Resting-  the  land  from  tobacco  dates  from  early  colonial  times-,  but 
only  in  the  last  few  years  have  the  most  important  reasons  for  so 
doing  become  evident;  i.  e.,  root  diseases.  A four-year  rest  helps 
but  a longer  one  is  better. 


The  Experiment  Station  data,  however,  show  that  rotation  is  highly 
beneficial  in  reducing  the  extent  of  disease  damage-  Where  trouble 
has  been  experienced  in  the  growing  of  tobacco  in  a regular  rotation, 


58 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


it  is  sometimes  found  that  another  root  rot  than  the  ordinary  black 
root  rot  is  concerned.  This  disease  has  been  called  brown  root  rot 
and  is  now  being  studied.  Experiments  have  shown,  however,  that 
the  black  root  rot  organisms  can  persist  in  the  ground  at  least  six 
years  even  in  the  absence  of  the  tobacco  plant  as  a host,  but  during 
this  time  it  is  gradually  reduced  so  that  even  a four-year  period  of 
rest  from  tobacco  helps  very  materially  in  the  growing  of  the  crop. 
In  badly  infested  fields  it  is  probable  that  even  better  crops  of  tobacco 
could  be  obtained  if  such  land  were  not  planted  to  tobacco  for  as  long 
a period  as  six  years. 

Potato  Mosaic  Influenced  by  Temperature 

POTATO  MOSAIC  is  one  of  the  most  serious  potato  diseases  in 
Wisconsin,  particularly  in  the  production  of  certified  seed  stock 
of  Triumphs.  Fields  which  apparently  are  relatively  free  from 
the  disease  often  yield  seed  potatoes  which,  when  grown,  produce  a 
high  percentage  of  mosaic  for  reasons  not  fully  understood.  Any 
information  bearing  on  the  cause  of  the  “masking”  of  mosaic  symptoms 
is,  therefore,  of  interest.  Following  the  clue  obtained  with  tobacco 
mosaic  where  it  was  shown  by  growing  the  plants  under  carefully 
controlled  temperature  conditions  that  relatively  high  temperatures 
were  most  favorable  for  the  disease,  similar  work  was  undertaken 
with  the  potato  mosaic  by  James  Johnson  (Horticulture). 

In  the  case  of  the  potato  disease  it  was  found,  however,  that  rela- 


tively low  temperatures  (57°  to  65  °F.)  were  most  favorable  for  the 


FIG.  29.— TEMPERATURE  IS  A FACTOR  IN  THE  MOSAIC  DISEASE 

Periods  of  relatively  cool  weather  are  most  favorable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  mosaic  disease  in  potatoes. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


59 


development  of  the  symptoms  of  mosaic,  and  that  at  temperatures 
above  77  °F.  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  may  be  made  to  disappear 
rapidly.  Under  field  conditions  then,  mosaic  is  likely  to  show  up 
most  abundantly  early  in  the  season  or  after  cool  periods  of  a week 
or  more  later  in  the  season  if  the  plants  are  still  young  and  in  a 
rapidly  growing  condition.  Conversely,  fields  showing  a high  percent- 
age of  mosaic  at  one  season  of  the  year  may  after  a period  of  a week 
or  more  show  far  less.  It  is  important  that  temperature  conditions 
preceding  inspection  of  fields  for  certification  records  should  he  con- 
sidered. It  is  also  fundamental  that  temperature  relations  should 
be  more  carefully  taken  into  account  in  other  lines  of  experimental 
work  with  the  mosaic  disease  of  potatoes  and  other  plants  as  well. 


ONTINUED  studies  in  dwarf  fruit  trees  grown  in  the  green 


houses  by  R.  H.  Roberts  (Horticulture)  have  shown  that  the 


condition  of  composition  and  vegetation  greatly  affects  the 
pollen  tube  growth  and  fertilization  of  blossoms.  It  was  noted 
that  fertilization  occurred  in  three  or  four  days  less  time  on  very 
strongly  vegetative  trees  than  on  poorly  vegetative  trees.  The  dif- 
ference was  apparently  due  to  the  amount  of  nitrogen  reserve  in  the 
trees.  Strong  growth  is  usually  made  by  trees  having  a large  avail- 
able supply  of  nitrogen  either  in  the  food  supply  or  in  the  reserve 
stored  up  in  the  tissue. 

The  analyses  of  these  reserves  so  far  conducted  under  the  direc- 
tion of  W.  E.  Tottingham  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  have  not  been 
carried  far  enough  to  show  conclusively  in  what  form  the  nitrogen 
storage  occurs. 


HIS  SEASON  has  been  favorable  for  the  development  of  apple 


scab.  In  studies  at  Madison  and  Sturgeon  Bay,  G.  W.  Keitt 


and  L.  K.  Jones  (Plant  Pathology)  continued  the  spraying 
experiments  of  the  previous  years  and,  in  addition,  extended  them 
to  the  effect  of  adding  adhesives,  such  as  gelatin,  glue,  and  calcium 
caseinate  to  lime-sulphur  1-40,  and  also  calcium  caseinate  to  bordeaux 
mixture  4-4-50. 

The  most  satisfactory  spray  program  of  the  season  consisted  of 
lime-sulphur  1-40,  (with  powdered  arsenate  of  lead,  1 pound  per  50 
gallons)  applied  on  the  following  dates:  (1)  May  12-13  (“pre-pink”), 
(2)  May  18-20  (“pink”),  (3)  May  29- June  1 (“calyx”),  (4)  July  8-14, 
and  (5)  August  5-11.  In  most  tests  the  results  from  dry  lime-sulphur 
4-50  were  similar  to  that  obtained  with  liquid  lime-sulphur  1-40.  Bor- 
deaux mixture  4-4-50  controlled  the  disease  satisfactorily,  but  as  in 
previous  seasons  it  russeted  the  fruit  to  an  extent  that  made  its  use 
inadvisable.  The  lime-sulphur  program  in  which  glue  and  gelatin, 
respectively,  were  used  as  adhesives  gave  less  satisfactory  control  of 


Nitrogen  Reserve  in  Apple  Trees 


Studies  in  Apple  Scab  Control 


60 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


the  disease  than  did  the  program  of  lime-sulphur  without  an  adhesive. 
On  the  other  hand  lime-sulphur  and  bordeaux  mixture,  respectively, 
with  the  addition  of  calcium  caseinate  gave  slightly  better  results 


FIG.  30.— POWER  OUTFIT  USED  IN  SPRAYING  EXPERIMENTS 

This  tractor-drawn  spraying-  outfit  is  representative  of  a type  now 
widely  used  in  the  large  orchards  of  Door  county. 


than  did  these  sprays  without  the  addition  of  an  adhesive.  To 
determine  the  commercial  value  of  this  process,  further  trials  will 
be  required. 

Tests  were  also  made  to  determine  the  advisability  of  substituting 
dust  treatments  for  certain  liquid  applications.  The  results  obtained 
in  this  work  were  variable,  apparently  depending  very  much  upon 
the  relation  of  the  time  of  application  to  meteorological  conditions. 
In  some  cases  very  good  control  of  the  scab  disease  was  obtained, 
while  in  others  it  was  very  inadequate.  Three  applications  of  lime- 
sulphur  followed  by  two  of  dust  gave  essentially  as  good  control  of 
the  disease  as  did  the  five-spray  program  of  lime-sulphur. 


Cherry  Leaf  Spot  Investigations 

FROM  YEAR  to  year  new  methods  have  been  tried  out  to  protect 
the  cherry  crop  from  the  ravages  of  the  cherry  leaf  spot  disease, 
and  various  control  programs  were  tested  during  the  past  sea- 
son at  Sturgeon  Bay  by  Mr.  Keitt  and  Mr.  Jones. 

As  in  former  years,  bordeaux  mixture  3-3-50  proved  to  be  the 
most  satisfactory  spray,  giving  excellent  control  of  the  disease  when 
applied  (1)  just  after  the  petals  fell,  (2)  two  weeks  later,  and  (3) 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


61 


just  after  harvest.  Similar  programs  of  bordeaux  mixture  2-2-50 
lime-sulphur  1-40  and  dry  lime-sulphur  4-50  failed  to  control  the 
disease  with  full  satisfaction.  Gelatin  (.25  pound  to  50  gallons), 
glue  (0.5  pound  to  50  gallons),  and  calcium  caseinate  (0.5  pound  to 
50  gallons)  added  as  adhesives  to  bordeaux  mixture  3-3-50  and  lime- 
sulphur  1-40,  respectively,  failed  to  increase  materially  the  effciency 
of  these  sprays.  Dust  applications  as  in  former  years  failed  to  con- 
trol the  disease  satisfactorily  but  gave  sufficient  promise  to  warrant 
further  trials. 

Relation  of  Plant  Diseases  to  Temperature  and  Moisture 

HEAT  AND  CORN  seedlings  become  susceptible  to  the  wheat 


scab  parasite  only  under  unfavorable  environmental  condi- 


tions, according  to  greenhouse  and  field  experiments  carried 


on  during  the  past  three  years.*  These  experiments  conducted  by 
J.  G.  Dickson  (Plant  Pathology)  have  shown  that  the  two  host  plants 
respond  in  almost  opposite  manner  to  soil  temperature.  Wheat 
blights  in  a comparatively  warm  soil;  that  is,  at  soil  temperatures 
above  52 °F.  while  corn  blights  in  a cool  soil;  that  is,  at  a temperature 
usually  below  64 °F.  The  response  to  soil  moisture  is  the  same  for 
both  plants,  wheat  and  corn  seedlings  alike  being  blighted  by  the 
wheat  scab  organism  when  grown  in  dry  soils  regardless  of  the 
soil  temperature. 

The  results  of  the  work  obtained  so  far  indicate  that  there  are 
certain  fundamental  differences  in  the  composition  of  the  plants  grown 
under  different  moisture  and  temperature  conditions  and  that  these 
differences  in  composition  apparently  explain  the  predisposition  of  the 
seedling  to  the  blight  disease. 

Wheat  seedlings  grown  at  a low  soil  temperature  have  three  dis- 
tinct characteristics:  (1)  they  are  high  in  available  carbohydrates; 
(2)  low  in  available  nitrogen;  and  (3)  large  amounts  of  available 
sugar  are  rapidly  converted  into  cellulose  in  the  tissues,  which  makes 
for  thickened  cell  walls  and  considerable  resistance  to  the  wheat 
scab  organism.  When  the  seedling  is  grown  under  conditions  of  high 
soil  temperature,  the  reverse  is  true:  (1)  there  are  present  little  or 

no  available  carbohydrates;  (2)  the  seedlings  are  high  in  nitrogen  in 
the  form  of  readily  available  protein;  (3)  no  thickening  of  the  cell  walls 
by  reserve  material  occurs;  and  (4)  at  the  high  soil  temperatures,  there- 
fore, the  plant  having  no  thickened  cellulose  deposition  offers  no 
resistance  to  the  fungus,  and  the  presence  of  an  abundant  supply  of 
protein  material  results  in  a rapid  development  when  once  the  para- 
site obtains  a foothold. 

The  corn  seedlings  grown  at  a high  soil  temperature  are  compar- 
able to  wheat  seedlings  grown  at  low  soil  temperatures.  They  are 
high  in  available  carbohydrates  and  low  in  available  nitrogen,  and 
some  of  the  carbohydrate  materials  are  laid  down  as  cellulose.  On 
the  contrary,  corn  seedlings  grown  at  low  soil  temperatures  have 


Cooperating  with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


62 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


little  available  sugar  or  carbohydrate  material  and  a plentiful  supply 
of  available  nitrogenous  material,  which  makes  them,  like  the  wheat 
seedlings  grown  at  high  soil  temperatures,  very  susceptible  to  the 
fungous  attack,  and  blighting  results. 

These  experiments,  therefore,  indicate  that  the  disease  resistance 
and  predisposition  to  disease  in  this  case  at  least  may  be  largely 
dependent  upon  the  environmental  conditions  under  which  the  plant 
is  grown  and  the  resulting  difference  in  the  chemical  composition 
of  the  host  tissues. 


ONTINUED  investigations  have  been  made  to  determine  the 


possible  relation  of  the  coloring  matter  (pigment),  volatile 


oils,  or  associated  substances  in  the  onion  to  the  resistance  of 
the  plant  to  the  invasion  of  the  smudge  fungus  ( Collet  otrichum 
circinans).  The  former  work  of  Dr.  J.  C.  Walker,  now  with  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  showed  that  disease  resist- 
ance was  closely  associated  with  scale  pigments  and  also  influenced 
by  the  presence  of  the  volatile  onion  oils. 

In  the  recent  work  an  attempt  was  made  to  determine  more 
definitely  the  composition  of  the  onion  pigment  and  to  isolate  and 
identify,  if  possible,  the  substance  responsible  for  the  resistance  to 
the  smudge  fungus.  From  the  chemical  analysis  the  onion  pigments 
appear  to  contain:  (1)  a yellow  non-glucoside,  (2)  one  or  more  yellow 
glucosides,  (3)  a red  non-glucoside,  and  (4)  one  or  more  red  gluco- 
sides.  A yellow  glucoside  or  a mixture  of  glucosides  has  been  crystal- 
lized from  both  the  red  and  yellow  onions,  but  so  far  has  not  been 
entirely  purified.  In  the  case  of  the  yellow  onions  this  mixture  was 
found  to  be  toxic  to  the  fungus.  These  results  are  opening  up  an 
interesting  field  in  explaining  why  the  colored  onions  are  immune 
to  the  smudge  disease  while  white  onions  are  not. 


INVESTIGATIONS  of  cucumber  mosaic  have  been  continued  through 
the  year  by  Messrs.  M.  N.  Walker  and  S.  P.  Doolittle*,  and  it  has 
been, shown  that  this  disease  is  carried  over  winter  on  the  poke- 
weed,  Phytolacca  decandra,  as  well  as  on  the  milkweed  and  wild 
cucumber.  The  disease  has  also  been  transmitted  to  the  pigweed  and 
to  the  cultivated  ground  cherry.  This  makes  it  much  more  difficult 
to  control  the  disease  by  the  eradication  of  the  plants  on  which  it 
lives  over  winter. 


*ln  cooperation  with  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture;  H.  J. 
Heinz  Company;  and  the  National  Pickle  Packers'  Association. 


Disease  Resistance  in  the  Onion 


Cucumber  Mosaic  Investigations 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


63 


Development  of  Cabbage  Resistant  to  Yellows 

IN  ORDER  to  meet  the  needs  of  those  interested  in  the  kraut 
industry  as  well  as  in  market  gardening,  special  attention  was 
given  to  the  development  of  kraut  varieties  in  field  trials  con- 
ducted at  Racine  during  the  past  year  by  L.  R.  Jones  and  E.  C.  Tims 
(Plant  Pathology).  Several  commercial  strains  of  Copenhagen  Market, 
Glory  of  Enkhuisen,  and  All  Head  Early  were  tried  in  addition  to 
special  strains  of  these  varieties  which  were  selected  in  former  years. 
Of  these  selected  strains,  one  of  the  All  Head  Early  and  one  of  the 
Glory  of  Enkhuisen  appeared  especially  promising.  They  showed  a 
fair  degree  of  resistance  combined  with  the  essential  earliness  and 
conformity  to  type. 

The  Wisconsin  All  Seasons,  which  was  distributed  for  commercial 
trials  in  former  years,  has  proved  of  considerable  importance  to  the 
kraut  industry,  due  to  the  fact  that  kraut  growers  from  the  Mississippi 
Valley  to  the  Atlantic  Coast  have  been  losing  heavily  from  the  yellows 
disease.  The  National  Kraut  Packers’  Association  was  enabled 
through  the  cooperation  with  research  workers  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  and  the  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture 
to  grow  for  distribution  several  thousand  pounds  of  this  seed  last 
year.  Growers  report  uniformly  satisfactory  results  both  as  to  disease 
resistance  and  quality. 


Crown-Gall  Investigated 


CROWN-GALL  has  been  reported  for  a number  of  years  as  one 
of  the  limiting  factors  in  the  production  of  certain  cane  fruits 
in  Wisconsin.  The  disease  is  caused  by  bacteria  which  gain 
entrance  only  through  wounds  and  lead  to  development  of  more  or 
less  spherical  galls  which  commonly  occir  at  the  crown.  The  dis- 
ease has  sometimes  been  called  “plant  cancer”  because  of  the  simi- 
larity in  appearance  and,  to  a certain  extent,  in  structure  and  be- 
havior to  animal  cancer.  It  is  world-wide  in  its  distribution,  and  it 
affects  a very  large  number  of  host  plants,  but  is  especially  com- 
mon among  the  orchard  trees  and  small  fruits.  In  fact  there  are 
few  plantings  of  raspberries  and  small  apple  trees  in  Wisconsin 
where  crown-gall  is  not  present,  and  the  losses*  from  this  have,  in 
some  cases,  been  reported  to  be  as  high  as  60  per  cent. 

A.  J.  Riker  (Plant  Pathology)  has  been  studying  the  crown-gall 
disease  with  special  reference  to  the  relations  of  the  organism  to 
its  host  plants.  Inoculation  experiments  on  tomato  have  shown  that 
wounds  are  necessary  for  infection.  When  needle  punctures  were 
made  for  inoculations,  liquid  was  released  which  flowed  immediately 
into  the  intercellular  spaces  causing  water-soaked  areas  about  the 
wounds.  As  the  galls  developed  they  were  found  to  coincide  closely 
in  outline  with  these  water-soaked  regions.  Expressed  tomato  sap 
was  found  to  exert  a positive  attraction  on  the  bacteria.  They  mi- 
grated through  water-soaked  tissue  and  produced  galls  at  points 


64 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


PIG.  31.— CROWN  GALL  IN  THE  SUNFLOWER 

This  case  of  crown  gall  or  “plant  cancer”  was  produced  in  the  grow- 
ing end  of  a sunflower  stalk  by  inoculation. 

removed  from  the  site  of  inoculation.  The  bacteria  observed  in 
every  case  were  located  between  the  cells.  They  caused  neighbor- 
ing host  cells  to  enlarge  and  divide,  producing  “secondary  galls’’ 
and  “tumor  strands”  as  a result  of  the  inoculation. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


65 


Sprays  for  Anthracnose  in  Black  Raspberries 

EXPERIMENTS  for  the  control  of  raspberry  anthracnose  have 
been  continued  through  the  year  by  L.  K.  Jones  (Plant 
Pathology)  following  in  general  the  plans  of  the  two  previous 
seasons;  and  a more  extensive  comparison  of  the  effectiveness  of 
bordeaux  mixture  and  lime-sulphur  in  combination  and  with  various 
-'dhesives  has  been  made.  The  results  in  general  confirmed  those 
of  the  two  previous  seasons.  Two  applications  of  lime-sulphur  alone 
controlled  the  disease  for  commercial  purposes.  The  best  results, 
however,  w.ere  obtained  by  the  use  of  two  applications  of  lime-sulphur 
with  glue,  gelatin,  casein  lime,  or  saponin  as  an  adhesive.  In  gen- 
eral, bordeaux  mixture  alone  or  in  combination  with  the  various  ad- 
hesives gave  less  satisfactory  control  than  lime-sulphur.  Two  ap- 
plications of  bordeaux  mixture  alone  or  in  combination  with  the 
above  adhesive  gave  satisfactory  control  of  the  disease  in  a com- 
mercial way.  A third  application  of  bordeaux  or  lime-sulphur  about 
a week  after  the  blooming  period  was  beneficial  in  reducing  the 
amount  of  the  disease,  but  this  spray  was  accompanied  by  severe 
foliage  injury. 

How  to  Succeed  in  Wintering  Bees 

THE  PROBLEM  of  wintering  bees  in  Wisconsin  is  important 
because  the  average  winter  losses  for  the  entire  state  are  from 
15  to  20  per  cent  and  sometimes  run  as  high  as  30  per  cent 
of  all  the  colonies.  Successful  wintering  with  very  little  loss  is 
possible  if  the  proper  storage  is  provided  and  proper  temperature 
maintained.  The  colony  must  pass  through  the  winter  period  in  as 
inactive  a condition  as  possible  in  order  to  reach  the  early  spring 
brood  rearing  period  and  still  be  strong  with  young  bees.  Under 
winter  conditions  the  bees  form  a more  or  less  compact  cluster  for 
the  preservation  of  heat  which  is  produced  by  the  muscular  ac- 
tivity of  the  individual  bees-  If  this  activity  is  relatively  great,  it 
tends  to  shorten  the  life  of  the  individuals  and  therefore  lessen  the 
strength  of  the  colony  as  a whole.  Thus,  the  question  of  maintain- 
ing a temperature  that  will  not  require  undue  losses  of  energy 
through  excessive  muscular  activity  becomes  an  important  one. 

The  primary  purpose  was  to  study  the  relative  value  of  different 
kinds  of  packing  material  used  for  wintering  bees.*  Three  colonies 
were  used;  one  placed  in  an  ordinary  ten-frame  Langstroth  hive  in 
the  bee  cellar;  another  in  the  same  kind  of  hive  but  in  a double 
packing  case,  surrounded  with  6 inches  of  packing  and  12  inches 
above,  was  placed  on  the  east  side  of  the  building;  and  a third  in  a 
double  walled  hive  with  one  inch  of  packing  on  the  sides  and  four 
inches  of  shavings  on  top.  It  was  found  that  there  is  a more  or  less 
definite  reaction  in  the  colony  of  bees  to  changing  temperatures. 
As  the  temperature  outside  becomes  lower,  the  temperature  within 
the  cluster  of  bees  begins  to  rise;  and  it  has  been  shown  that  the 

* These  experiments  were  conducted  by  V.  G.  Milum  and  H.  F.  Wilson 
(Economic  Entomology). 


66 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


colony  will  keep  a fairly  constant  temperature  around  the  outside 
of  the  cluster  ranging  from  57°  to  60  °F.  This  temperature  is  main- 
tained almost  constantly  regardless  of  how  cold  it  may  become.  As 
the  temperature  without  goes  down,  the  bees  develop  by  muscular 
activity  a higher  temperature  within  the  cluster,  and  the  mass  also 
becomes  more  compact. 


TABLE  III.— REACTION  OF  COLONY  TO  TEMPERATURE 


^Temperature  in 

^Temperature  in 

Outside 

outer  portion  of 

center  of 

temperature 

cluster 

cluster 

40°  F. 

57°  to  60°  F. 

70°  F. 

30°  F. 

57°  to  60°  F. 

80°  F. 

0°  F. 

57°  to  60°  F. 

75°  to  80°  F. 

— 5°  F. 

57°  to  60°  F. 

70°  to  75°  F. 

1 

These  results  show  that,  though  the  bees  may  be  unable  to  k,eep 
on  increasing  the  temperature  of  the  inside  sufficiently  to  resist  the 
cold,  the  temperature  on  the  outside  of  the  cluster  still  remains  at 
or  near  from  57°  to  60°  F.  It  appears  certain  that  if  the  low  tempera- 
ture is  maintained  very  long,  the  bees  must  become  unable  to  resist 
it  and  eventually  die. 

The  conclusion  from  these  observations  is  that  it  is  necessary  for 
bees  to  use  up  a great  deal  more  energy  when  packed  out-of-doors 
than  is  the  case  when  they  are  packed  in  the  cellar;  and  that  in- 
creased amounts  of  packing  around  the  bees  necessarily  kept  out  of 
doors  helps  them  in  keeping  the  cluster  temperature  at  57°  with  l,ess 
energy  and  consequently  gives  them  a better  opportunity  to  sur- 
vive the  winder. 

Fighting  American  Foulbrood  With  Sodium  Hypochlorite 

FOR  OVER  twenty  years  beekeepers  of  Wisconsin  have  suffered 
heavy  losses  from  a bacterial  disease  of  the  colonies  known  as 
American  foulbrood.  The  disease  attacks  the  larvae  in  the  cells, 
gradually  spreads  to  such  a degree  that  the  infected  colonies  usually 
die  out  completely  at  the  end  of  the  second  season,  or  become  so 
weak  that  they  fail  to  live  through  the  winter.  Hundreds  of  empty 
hives  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the  state  as  the  result  of  the  ravages 
of  this  disease. 

In  an  effort  to  find  a satisfactory  means  of  destroying  spores  of  the 
organism,  Bacillus  larvae , which  causes  American  foulbrood,  experi- 
ments in  the  use  of  a specially  prepared  sodium  hypochlorite  were 
carried  on  during  the  past  year  by  H.  F.  Wilson  (Economic  En- 
tomology). The  results  show  a solvent  action  on  dead  bees,  pollen, 

♦These  temperatures  were  determined  by  means  of  electric  thermo- 
couples. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


67 


cocoons,  and  other  debris  in  the  combs,  but  the  compound  does  not 
injure  the  wax  though  concentrated  solutions  will  dissolve  a dead 
bee  in  a short  time.  Diluted  solutions  are  found  to  be  not  at  all 
harmful  to  the  bees  when  added  to  their  food. 

Living  as  well  as  dead  larvae  in  the  cells  were  completely  dis- 
solved in  24  hours.  Four  combs  so  treated  were  placed  in  colonies 
of  bees  in  June  and  remained  fre,e  from  the  disease  throughout  the 
summer,  although  the  bees  continued  to  rear  brood  in  them.  Syrup 
to  which  a water  solution  of  spores  had  been  added  did  not  carry 
the  disease  after  being  treated  with  a weak  solution  of  the  chemical. 
Three  colonies  fed  a diluted  solution  of  diseased  honey  so  treated 
showed  very  satisfactory  results,  two  of  them  remaining  free  from 
disease  and  the  third,  though  developing  it,  was  shown  to  be  in- 
fected from  an  outside  source. 

From  this  work  it  appears  that  the  specially  prepared  sodium 
hypochlorite  destroys  the  spores  of  the  Bacillus  larvae  wherever  it 
comes  into  contact  with  them  and  that  it  is  not  poisonous  and  may 
be  fed  in  syrup  or  honey  to  bees  without  apparent  injury  to  them. 
For  disinfecting  hives  and  equipment  the  solution  was  found  to  be 
highly  efficient. 

It  Pays  to  Spray  for  Potato  Leafhopper 

THAT  THE  raids  of  the  potato  leafhopper,  which  have  caused 
considerable  loss  to  the  potato  growers,  can  be  successfully 
avoided  by  proper  spraying  was  demonstrated  during  the  past 
year.  Bordeaux  hiixture  used  in  one  plot  at  Waupaca  by  C.  L.  Fluke* 
(Economic  Entomology)  increased  the  yield  from  83.25  bushels  per 
acre  in  an  unsprayed  area  to  186.5  bushels  in  the  sprayed  plot.  Four 
applications  of  the  bordeaux  mixture  at  4-4-50  formula  were  made 
on  the  following  dates:  July  7,  July  17,  July  27,  and  August  5.  When 
the  comparison  is  made  in  U.  S.  Grade  No.  1 potatoes,  the  differences 
are  even  more  striking.  Check  plots  yielded  49.5  bushels,  and  the  plot 


TABLE  IV.— RESULTS  OF  USING  SPRAYS  ON  POTATOES. 


Plot* 

Yield  in  bushels 
per  acre 

Total 

yield 

per 

acre 

No.  applications 

U.  S. 
Grade  1 

u.  S. 
G'rade  2 

U.  S. 
Grade  3 

Homemade  bordeaux  4-4-50 

plus  arsenical 

4 (3  nozzles  to  the  row) 

144 

36 

6.50 

186.50 

Commercial  powder  bordeaux 

plus  arsenical 

5 (2  nozzles  to  the  row) 

90 

33 

6.66 

128.66 

Arsenical  only 

4 (,3  nozzles  to  the  row) 

49.5 

29.25  | 

4.25 

83.25 

*In  cooperation  with  State  Department  of  Agriculture. 


68  Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 

which  received  the  homemade  bordeaux,  produced  144  bushels  per  acre, 
nearly  three  times  as  much  as  .the  check  plots. 

An  especially  prepared  spraying  boom  was  used  in  this  work, 
wkich  was  equipped  with  nozzles  that  thoroughly  covered  the  under- 
side of  the  leaves.  The  three  nozzles  used  to  each  row  were  so  ar- 
ranged that  one  sprayed  down  and  two  upward,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  row.  The  leads  to  the  lower  nozzles  were  made  with  short 
rubber  connections  to  prevent  breakage  in  the  striking  of  obstacles. 

From  75  to  100  gallons  of  spray  were  applied  per  acre,  and  an 
effort  was  made  to  keep  the  spraying  pressure  at  200  pounds. 
Arsenical  poisons  were  added  to  kill  the  potato  beetle,  and  the  check 
plots  were  also  sprayed  for  beetle  control. 

The  success  of  the  “homemade  bordeaux”  is  evident  as  it  more 
than  doubled  the  yield  obtained  where  arsenical  sprays  alone  were 
used  and  demonstrates  clearly  that  it  pays  to  control  the  potato 
leafhopper  in  Wisconsin. 

Effect  of  Nieotine  Dusts  on  Crop  Insects 

THAT  DUSTING  can  be  used  effectively  against  certain  insects 
has  been  known  for  20  years,  but  the  use  of  contact  insecticides 
such  as  nicotine  compounds  is  a more  recent  development. 
While  the  actual  cost  of  dusting  materials  is  somewhat  greater  than 
that  of  spray  materials,  the  cost  per  acre  is  usually  less.  In  ad- 
dition the  dusting  process  has  the  advantage  of  a wider  range  of 


FIG.  32.— CONTROLLING  PEA  APHIS  BY  LUSTING 

This  is  a Dosch  power  duster  in  action.  The  amount  of  dust  leaving 
the  nozzles'  can  be  adjusted  to  a very  fine  degree. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


69 


application  inasmuch  as  moisture  conditions  do  not  affect  the  opera- 
tion. It  seems  to  work  equally  w.ell  whether  the  vines  are  wet  or 
dry.  Wind  seems  to  be  the  only  limiting  factor.  Work  is  in  progress 
in  nearly  every  state  to  perfect  the  process,  and  it  appears  probable 
that  in  time  it  will  replace  spraying  to  a very  large  extent. 

As  a continuation  of  last  year’s  experiments,  further  data  were 
collected  on  the  effects'  cf  a new  type  of  insecticide — nicotine  sulphate 
in  dust  carriers  by  J.  E.  Dudley,  Jr.  (Economic  Entomology).*  Ex- 
haustive tests  were  made  against  eggs,  larvae,  or  adults  of  the  fol- 


FIG.  33.— PLANT  LICE  NEARLY  DESTROYED  THIS  CROP 

Rutabagas  nearly  dead  from  attack  of  plant  lice  are  saved  by  appli- 
cations of  nicotine  dusts. 

lowing  insects:  squash  bug,  Colorado  potato  beetle,  potato  flea  beetle, 
onion  thrips,  turnip  aphis,  melon  aphis,  and  two  species  of  cabbage 
worms. 

The  Squash  Bug.— A number  of  careful  tests  were  made  against 
the  squash  bug  in  all  stages,  in  which  100  colonies,  averaging  over 
100  individuals  in  each,  were  treated,  and  it  was  shown  that  nymphs 
of  the  first,  second,  and  third  stages  are  readily  killed  by  nicotine 
dusts  containing  from  4 per  cent  to  7 per  cent  nicotine  sulphate; 
and  that  fourth  and  fifth  stage  nymphs  and  adults  are  quite  resistant 
to  these  materials,  seldom  more  than  30  per  cent  being  killed;  and 
that  nicotine  dusts  have  no  effect  upon  the  eggs.  It  was  also  found 

♦Cooperating  with  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


70 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


that,  when  colonies  consisting  largely  of  nymphs  in  the  first  three 
stages  were  dusted  early  in  the  season,  it  was  quite  possible  to 
obtain  from  95  per  cent  to  99  per  cent  control. 

The  Colorado  Potato  Beetle. — Potato  beetle  larvae  in  the  first  three 
stages  are  readily  killed  by  nicotine  sulphate  combined  with  lime 
or  copper  sulphate-lime  and  containing  from  5 to  10  per  cent  nico- 
tine sulphate.  All  the  young  larvae  were  killed  in  three  tests  cov- 
ering 75  hills  of  potatoes.  When  larvae  in  the  fourth  and  fifth 
stages  were  dusted  from  60  per  cent  to  80  per  cent  were  killed. 
Potato  beetle  eggs  are  readily  destroyed  by  nicotine  dusts. 

The  Potato  Flea  Beetle.— Eight  tests  of  two  nicotine  dust  combina- 
tions containing  from  4 to  7 per  cent  nicotine  sulphate  were  con- 
ducted against  flea  beetle  on  potato  plants  in  large  cases.  Of  a total 
of  1,600  beetles  so  treated,  all  were  killed. 

The  Onion  Thrips. — In  five  tests  with  nicotine  dusts  varying  in 
strength  from  5 to  10  per  cent  nicotine  sulphate  against  thousands 
of  onion  thrips  in  an  onion  field,  results  showed  percentages  of  kill- 
ing of  from  87  to  90. 

The  Turnip  Aphis. — A field  of  rutabagas  nearly  killed  out  from  a 
severe  infestation  of  the  turnip  aphis  was  treated  with  nicotine  dusts 
containing  5 per  cent  nicotine  sulphate.  When  hand  dusters  were 
used,  from  90  to  95  per  cent  of  the  aphides  were  killed  and,  when 
the  whole  field  was  treated  with  a power  duster,  from  95  to  98  per 
cent  of  the  aphid, es  were  killed. 

The  Melon  Aphis. — Tests  of  nicotine  dusts  containing  from  7 to  10 
per  cent  nicotine  sulphate  on  175  hills  of  melons  heavily  infested 
with  the  melon  aphis  resulted  in  90  per  cent  of  the  insects  being 
killed  by  the  7 per  cent  dust,  and  100  per  cent  by  the  10  per  cent  dust. 

The  Cabbage  Worms. — Cabbage  worms  infesting  fields  of  cauli- 
flower and  rutabagas  were  treated  with  various  combinations  of 
nicotine  dusts.  The  effect  of  the  dusts  appeared  to  be  governed 
greatly  by  the  temperature.  With  an  average  temperature  of  90°F. 
from  64  to  75  per  cent  were  destroyed.  With  an  average  tempera- 
ture of  58°F.  from  18  to  37  per  cent  were  killed. 

Controlling  the  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle 

SATISFACTORY  results  in  controlling  the  striped  cucumber  beetle 
were  obtained  during  the  past  season  in  experiments  by  Mr. 
Dudley.  Nicotine  sulphate  combined  with  hydrated  lime,  copper 
sulphate,  and  lime,  unslaked  lime,  gypsum,  and  sulphur  were  used 
against  the  insect  with  good  success. 

A mixture  of  nicotine  sulphate  and  hydrated  lime  containing  5 per 
cent  nicotine  sulphate  was  tested  out  five  different  times  on  cucum- 
bers and  squash  under  varying  conditions  of  temperature,  humidity, 
and  wind.  An  average  of  75  per  cent  of  the  beetles  were  killed.  A 


FIG.  34.— THE  CANVAS  TRAILER  HELPS  CONTROL  PEA  APHIS 

A power  duster  showing  the  canvas  trailer  attached.  This  keeps  the 
dust  from  drifting  too  soon. 

rier  of  the  nicotine  sulphate,  such  as  hydrated  lime  or  gypsum,  was 
preferable  to  an  active  carrier,  such  as  unslaked  lime,  because  much 
nicotine  is  lost  by  volatilization  when  it  is  mixed  with  an  active 
substance. 

It  now  appears  that  the  striped  cucumber  beetle  can  be  controlled 
by  two  or  three  thorough  applications  of  dust  containing  10  per 
cent  nicotine  sulphate  (4  per  cent  actual  nicotine).  The  first  ap- 
plication should  be  made  early  in  June  or  just  as  soon  as  beetles 
have  commenced  to  attack  the  plants.  A duster  having  an  arrange- 
ment for  expelling  the  dust  with  force  is  necessary  for  effective  work. 

Flight  Experiments. — Continuing  the  work  of  last  year  tests  were 
made  with  over  35,000  cucumber  beetles  in  order  to  determine  their 
length  of  flight.  R.esults  show  that  they  had  flown  on  an  average 
about  oneJhalf  mile  each,  so  it  seems  probable  that  this  insect  seldom 
flies  over  that  distance. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


mixture  of  nicotine  sulphate  and  hydrated  lime  containing  10  per 
cent  of  nicotine  sulphate,  tested  six  different  times  under  extremes 
of  temperature,  humidity,  and  wind,  killed  on  an  average  91  per 
cent  of  the  beetles,  varying  from  83  per  cent  to  98  per  cent.  The 
best  results  were  obtained  in  the  absence  of  wind  under  high  humidity 
and  high  temperatur.e. 

A mixture  of  nicotine  sulphate  and  copper  sulphate-lime  (uncom- 
bined bordeaux),  containing  10  per  cent  nicotine  sulphate,  gave  an 
average  kill  of  86  per  cent.  It  was  found  that  a rather  inert  car- 


72 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


For  several  years  the  rather  sudden  disappearance  of  cucumber 
beetles  in  late  July  and  early  August  has  been  noticed;  and  during 
the  past  season  an  effort  was  made  to  .explain  this  condition.  It  was 
found  that  the  overwintered  beetles,  which  constitute  the  great  ma- 
jority at  this  time,  die  off  rapidly  in  the  latter  part  of  July;  and  the 
first  generation  coming  on  at  this  time  are  few  in  number  and  they 
do  not  increase  until  well  into  the  fall.  A carefully  controlled  experi- 
ment has  proved  conclusively  that  there  are  two  generations  of 
beetles  occurring  in  Wisconsin  annually,  and  this  year  a partial 
third  obtained. 


WORK  ON  THE  control  of  the  pea  aphis  upon  a commercial 
scale  was  begun  the  past  season.  A general  survey  was 
made  of  the  growing  of  field  peas  and  data  collected  on  the 
infestation  of  the  pea  aphis,  by  Mr.  Fluke  and  Mr.  Dudley,  and  some 
tests  were  made  with  nicotine  dusts  to  determine  their  value  in  this 
work.  Results  show  that  the  pea  aphis  is  one  of  the  most  resistant 
aphides  to  nicotine  fumes.  When  power  dusters  were  used,  the  per- 
centage killed  varied  from  55  to  95,  depending  somewhat  on  the  per- 
centage of  nicotine  in  the  dust,  the  temperature,  and  the  absence  or 


FIG.  35— THIS  IS  NOT  A SMOKE  SCREEN  ON  A BATTLEFIELD  BUT 
A DUST  SCREEN  FOR  CONTROLLING  PLANT  LICE. 

In  the  foreground  the  lice  had  killed  all  the  plants,  and  the  ground 
was  re-seeded.  To  the  left,  the  plants  were  treated  with  hand  dusters 
applying  nicotine  dust. 

presence  of  wind.  A large  sheet  of  canvas  or  a trailer  was  dragged 
over  the  peas  just  behind  the  duster  to  keep  the  material  from  spread- 
ing and  in  this  way  much  better  results  were  obtained. 

The  problem  in  this  work  is  to  find  the  most  economical  material 
to  be  used,  the  least  injurious  method  of  application,  and  also  the 
most  opportune  time  of  treatment  as  well  as  to  determine  whether 


Control  of  the  Pea  Aphis 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


73 


the  treatment  is  necessary  each  season.  Work  on  this  subject  will 
be  continued  in  cooperation  with  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Sawdust  Cheapens  Grasshopper  Poison 

SAWDUST  CAN  BE  substituted  for  bran  in  the  formula  for  poison 
grasshopper  bait,  according  to  the  tests  made  by  Mr.  Fluke 
this  season.  This  change  is  effective  when  middlings  are  added 
as  a coating  to  the  prepared  bait.  The  formula  which  was  used  suc- 
cessfully is  as  follows: 

Pounds 


Sawdust  (hardwood  preferred) 25.0 

White  arsenic  1.25 

Salt  1.25 

Amyl  acetate  12.0 

Water  (enough  to  moisten,  about  3 or  4 quarts) 

Middlings  5.0 


The  sawdust,  white  arsenic,  and  salt  are  mixed  dry;  the  amyl  acetate 
is  added  to  the  water  and  then  mixed  with  the  dry  ingredients. 
After  these  ingredients  are  well  mixed,  middlings  are  added  and  the 
whole  is  stirred. 

There  is  no  particular  advantage  in  the  use  of  this  bait  over  that 
which  contains  bran,  except  that  the  cost  of  material  is  reduced 
about  one-half. 

Inasmuch  as  there  are  two  different  feeding  times  for  the  various 
species  of  hoppers,  some  of  them  feeding  during  the  morning  hours 
and  others  during  the  afternoon,  the  tim,e  of  application  of  the  bait 
plays  an  important  part  in  its  success.  The  bait  loses  its  effective- 
ness quite  rapidly;  therefore  it  is  necessary  to  apply  it  as  near  be- 
fore the  feeding  hours  as  possible. 


Red-Necked  Cane  Borer  on  Raspberries 

THAT  THE  raspberry  industry  in  Wisconsin  has  been  greatly 
reduced  because  of  the  ravages  of  diseases  and  the  raids  of 
insects  was  shown  in  a survey  made  some  years  ago.  One  of 
the  most  troublesome  insects  in  raspberry  culture,  the  red-necked 
cane  borer  (Agrilus  ruficollis),  has  been  studied  during  the  past  year 
by  A.  Weed,  working  under  C.  L.  Fluke  (Economic  Entomology). 
The  adult  borer  is  a beetle  about  one-third  inch  in  length,  small, 
slender,  and  tapering  slightly  toward  the  end  of  the  abdomen.  The 
upper  wings  and  head  are  blue-black  in  color,  while  the  thorax  is 
reddish  or  coppery;  the  brassy  neck  makes  it  very  easily  recognizable 
and  also  accounts  for  the  name  of  the  species. 

From  data  collected  in  the  vicinity  of  Madison,  it  appears  that  the 
ins.ect  emerges  from  the  raspberry  canes  during  the  latter  part  of 


74 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


May  or  early  June  through  an  almost  circular  opening  cut  into  the 
cane  by  the.  newly  developed  insect.  , 

The  work  of  the  larvae  in  the  cane  can  be  readily  recognized  in 
late  fall  or  during  the  winter  and  spring  by  the  swelling  or  galls 


(A)  (B) 

FIG.  36.— THE  RED-NECKED  CANE  BORER 

(A)  Basal  swelling  caused  by  the  larva. 

(B)  Larva  making  its  way  up  the  cane  above  the  first  or  upper  gall. 

found  at  intervals  upon  the  cane,  and  usually  two  in  number.  The 
insect  can  be  held  in  check  by  the  exercising  of  care  in  pruning  the 
cane  fruit  by  cutting  below  the  galls  and  then  burning  the  cuttings 
to  destroy  the  larvae.  , 

Moldy  Bread  Outbreak  Due  to  Infected  Flour 

A BAKING  company  at  Eau  Claire,  after  suffering  considerable 
loss  due  to  an  outbreak  of  mold  in  bread  in  1921  appealed  to 
the  College  for  help  in  solving  the  problem. 

The  bread  showed  mold  development  inside  the  loaf  within  one  and 
one-half  to  two  hours  after  removal  from  the  oven.  Often  by  the 
time  the  bread  had  reached  the  consumer,  the  mold  had  penetrated 
to  the  entire  loaf.  It  is  a common  opinion  that  moldy  bread  is  oc- 
casioned only  through  contamination  of  the  loaf  after  baking.  But 
in  this  case  everything  had  been  thoroughly  cleaned;  the  bread  was 
wrapped  immediately  after  baking;  and  it  was  shown  that  the 
wrappers  were  not  at  fault  since  the  bread  developed  mold  whether 
it  was  wrapped  or  placed  in  a closed  box. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


75 


W.  C.  Frazier  (Agricultural  Bacteriology),  in  studying  the  outbreak, 
found  that  the  trouble  came  from  the  flour.  Two  brands  of  flour  were 
being  used,  one  of  which  was  very  high  in  mold  content,  showing 
as  many  as  11,000  mold  spores  per  gram  of  flour.  The  trouble  stopped 
immediately  when  the  use  of  this  infected  flour  was  discontinued. 

Bakers  are  commonly  of  the  opinion  that  the  temperature  attained 
by  the  loaf  of  bread  in  "the  baking  process  is  sufficient  to  dest.rov 
mold  spores.  The  temperature,  however,  is  slightly  below  212 °F. 


FIG.  37.— THE  CANE  BORER  LARVAE 

Full-grown  larvae  are  white  in  color  and  semi-transparent  (about 
2V2  times  actual  size). 

Examination  of  the  moldy  loaves  in  the  recent  outbreak  showed  that 
the  mold  first  began  to  develop  in  a crease  in  the  loaf  which  is 
formed  by  the  partitions  between  the  series  of  pans.  In  it  the  dough 
warms  up  very  quickly  in  the  baking  process  and  apparently  dries 
out  as  is  shown  by  the  doughy  appearance  and  the  unchanged  starch 
grains  in  that  portion  of  the  bread. 

It  appears  that  becaus.e  of  the  reduced  water  content  of  the  dough 
at  this  point,  the  mold  spores  in  this  area  are  able  to  withstand  thp 
heat.  Since  the  trouble  was  noted  only  in  the  bread  which  was 
wrapped  immediately  after  its  removal  from  the  pan,  it  seems  that 
a contributing  factor  to  mold  development  is  the  moisture  which 
collects  in  these  unbaked  portions  of  the  bread  after  baking  because 
the  wrapper  does  not  permit  it  to  escape.  In  the  unwrapped  loaves 
the  mold  spores  present  were  unable  to  germinate  because  the  mois- 
ture was  taken  up  by  the  air,  with  no  opportunity  to  collect  in  the 
unbaked  areas. 


76 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


Yeast  Causes  Sauerkraut  Discoloration 

DURING  THE  latter  part  of  1921  numerous  complaints  were 
made  by  the  sauerkraut  manufacturers  of  Wisconsin  because 
their  product  became  discolored  after  it  was  transferred  from 
the  large  vats  into  the  wooden  casks.  This  discoloration  took  place 
after  the  kraut  had  “ripened.”  The  trouble  is  entirely  different  from 
that  which  is  commonly  known  as  “pink  sauerkraut.” 

W.  H.  Peterson  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  and  E.  B.  Fred  (Bacteri- 
ology) devoted  considerable  time  to  the  study  of  the  kraut  discolora- 
tion problem.  After  a detailed  survey  they  found  that  the  trouble  is 
caused  by  a yeast-like  organism  which  brings  about  a harmful  fermen- 


FIG.  38.— ORGANISMS  WHICH  DISCOLOR  KRAUT 

(A)  Photomicrograph  of  juice  from  normal  sauerkraut. 

(B)  Photomicrograph  of  juice  from  discolored  sauerkraut. 
Magnified  about  95u  diameters. 


tation.  All  affected  krauts  were  high  in  alcohol  and  relatively  low  in 
lactic  acid.  The  destruction  of  lactic  acid  is  accompanied  by  an  in- 
crease in  alcohol  and  brings  about  a decided  change  in  the  taste  and 
color  of  the  kraut.  This  change  renders  it  unsuitable  for  food  and  re- 
sults in  large  losses  to  the  manufacturers.  Promising  results  were  se- 
cured by  a change  of  brine  and  the  use  of  carbon  dioxide,  but  to  com- 
plete the  work  further  experiments  will  be  required. 

Grouping  Legume  Nodule  Bacteria 

BY  ADOPTING  a test,  that  has  long  been  used  in  medicine  (the 
agglutination  reaction),  Mr.  Fred  and  J.  W.  Stevens  (Bacteri- 
ology) have  found  that  the  nodule-forming  bacteria  of  legumes 
can  be  readily  separated  into  their  various  strains.  These  groups, 
when  thus  separated,  correspond  to  the  groups  found  by  means  of 
inoculation  experiments  with  plants.  In  addition  this  test  also  shows 
some  new  subdivision  within  the  known  groups  of  organisms. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


77 


The  test  is  carried  out  as  follows:  1 c.  c.  of  a suspension  of  the 
bacteria  is  injected  into  a rabbit.  This  is  repeated  three  times, 
doubling  the  dose  each  time.  In  this  way  the  serum  of  the  rabbit’s 
blood  becomes  sensitized  to  the  particular  strain  of  bacteria. 

When  the  clear  serum  is  separated  from  the  blood  of  the  rabbit 
and  to  it  is  added  a suspension  of  the  same  kind  of  bacteria  with 
which  the  animal  was  inoculated,  it  is  found  that  the  bacterial  cells 
collect  in  clusters  (agglutinate)  and  settle  to  the  bottom-  With  other 
strains  of  organisms  no  reaction  is  produced  with  the  particular  serum. 

Forty-one  strains  of  legume  bacteria  have  been  tested  for  this 
property,  and  it  is  found  that  they  can  be  separated  into  a far  greater 
number  of  divisions  than  is  possible  by  the  plant  inoculation  test. 
For  instance,  14  strains  of  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover  bacteria  fall  into 
two  definite  groups.  It  is  hoped  that  this  subdividing  of  the  larger 
group  will  enable  a selection  to  be  made  of  the  most  active  nitrogen- 
fixing strains  of  nodule-forming  bacteria.  This  new  method  offers 
quite  a new  point  of  attack  to  the  problem  of  legume  inoculation. 


ARGE  losses  are  annually  sustained  by  farmers  from  the  de- 


composition of  silage,  both  on  top  and  along  silo  chutes.  Vari- 


ous ways  have  been  tried  to  eliminate  these  losses,  and  experi- 
mental work  on  this  subject  is  still  being  done.  Since  there  are  al- 
ready over  90,000  silos  in  the  state,  work  on  this  subject  is  assum- 
ing considerable  economic  importance. 

The  Fink  Silo  Seal. — Because  of  the  requests  received  for  informa- 
tion concerning  the  value  of  the  Fink  Silo  seal,  a study  was  made 
of  the  losses  which  occurred  on  the  top  of  a silo  with  the  seal  and 
on  the  top  of  one  without  the  silo  seal  by  Mr.  Fred  and  Mr.  Peterson. 
Though  the  results  are  not  complete,  they  indicate  that  there  is  a de- 
cided loss  of  silage  even  when  sealed  by  means  of  the  special  silo  seal. 

Loss  in  Dry  Matter  in  Making  of  Silage. — By  use  of  water-tight 
sacks,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  study  the  losses  which  occur 
in  the  making  of  corn  tissue  into  silage.  The  results  indicate  that 
this  loss  is  not  so  great  as  has  been  reported  by  former  investigators. 
In  general  it  was  found  that  there  was  a decrease  in  dry  matter  of 
from  4 to  8 per  cent,  but  further  investigation  will  be  made  in  order 
to  obtain,  if  possible,  a more  definite  figure. 

Lime  and  Inoculation  Affect  Nitrogen  Fixing  Capacity  of 

Legumes 

THAT  lime  and  inoculation  influence  the  growth  of  legumes 
has  been  known  for  a long  time,  although  there  is  no  way  of 
estimating  very  accurately  the  annual  gain  in  nitrogen  due 
to  the  activity  of  the  root  nodule  bacteria. 

Work  this  past  year  under  greenhouse  conditions  by  E.  J.  Graul 
(Soils)  arid  Mr.  Fred  shows  that  this  gain  occurs  in  both  non-acid  and 


Experiments  With  Silage 


78 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


acid  soils.  On  strongly  acid  soils  it  is  important  to  know  whether  it  is 
necessary  to  neutralize  all  of  the  soil  acidity  in  order  to  grow  a profit- 
able crop  of  a legume,  such  as  alfalfa.  Small  applications  of  limestone 
usually  produce  a decidedly  beneficial  effect  on  the  growth  and  nitro- 
gen content  of  the  plant,  in  fact,  often  more  so  than  when  very  heavy 
applications  of  limestone  are  made. 

A number  of  trials  on  several  different  types  of  soils  have  been 
made  during  the  year  with  alfalfa  and  red  clover.  Analyses  of  the  soil 
and  seed  were  made  at  planting  time,  also  of  both  the  soil  and  the  crop 
when  harvested.  The  difference  between  the  total  nitrogen  content  of 
the  soil  and  the  se,ed  at  planting  time  and  that  of  the  crop  and  the  soil 
at  harvesting  time  was  taken  as  the  amount  of  nitrogen  fixed  from  the 
air  by  the  root  nodule  bacteria. 

Alfalfa  on  Colby  silt  loam  gave  the  following  results: 


Nitrogen  fixed 
per  acre 

Alfalfa  unlimed  82.1  pounds 

“ — 2.5  tons  of  limestone  per  acre 106.2  “ 

— 5.0  “ “ “ “ “ 108.3 

“ — 7.5  “ “ “ “ “ 112.4 

“ —10.0  “ “ “ “ “ 87.9 

“ — 15.0  “ “ “ “ “ 67.2 

On  Plainfield  sand  alfalfa  fixed  nitrogen  as  follows: 

Nitrogen  fixed 
per  acre 

Alfalfa  unlimed  104.9  pounds 

“ — 1.25  tons  of  limestone  per  acre 107.8  “ 

“ —2.5  “ “ “ “ “ 69.9 

“ — 5.0  “ “ “ “ 45.8 

Medium  red  clover  on  Plainfield  sand  showed  the  following  results: 

Nitrogen  fixed 
peracre 

Clover  unlimed 100.2  pounds 

“ — 1.5  tons  of  limestone  per  acre 140.0  “ 

“ — 2.5  “ “ “ “ “ 72.8 

“ —5.0  “ “ “ “ “ 12.5 


In  all  of  the  trials  the  seed  was  thoroughly  inoculated.  These  results 
indicate  that  a partial  neutralization  of  existing  acidity  of  the  soil 
is  necessary  to  secure  maximum  production,  and  that  a thorough 
inoculation  of  the  legume  helps  the  plant  to  overcome  the  unfavorable 
effects  of  soil  acidity. 


Plowing  Under  Green  Brush 

THAT  large  amounts  of  green  wood  tissue  retard  the  growth  of 
higher  plants  has  been  shown  in  a series  of  carefully  controlled 
pot  tests  by  Mr.  Fred  and  A.  C.  Fiedler  (Agricultural  Engineer- 
ing). Virgin  soils  from  the  cut-over  district  were  used  and  finely  di- 
vided wood,  such  as  alder,  poplar,  willow,  and  birch,  were  added  to  the 
soil  in  which  oats  were  planted.  Apparently,  the  different  woods  have 
a decidedly  varying  effect  upon  the  growth  of  cereal  crops.  Green  alder 
and  green  poplar  seems  to  be  quite  injurious  to  the  oat  plant,  while 
green  willow  and  green  birch  cause  only  a slight  decrease  in  the  growth. 
Plot  investigations  are  being  conducted  to  determine  more  definitely 
the  toxic  effect  of  green  wood  upon  the  growth  of  higher  plants. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


79 


FIG.  39.— TURNED  UNDER  BRUSH  AFFECTS  THE  PLANT  GROWTH 

This  experiment  shows  that  green  wood,  when  mixed  with  the  soil, 
may  be  toxic  to  plants.  Apparently  the  effects  of  some  woods  are 
much  more  marked  than  others. 

“Stinker”  Swiss  Cheese  Increasing 

TINKER”  CHEESE  has  increased  to  a great  extent  in  the 
Swiss  cheese  industry  during  the  last  few  years.  Cheese  so 
affected  is  darker  in  color  and  is  characterized  by  a foul  odor 
that  often  makes  the  product  unsalable.  Commonly  the  trouble  is 
confined  to  small  areas  within  the  cheese,  making  it  usually  impos- 
sible to  detect  it  from  the  outside. 

Many  explanations  have  been  suggested  as  to  the  cause  of  this 
trouble,  such  as  difficulty  in  curdling  of  the  milk  and  the  influence 
of  feed,  especially  silage.  Others  believe  that  mechanical  stirring 
devices  which  are  somewhat  widely  used  are  the  cause,  but  none  of 
these  explanations  is  based  on  any  scientific  study. 

E.  G.  Hastings  and  W.  C.  Frazier  (Agricultural  Bacteriology)  find 
on  analysis  that  in  many  cases,  as  the  odor  increases,  it  is  character- 
ized by  hydrogen  sulphide  (H2S).  Large  numbers  of  butyric  acid- 
forming bacteria  are  also  found  in  the  spoiled  areas  while  very  few 
of  these  organisms  occur  in  the  unaffected  cheese.  These  bacteria 
grow  in  the  presence  of  considerable  amounts  of  acid  such  as  are 
formed  by  the  ordinary  acid-forming  organisms  in  Swiss  cheese.  The 
problem  has  only  been  opened  up  and  needs  more  investigation,  as 
it  is  a source  of  much  loss  in  the  Swiss  cheese  industry. 

High  Quality  Milk  Shut  Out  by  Laboratory  Tests 

IN  MAY  1922  the  Experiment  Station  was  consulted  by  certain 
Waukesha  certified  milk  producers  when  their  product  was  shut 
out  of  the  Chicago  market  because  it  was  alleged  that  haemolytic 
streptococci  (blood-dissolving  bacteria)  were  found  in  it.  W.  D.  Frost 


80 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


and  Miss  Freda  Bachmann  (Agricultural  Bacteriology)  examined 
about  500  samples  of  these  milks  and  found  that,  in  from  15  to  40 
per  cent  of  the  milks  of  cows  in  three  herds,  organisms  occurred 
that  were  often  of  the  Beta  type,  (this  type  is  generally  assumed  to 
be  associated  with  streptococcus  sore  throat).  Bacteria  of  this  type 
are  no  doubt  widely  distributed,  but  little  study  has  been  made  of 
their  presence  in  milk  except  in  times  of  epidemics.  Similar  organ- 
isms have  been  found  in  the  milk  of  15  per  cent  of  the  animals  in  the 
University  herd.  In  no  case,  however,  has  there  been  any  reason  to 
suspect  the  safety  of  any  of  these  milk  supplies.  This  shows  the 
laboratory  methods  employed  need  much  more  verification  than  now 
exists  before  being  accepted  as  final  in  this  regard.  Certified  milk 
producers  are  vitally  interested  in  this  problem  as  the  present  attitude 
of  city  health  officials  is  to  consider  such  organisms  as  potentially 
dangerous  in  a milk  supply. 

Trials  With  Tuberculosis  Vaccine 

FOR  YEARS  scientists  have  sought  a way  to  reduce  by  means 
of  a vaccine  the  ravages  of  tuberculosis.  W.  D.  Frost  (Agricul- 
tural Bacteriology)  and  assistants  have  made  some  progress  by 
using  tubercle  bacilli,  killed  by  means  of  ultra-violet  light,  as  a vaccine, 
for  which  the  name  of  tubuvase  has  been  suggested.  It  was  shown  that 
the  process  of  manufacture  would  kill  the  tubercle  bacilli,  rendering 
the  method  safe,  also  that  the  vaccine  had  considerable  preventive 
properties. 

Inasmuch  as  the  proper  dosage  of  tubuvase  is  not  known,  Mr.  Frost 
proposes  to  continue  the  experiment  by  using  much  larger  quantities 
of  the  vaccine.  Recent  experiments  indicate  that  more  than  one 
hundred  times  the  former  maximum  dose  may  be  given  with  perfect 
safety. 

When  it  is  considered  that  from  25  to  30  per  cent  of  the  hogs 
killed  in  this  state  are  tuberculous  and  that  most  other  farm  animals 
are  more  or  less  subject  to  it,  any  disease  resistance  which  could 
be  built  up  in  the  bodies  of  the  little  pigs  by  means  of  tubuvase  would 
be  of  great  economic  importance  to  Wisconsin,  and  it  seems  desirable 
to  continue  this  work  with  the  hope  of  reaching  the  goal  which 
science  has  so  long  sought. 


Fur  Farming  Increasing  in  Wisconsin 


THE  RECEIPT  of  several  carcasses  of  foxes  for  autopsy  led 
F.  B.  Hadley  and  B.  L.  Warwick  (Veterinary  Science)  to  make 
a survey  of  the  fur  farming  industry  in  this  state. 

In  reply  to  a questionnaire,  fifty-two  answers  were  received  from 
owners  engaged  in  raising  fur  bearing  animals  in  captivity  in  twenty- 
four  counties.  In  this  new  industry  Marathon  county  is  an  easy 
leader,  13  different  ranches  being  located  there. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


81 


Though  the  industry  is  comparatively  new,  the  replies  show  that 
some  Wisconsin  men  have  been  engaged  in  it  for  as  long  as  20  years, 
and  decided  activity  has  taken  place  during  the  last  four  or  five 
years.  The  chief  animals  grown  for  their  pelts  are  the  foxes:  the 
Alaskan  silver  fox,  the  silver  black  fox,  and  the  crossbred  fox  being 
the  most  popular  breeds  while  a few  farmers  raise  the  red  fox. 
Skunks,  minks,  raccoons,  wolves,  and  rabbits  are  also  raised. 

A total  of  1;361  animals  were  reported,  which  gives  an  average  of 
about  30  animals  per  farm.  One  thousand,  one  hundred  and  forty- 
seven  acres  of  land  were  reported  as  being  used  strictly  for  fur-farm- 
ing purposes.  In  comparing  the  number  of  young  born  last  year 
with  the  number  raised,  it  was  found  that  some  ranchers  lost  all  of 


FIG.  40.— ALASKAN  SILVER  BLACK  FOX 

Wisconsin  fur  farmers  find  that  foxes  in  captivity  thrive  best  when 
their  quarters  are  kept  in  a sanitary  condition  and  as  nearly  like  those 
chosen  by  wild  foxes  as  it  is-  possible  to  provide. 


their  pups  while  others  raised  substantially  all  of  the  young  produced. 
The  average  reported  was  75  per  cent,  which  may  be  considered  a 
very  good  record  in  view  of  the  fact  that  in  this  industry  animals 
are  being  raised  under  artificial  conditions  which  may  vary  widely 
from  the  natural. 

While  the  fox  industry  is  a relatively  new  industry  in  Wisconsin, 
artificial  rearing  of  foxes  has  grown  to  the  proportions  of  a large 


82 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


business  in  some  sections  of  the  country.  Prince  Edward  Island  in 
Canada  is  perhaps  the  best  known  section  for  this  business.  Fine 
quality  pelts  bring  several  hundred  dollars  apiece,  but  it  is  difficult 
to  get  any  satisfactory  figures  with  reference  to  the  differentiation  of 
actual  receipts  for  pelts  or  breeding  stock.  The  final  success  of  the 
business  will,  of  course,  have  to  rest  in  the  sale  of  pelts  rather  than 
breeding  stock. 

Among  the  obstacles  to  success  in  this  business,  disease,  worms, 
and  insanitary  conditions  were  reported  as  the  principal  causes  of 


FIG.  41. — THE  LOCATION  OF  WISCONSIN  FUR  FARMS 
The  small  black  dots  indicate  the  number  of  farms  at  each  place. 


loss.  Mismanagement,  the  marketing  of  the  pelts,  feeding  troubles, 
Canadian  competition,  lack  of  capital,  failure  to  breed,  and  the  dis- 
position of  the  fox  were  given  as  other  difficulties  which  some  of  the 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


83 


breeders  have  met.  Forty-six  ranchers  reported  plans  of  expansion, 
and  the  number  of  animals  which  they  expected  eventually  to  main- 
tain was  stated  to  be  from  40  to  100. 

Ten  leading  fox  farms  were  visited,  and  a wide  difference  was 
found  in  the  equipment  and  management.  The  common  size  of  pen 
used  is  24  feet  by  48  feet.  The  individual  pens  on  most  ranches  were 
separated  from  each  other  by  spaces  varying  from  18  inches  to  16  feet. 
The  primary  object  in  having  a double  wall  is  to  prevent  fighting 
through  the  fence;  and  it  is  said  also  to  be  an  aid  in  preventing  and 
controlling  disease.  On  one  ranch  there  were  a few  holding  pens 
separated  only  by  a single  fence,  but  these  are  used  only  a short  time 
during  the  year.  At  the  time  of  the  visit  to  this  ranch  one  valuable 
silver  fox  was  suffering  from  the  loss  of  a paw  as  the  result  of  fight- 
ing through  the  fence.  Another  ranch  visited  was  using  the  double 
partition  only  up  to  about  six  feet  in  height  with  a single  partition 
above  that,  but  this  was  not  considered  satisfactory.  To  prevent 
the  animals  from  digging  their  way  to  freedom,  the  fence  also  extends 
into  the  ground  about  18  inches  to  two  feet,  or  else  the  entire  pen 
is  carpeted  with  netting.  All  pens  were  provided  with  an  “over- 
hang,” a projection  to  the  fence  on  the  inside  to  prevent  the  escape 
of  the  foxes. 

Some  owners  are  emphatic  in  their  contention  that  the  only  success- 
ful method  of  raising  foxes  is  to  have  plenty  of  trees  and  rocks  in 
the  inclosure  and  to  provide  means  for  the  animals  to  have  plenty 
opportunity  for  digging,  thus  simulating  natural  conditions. 

An  observation  tower  is  an  essential  part  of  the  equipment  of  most 
ranches.  A side  location  is  favored  because  observers  are  not  so 
likely  to  disturb  the  animals  during  the  mating  season. 

Three  general  types  of  kennels  were  found  in  use:  (1)  a three- 
compartment  kennel  for  one  pen;  (2)  two  single  compartment  kennels 
for  one  pen;  and  (3)  underground  kennels.  The  first  two  have  their 
advocates,  but  the  underground  type  is  not  favored  by  any.  It  is 
being  tried,  but  appears  to  be  too  damp  and  musty  and  is  therefore 
avoided  by  the  foxes.  Special  ventilators  are  being  used  by  some  in 
the  hope  of  making  underground  kennels  more  habitable. 

Infestation  of  the  intestines  with  the  round  worm  ( Belas caris  mar- 
ginata),  one  of  the  Ascarids,  is  the  principal  disease  with  which  fox 
breeders  have  to  contend.  This  is  probably  the  result  of  the  con- 
finement of  the  animals  to  relatively  small  quarters,  where  there  is 
usually  little  opportunity  to  keep  conditions  strictly  sanitary.  The 
most  successful  fox  farmers  treat  the  pups,  soon  after  they  appear 
out  of  doors  and  at  regular  intervals  thereafter,  to  eradicate  these 
worms.  Most  breeders  use  one  of  the  several  advertised  remedies  on 
the  market  for  this  purpose.  In  spite  of  this,  some  pups  are 
occasionally  lost  because  of  this  disease.  Young  fox  pups  a few  weeks 
old  sometimes  contain  hundreds  of  these  parasites.  In  one  that  was 
examined  in  the  laboratory  276  worms  were  found. 


84 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


Reports  from  Canada  indicate  that  the  hookworm  is  a very  serious 
menace  to  the  industry  there,  but  in  the  autopsy  of  Wisconsin  foxes 
very  few  of  these  pests  were  found. 

Rickets  is  somewhat  prevalent,  and  the  breeders  are  showing  con- 
siderable thoughtfulness  in  planning  the  rations  for  their  foxes  with 
this  in  mind.  Many  eggs,  much  milk,  and  ground  bone  are  fed 
along  with  such  feeds  as  horse  meat,  beef,  unpolished  rice,  oat  meal, 
vegetables,  and  bread-  These  combinations  provide  a ration  that  aids 
in  the  prevention  of  rickets  as  well  as  in  promoting  the  growth  of  the 
young  animals. 

Goiter  in  Calves  and  Sheep  Prevented  by  Iodine 

HAT  goiter  is  common  in  some  animals  of  the  North  Central 


states  has  long  been  known;  and,  in  order  to  find  methods  of 


treatment  and  prevention  of  the  disease  in  calves,  F.  B.  Hadley 
(Veterinary  Science)  has  undertaken  its  study. 

Cases  of  goiter  in  calves  have  been  reported  from  numerous  places 
in  the  state,  and  a survey  shows  that  the  disease  confines  itself  to 
certain  herds  rather  than  to  any  particular  section  of  the  state. 
Goiter  is  a diseased  condition  of  the  thyroid  gland,  which  is  located 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  neck.  When  this  gland  from  affected  calves 
was  studied  by  means  of  the  microscope,  it  was  found  to  be  much 
enlarged,  due  to  increased  number  of  cells. 

In  newborn  calves  the  swelling  may  be  so  large  as  to  compress 
the  trachea  and  result  in  suffocation.  In  some  cases  the  swelling 
gradually  disappears  without  treatment;  but  with  the  administration 
of  potassium  iodide  (KI)  recovery  occurs  much  more  promptly. 

In  one  herd  of  pure  bred  Guernseys,  eight  calves  were  born  between 
January  28  and  May  25,  and  all  of  them  had  goiter.  The  seven  calves 
that  lived  out  of  this  group  were  treated  on  June  2 by  being  given 
two  grains  of  potassium  iodide;  and  the  treatment  was  continued  daily 
for  three  weeks.  At  that  time  no  signs  of  goiter  could  be  detected 
in  five  of  the  animals,  while  there  was  a noticeable  improvement  in 
the  other  two;  by  August  1 all  of  them  had  fully  recovered. 

Although  no  potassium  iodide  was  administered  to  any  of  the  cows 
of  this  herd,  none  of  the  calves  born  during  the  succeeding  12  months 
was  goiterous.  The  only  change  made  in  the  herd  management  during 
that  time  was  that  the  cows  were  required  to  take  more  exercise 
than  before.  Whether  this  helped  as  a preventive  is  not  known. 

As  a method  of  prevention  of  goiter  in  calves,  it  is  recommended 
that  five  grains  of  potassium  iodide  (KI),  or  sodium  iodide  (Nal),  be 
given  to  each  cow  every  second  day  during  the  last  three  months  of 
the  gestation  period.  This  may  be  conveniently  given  by  placing  a 
five-grain  tablet  in  the  drinking  cup  or  by  dissolving  the  iodide  crystals 
in  water  and  then  mixing  with  the  feed  or  the  drinking  water. 

This  method  of  treatment  is  also  recommended  for  sheep,  the  dose 
being  five  grains  per  week  by  mixing  it  with  the  salt.  The  amount 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


85 


required  for  a given  number  of  sheep  may  be  determined  by  first 
emptying  the  salt  boxes  and  then  filling  them  with  a known  amount 
of  salt  by  weight.  At  the  end  of  a week  the  remaining  salt  is 
removed  and  weighed  to  find  the  amount  consumed.  A like  quantity 
of  salt  is  then  mixed  with  as  much  potassium  iodide  (KI)  or  sodium 
iodide  (Nal)  as  would  be  required  to  allow  five  grains  per  head  per 
week.  The  mixing  of  a fresh  supply  each  week  is  desirable  because 
the  material  turns  reddish  in  color  when  left  exposed  to  the  air. 

It  has  been  observed  that  goiter  in  newborn  animals  occurs  almost 
exclusively  on  farms  in  sections  where  winter  necessitates  stabling 
between  November  and  March.  This  is  the  season  when  the  ration 
is  likely  to  be  restricted  to  food  and  drink  low  in  iodine.  Sows  and 
ewes  which  have  had  access  to  green  feed  during  the  last  three 
months  of  their  gestation  period  seldom,  if  ever,  give  birth  to  goiter- 
ous  offspring.  Cows  and  mares  may  require  a longer  period  on  pasture 
to  safeguard  their  prospective  progeny  against  this  disease. 


HAT  infectious  abortion  in  swine,  if  it  continues  to  spread, 


threatens  to  menace  seriously  the  swine  industry  is  apparent 


from  recent  studies  made  by  F.  B.  Hadley  and  B.  A.  Beach 
(Veterinary  Science).  Their  work  indicates  that  this  disease  is  now 
prevalent  to  an  alarming  extent  in  Wisconsin  and  in  other  hog  raising 
states  as  well. 

The  abortion  disease  in  swine  is  caused  by  a microorganism  which 
is  closely  related  to  but  not  identical  with  the  bacillus  which  is 
responsible  for  most  cases  of  abortion  in  cattle.  This  germ  has  been 
found  in  aborted  pigs,  infected  afterbirths,  and  in  the  first  milk  of 
aborting  sows. 

When  pregnant  sows  were  inoculated  with  the  abortion  bacilli  of 
swine,  most  of  them  aborted,  but  none  aborted  that  were  inoculated 
with  strains  of  the  organism  recovered  from  cattle.  The  inoculation 
of  pregnant  cows  with  strains  of  abortion  bacilli  from  cows  caused 
abortion  in  these  animals,  but  no  effect  was  apparent  upon  pregnant 
sows  inoculated  with  the  same  organism. 

The  investigators  have  concluded  that  the  abortion  disease  of  swine 
is  much  more  likely  to  be  introduced  into  a clean  herd  by  purchase 
of  swine  from  infected  herds  than  by  the  feeding  of  dairy  products 
contaminated  with  germs  of  bovine  abortion,  and  it  does  not  appear 
likely  that  sows  will  contract  the  infection  from  affected  cows. 

Blood  tests  were  found  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  means  of  detect- 
ing the  disease  in  swine,  the  agglutination  method  of  testing  being 
preferred.  The  average  time  required  for  abortion  to  result  after  a 
sow  was  infected  was  23.2  days;  in  the  cow  it  was  58.5  days.  While 
infection  may  be  contracted  in  various  ways,  sows  seem  to  have  con- 
siderable resistance  against  the  organisms  when  taken  by  way  of  the 


Infectious  Abortion  in  Swine 


86 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


mouth;  but  when  they  are  injected  into  the  H.  ad  stream  before  breed- 
ing, it  was  found  that  75  per  cent  of  the  pregnant  sows  aborted. 

Infectious  abortion  in  hogs  seems  to  be  a self-limiting  disease  in  that 
a naturally  acquired  infection  usually  is  followed  by  immunity  which 
will  protect  some  sows  for  a long  period  of  time.  The  breeding 
efficiency  of  animals  which  have  aborted  is  not  necessarily  impaired. 
This,  however,  depends  upon  the  individual.  Vaccination  ex- 
periments justify  th,e  belief  that  this  is  a means  of  conferring  active 
immunity  and  promises  to  be  effective  as  a control  measure.  Whether 
it  would  be  advisable  to  use  vaccine  generally  in  herds  throughout 
the  state  has  not  yet  been  determined. 


Contagious  Abortion  in  Cattle 

PROGRESS  in  the  work  being  conducted  to  control  contagious 
abortion  of  cattle  is  reported  by  Mr.  Hadley.  Careful  study  of 
the  abortion  vaccine  after  it  had  been  kept  in  storage  for  varying 
lengths  of  time  has  shown  that  the  microorganisms  live  for  at 
least  two  months  in  a vaccine  prepared  with  a physiologic  salt 
solution  and  stored  in  a refrigerator.  Five  hundred  doses  of  the 
vaccine  were  prepared  and  distributed  for  experimental  purposes. 
This  material  was  sent  to  veterinarians  and  farmers  who  were  cooperat- 
ing with  the  Department  of  Veterinary  Science  in  the  study  of  the 
results  which  follow  the  use  of  live  cultures  of  abortion  bacilli  when 
applied  as  a vaccine  to  immunize  open  cows  and  heifers  against  the 
abortion  disease. 

The  agglutination  test  on  the  blood  serum  of  cattle  must  be  made 
at  least  once  every  six  months  in  order  to  detect  incipient  cases  of 
infection.  Otherwise  the  disease  may  make  such  headway  that  it 
would  be  impractical  to  control  it  by  removing  all  reacting  animals. 
During  the  year,  1,730  samples  of  bovine  blood,  130  samples  of  porcine 
blood,  15  samples  of  ovine  blood,  and  25  samples  of  cow’s  milk  were 
tested  to  determine  whether  abortion  infection  was  present.  Recom- 
mendations to  the  owners  of  the  animals  for  the  management  of  their 
herds  and  flocks  to  prevent  and  control  the  disease  were  based  upon 
these  various  tests.  The  sum  of  ten  cents  per  sample  is  being  charged 
for  making  these  tests  to  cover  the  cost  of  materials  used. 

Tuberculosis  in  Poultry 

TUBERCULOSIS  is  gaining  headway  in  farm  animals  to  an 
appalling  extent.  It  is  by  no  means  confined  to  cattle,  as  was 
at  one  time  believed,  for  Mr.  Beach  has  found  it  widely  pre- 
valent in  hogs  and  to  an  alarming  extent  in  poultry.  In  some 
localities  practically  all  flocks  of  poultry  on  farms  are  infected.  On 
account  of  the  slow  progress  of  the  disease  in  individual  birds, 
it  is  not  recognized  by  the  poultryman  until  many  members  of  the 
flock  become  affected.  Postmortem  examinations  were  made  in  the 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


87 


veterinary  science  laboratory  during  the  past  year  on  300  birds  of 
all  ages  and  from  different  flocks.  All  of  these  fowls  were  affected 
with  some  kind  of  disease,  and  18  per  cent  of  them  were  found  to 
be  affected  with  tuberculosis.  Of  the  adult  fowls,  28  per  cent  were 
tuberculous. 

Avian  (fowl)  tuberculin  is  being  prepared  and  distributed  by  the 
Experiment  Station  to  be  used  in  detecting  tuberculous  poultry  in  the 
same  way  that  tuberculin  is  used  to  detect  this  disease  in  cattle.  As 
a means  of  control  and  eradication  this  product  promises  to  be  of 
considerable  aid. 


Danger  Lies  in  Feeding  Horses  Silage 

HAT  there  is  an  element  of  danger  in  the  feeding  of  silage  to 


horses  appears  probable  from  an  investigation  made  by  Mr. 


Hadley  during  the  past  year.  A number  of  outbreaks  of 
disease  followed  by  severe  losses  have  been  reported  where  silage 
seems  to  have  contained  some  substance  which  was  toxic  to  horses. 
The  disease  has  been  variously  termed  forage  poisoning,  botulism, 
staggers,  and  ptomaine  poisoning.  It  is  most  prevalent  in  Wisconsin 
during  the  warm  spells  of  early  spring. 

The  symptoms  exhibited  by  horses  suffering  from  this  form  of 
poisoning  are  given  below,  since  they  will  aid  veterinarians  and 
farmers  in  recognizing  cases  of  the  disease  in  the  early  stages: 

(1)  Inability  to  swallow  either  liquids  or  solids. 

(2)  Paralysis  of  the  tongue,  which  is  shown  by  the  animal  being 
unable  to  retract  this  organ  when  it  is  withdrawn  from  the  mouth. 

(3)  A constant  flow  of  saliva,  which  hangs  from  the  mouth  in  long 
strings. 

(4)  Attempts  to  eat  hay,  which  is  grasped  by  the  lips,  but  can- 
not be  carried  into  the  mouth  for  mastication. 

(5)  When  trying  to  drink,  the  lips  pucker  a little,  but  not  the 
slightest  movement  is  noticeable  in  the  throat. 

(6)  The  muscles  that  control  the  act  of  swallowing  waste  away 
rapidly,  and  a pinched  appearance  around  the  throat  is  observed. 

(7)  A thick,  whitish  discharge  occurs  from  the  nostrils. 

(8)  The  pupils  of  the  eyes  dilate  and  are  not  responsive  to  light. 

(9)  At  first  the  mind  is  clear,  but  later  the  animal  may  become 
delirious,  and  the  hearing  appears  to  be  affected. 

(10)  The  tail  is  so  limp  that  it  may  be  folded  straight  over  the 
back  like  a rag. 

(11)  When  the  animals  walk,  they  exhibit  incoordination  of  move- 
ment and  lack  control  over  the  muscles. 

(12)  Constipation  occurs  in  most  cases,  but  with  little  bloating. 
These  symptoms  become  aggravated  as  the  disease  progresses,  and 
after  a few  hours  the  animals  become  unable  to  maintain  a standing 
position. 


88 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


Though  the  exact  cause  of  this  disease  is  not  definitely  understood, 
Dr.  Hadley  believes  that  it  is  produced  by  a toxic  substance  formed 
by  the  Bacillus  botulinus  or  some  other  disease-producing  organism. 
For  animals  in  the  early  stages  of  the  disease,  the  use  of  a product 
known  as  botulinus  antitoxin  is  recommended,  but  this  is  not  effective 
as  a curative  agent  in  the  advanced  stages  of  the  trouble.  Purgatives 
and  immediate  change  of  feed  are  essential  in  the  treatment  of  animals 
suffering  from  this  form  of  poisoning. 

Calf  Diphtheria  or  Stomatitis  in  Wisconsin 

A CONTAGIOUS  and  infectious  disease  in  calves  (known  as 
necrotic  stomatitis)  has  been  brought  to  light  in  investigations 
by  Mr.  Hadley.  This  infection  is  also  termed  “calf  diphtheria’' 
due  to  patches  in  the  mouth  and  throat  that  resemble  those  seen  in 
human  diphtheria. 

In  the  herd  first  observed  four  calves  had  died  and  five  were  sick 
with  the  characteristic  symptoms  of  the  disease.  The  cause  was 
found  to  be  the  Bacillus  necrophorus  (a  microorganism  often  found 
in  the  intestinal  organs  of  cattle  where  it  usually  does  no  harm). 
However,  when  the  organism  becomes  highly  virulent,  it  causes  an 
inflammation  in  the  tissues  which  finally  destroys  them.  The  following 
control  means  are  advised: 

(1)  Separation  of  all  affected  animals  from  the  healthy  ones, 

(2)  Daily  inspection  of  the  mouth  and  throat  of  exposed  animals, 

(3)  Swabbing  of  necrotic  patches  with  a 3 per  cent  solution  of 
potassium  permanganate, 

(4)  Removal  of  all  loose  litter  from  the  pens  and  disinfection  with 
a reliable  disinfectant. 

Better  Methods  Important  in  Swiss  Cheese  Making 

THE  IMPORTANCE  of  growing  starters  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  Swiss  cheese  at  the  proper  temperature  has  long  been  advo- 
cated by  the  Dairy  Husbandry  Department  and  to  meet  this 
need,  two  simple  devices  have  been  perfected  under  the  direction  of 
J.  L.  Sammis  (Dairy  Husbandry)  within  the  last  year.  In  the  past 
when  the  starter  was  kept  at  too  low  a temperature,  it  often  failed 
to  produce  the  amount  of  acid  necessary  for  the  manufacture  of  the  best 
quality  of  cheese;  and  consequently  many  cheese  makers  in  the  state 
have  experienced  trouble  in  the  making  of  a first  quality  product  for 
the  reason  that  they  did  not  provide  a suitable  place  for  the  keeping 
of  the  starter  cans.  The  first  of  these  new  devices  consisted  of  an 
ordinary  egg  incubator  lamp  and  regulator  applied  to  a wooden  box 
provided  with  suitable  space  to  hold  the  starter  containers.  Since 
the  temperature  requirement  for  the  satisfactory  growth  of  the 
starter  bacteria  ( Bacterium  bulgaricus ) is  not  a very  definite  one, 
anywhere  between  100°  and  113°F.  being  satisfactory,  it  was  found 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


89 


that  this  device  very  easily  maintained  a proper  temperature.  Some 
cheese  factories  in  the  state  have  already  adopted  the  plan  and  are 
obtaining  satisfactory  results  with  it.  One  incubator  manufacturer 
in  the  state  has  gone  so  far  as  to  modify  his  machine  by  substituting 
jar  and  tube  holders  for  the  egg  shelving,  thus  providing  a cheap  and 
efficient  outfit  for  use  by  the  cheese  makers  in  keeping  starter  cans 
at  a uniform  temperature. 

The  second  method  used  employed  a double  walled,  galvanized  iron 
jacket  filled  with  cotton  batting  around  cans  of  starter  from  100  to 
150  pounds  in  size.  In  such  large  quantities  the  insulation  provided 
by  this  jacket  is  sufficient  to  keep  the  temperature  uniformly  high 


FIG.  4 2.— A SIMPLE  STARTER  CAN  DOES  THE  WORK 

The  can  of  starter  is  placed  upon  an  insulated  base  and  covered  with 
a double-walled  iron  jacket  in  which  the  interspace  is  filled  with  in- 
sulating- material.  It  keeps  the  temperature  sufficiently  uniform  for 
best  results-. 

enough  to  permit  proper  growth  and  ripening.  Several  of  these 
insulating  jackets  were  constructed  by  the  Dairy  Husbandry  Depart- 
ment and  loaned  to  cheese  makers  with  the  result  that  in  each  case 
the  cheese  maker  was  able  to  construct  an  inexpensive  and  satisfactory- 
jacket  after  using  the  one  loaned  to  him  through  the  Experiment 
Station.  A convenient  way  to  build  the  arrangement  at  the  cheese 
factory  is  to  use  a twenty-gallon  milk  can  surrounded  by  a double 
wooden  box,  the  walls  of  which  are  filled  with  a six-inch  layer  of 
insulating  material.  A cover  similarly  insulated  is  put  on  top;  or,  if 


90 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


the  jacket  is  made  of  metal,  it  can  be  inverted  over  the  can  of  starter 
on  an  insulated  base. 

Either  of  these  ways  is  more  satisfactory  than  the  old  custom  of 
setting  starter  cans  in  the  boiler  room  over  night  in  the  hope  that 
they  will  keep  a temperature  which  will  produce  a degree  of  ripening 
satisfactory  for  the  manufacture  of  a first-class  cheese.  It  is  probable 
that  the  general  use  of  some  temperature  controlling  device  in  the 
keeping  of  starters  will  follow  as  the  result  of  this  work. 

Trials  with  “Eye”-Culture. — In  view  of  the  variety  of  methods  used 
by  Swiss  factory  men  and  the  discordant  ideas  held  by  them  on  many 
points,  a number  of  questions  constantly  come  up  for  solution  which 
are  often  best  settled  by  direct  experiment.  In  April  1922  trials 
were  undertaken  to  determine  the  value  of  eye-forming  cultures 
developed  and  distributed  by  the  United  States  Dairy  Division  through 
C.  M.  Gere,  who  has  been  working  in  cooperation  with  the  Wisconsin 
Experiment  Station.  While  these  experiments  have  not  settled  the 
question  with  complete  finality,  it  is  apparent  that  the  eye-forming 
culture,  if  intelligently  used,  will  do  much  to  give  our  Wisconsin-made 
Swiss  cheese  the  high  flavor  which  is  commonly  found  in  that  of  foreign 
make.  From  the  work  conducted  so  far,  it  appears  that  temperature 
of  the  curing  room  must  be  under  control  to  avoid  too  great  eye 
formation  in  the  use  of  the  eye-forming  cultures;  and  while  some 
inexperienced  cheese  makers  were  unable  to  get  satisfactory  results 
with  their  use,  it  is  probable  that  further  experiments  will  bring 
about  a more  extensive  appreciation  of  them. 

Salts  Affect  Heat  Coagulation  of  Evaporated  Milk 

MILK  condensaries  frequently  are  troubled  by  a coagulation 
of  the  evaporated  milk  in  the  sterilizing  process.  This  makes 
the  evaporated  milk  curdled  in  appearance  and  practically 
unmarketable.  H.  H.  Sommer  (Dairy  Husbandry)  previously  found 
that  the  calcium  and  magnesium  salts,  the  citrates,  and  phosphates 
of  milk  have  a decided  influence  on  heat  coagulation.  Evaporated 
milk  that  coagulates  in  the  sterilizing  process  frequently  does  so 
because  of  an  excess  of  calcium  and  magnesium  in  the  milk.  This 
condition  can  be  improved  by  the  proper  addition  of  sodium  citrate,  or 
disodium,  or  potassium  phosphate. 

This  remedy  the  past  year  has  been  further  applied  on  a com- 
mercial scale  at  condensaries  with  considerable  success.  At  one 
condensary  calcium  chloride  brine  leaked  into  the  milk.  By  the 
addition  of  sodium  citrate  the  product  was  finally  processed  at  244 °F. 
for  16  minutes.  This  striking  illustration  occurred  on  50,000  pounds 
of  milk,  and  it  shows  the  marked  effect  of  salts  on  the  coagulation  of 
evaporated  milk.  Certain  condensaries  are  using  disodium  phosphate 
very  successfully,  and  they  are  enabled  thereby  to  extend  the  steriliz- 
ing process  four  or  five  minutes. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


91 


Mr.  Sommer  has  begun  a study  of  the  causes  for  a variation  in  the 
salt  composition  of  the  milk  which  bring  about  this  troublesome  coagu 
lation.  Preliminary  experiments  have  shown  that  the  feed  influences 
the  heat  coagulation  of  milk  v.ery  materially.  Fresh  milk  from  one 
cow  on  dry  feed  coagulated  consistently  at  246°F.  in  two  or  three 
minutes.  When  this  same  cow  went  on  pasture,  the  milk  no  longer 
coagulated  at  246 °F.  in  thirty  minutes.  The  properties  of  the  milk 
of  three  cows  were  also  decidedly  changed  by  feeding  them  from 
50  to  200  grams  of  calcium  carbonate  (lime)  per  day.  More  extended 
trials  of  this  matter  are  now  in  progress 


HE  ALCOHOL  test  has  long  been  used  as  one  of  the  methods 


of  determining  the  quality  of  milk.  If  a precipitate  formed  in 


this  test,  the  milk  was  supposed  to  be  undesirable  and  therefore 
rejected  or  scored  second  grade.  The  reliability  of  this  test  has  been 
further  studied  by  H.  H.  Sommer  and  T.  H.  Binney  (Dairy  Hus- 
bandry). They  found  that  the  alcohol  test  is  very  decidedly  influenced 
by  small  variations  in  the  salt  composition  of  milk.  Calcium  and 
magnesium  salts  cause  a positive  test  but  their  effect  is  counteracted 
by  the  citrates  and  phosphates  of  the  milk.  It  was  shown  that  the 
milk  of  three  cows  which  had  been  negative  to  the  alcohol  test  be- 
came positive  when  liberal  amounts  of  calcium  carbonate  (50  grams 
increased  to  200  grams)  were  fed  in  the  ration.  The  acidity  was 
also  found  to  be  a factor  in  the  alcohol  test  but  of  lesser  importance 
in  the  case  of  fresh  milk  than  the  salt  composition.  Rennet-forming 
bacteria  also  cause  a positive  test. 

The  alcohol  test,  therefore  is  not  to  be  wholly  relied  upon.  It  is 
shown  that  it  depends  largely  upon  the  salt  composition  of  the  milk, 
which  may  vary  widely,  and  bear  no  relation  to  the  quality  of  the 
milk  itself.  Salt  composition  which  causes  a positive  alcohol  test 
is  not  undesirable,  and  such  milk  should  not  be  excluded  except, 
possibly  for  evaporated  milk  where  its  tendency  to  coagulate  rapidly 
may  be  detrimental.  The  heat  coagulation  of  evaporated  milk  and 
the  alcohol  coagulation  are  both  influenced  by  the  same  factor;  i.  e., 
an  excess  of  calcium  and  magnesium  over  citrates  and  phosphates. 
The  value  of  the  alcohol  test  then  may  be  more  significant  in  the 
selection  of  milk  for  condensing  purposes  than  in  other  lines. 

Denatured  Alcohols  for  Fat  Extraction  Test 

IN'  THE  accurate  determination  of  fat  content  of  dairy  products 
by  the  Rose-Gottlieb  extraction  method,  grain  alcohol  is  com- 
monly used.  On  account  of  its  cost,  due  to  the  tax  and  the  restric- 
tions placed  upon  its  sale  the  desirability  of  using  denatured  alcohol 
for  this  purpose  became  apparent.  Accordingly  H.  H.  Sommer  and 
K.  V.  Bryan  (Dairy  Husbandry)  made  a study  of  various  substitutes 
and  found  that  grain  alcohol  denatured  by  the  addition  of  one-tenth 


Use  of  Alcohol  Test  Limited 


92 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


of  its  volume  of  wood  alcohol  or  with  one-tenth  its  volume  of  ether 
and  three-twentieths  of  ammonia  gave  good  results.  Wood  alcohol 
and  iso-propyl  alcohol  were  unsatisfactory. 

Fishy  Flavor  of  Butter 

OCCASIONALLY  there  develops  in  butter,  especially  storage 
butter,  a flavor  which  is  variously  described  as  resembling  that 
of  salmon,  mackerel,  and  salted  herring.  This  fishy  flavor  has 
been  a depreciating  factor  of  considerable  importance  in  the  butter 
trade  ever  since  highly  flavored  butter  was  made  and  put  into  cold 
storage.  Conditions  under  which  this  fishiness  develops  in  butter 
have  been  studied  by  H.  H.  Sommer  and  B.  J.  Smit  (Dairy  Husbandry). 
Butter  was  made  from  pasteurized  and  unpasteurized  cream;  from 
low,  medium,  and  high  acid  test  cream;  it  was  unsalted,  medium 
salted,  and  highly  salted;  some  of  it  was  overworked,  some  exposed 
to  the  air,  and  other  samples  left  in  contact  with  metallic  surfaces; 
and  different  temperatures  of  storage  were  also  used. 

After  five  months  storage,  fishy  flavors  were  obtained.  The  most 
distinct  fishiness  was  obtained  from  highly  salted  butter  that  had 
been  made  from  high  acid,  unpasteurized  cream  in  which  iron  lactate 
had  been  incorporated,  and  which  had  been  stored  at  the  higher 
storage  temperatures.  No  fishiness  was  obtained  in  samples  of  low 
acidity,  low  saltiness,  and  in  which  oxidation  was  not  favored. 

The  theory  has  been  advanced  that  the  fishy  flavor  is  due  to  an 
organic  compound  known  as  trimethylamine  (herring  brine  odor), 
which  may  be  formed  from  another  organic  compound  found  in  butter 
known  as  lecithin.  Experiments  were  conducted  with  the  emulsions 
of  lecithin  prepared  from  egg  yolk  to  determine  the  conditions  under 
which  lecithin  will  decompose  to  yield  trimethylamine.  It  was  found 
that  the  lecithin  emulsion  yielded  by  far  the  largest  amount  of  tri- 
methylamine under  the  combination  of  the  above  named  three  condi- 
tions— high  acidity,  high  salt  content,  and  oxidation. 

Trimethylamine  or  its  salts  when  incorporated  into  the  butter  im- 
parted to  it  the  characteristic  fishy  flavor.  This  compound  was  also 
isolated  from  samples  of  fishy  butter.  The  conclusion  seems  sub- 
stantiated that  fishiness  in  butter  is  due  largely  to  the  results  of  the 
chemical  decomposition  of  lecithin  into  trimethylamine,  and  that  the 
factors  which  seem  to  favor  this  condition  are  high  acidity  and  high 
salt  content  in  butter  combined  with  the  oxidation  resulting  from 
overworking  in  the  presence  of  metallic  utensils. 

Cooperative  Butter  Marketing  Needed 

THERE  IS  a growing  amount  of  dissatisfaction  with  the  pre- 
vailing systems  of  butter  marketing.  Butter  has  long  been 
marketed  by  the  individual  creamery  shipping  the  same  to  ad- 
jacent available  markets  where  it  has  been  sold  presumably  on  its 
merits  but  often  without  any  knowledge  of  its  origin.  In  view  of 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


93 


the  fact  that  much  improved  methods  have  already  been  inaugurated 
in  one  Wisconsin  county  and  have  resulted  in  such  signal  success  in 
the  cooperative  marketing  of  butter  by  shipping  in  car  lots  to  eastern 


POUNDS  IN  PRICE  IN 

MILLIONS  CENTS 


(4 

13 

12 

11 

10 

9 

a 

7 

6 

5 

4 

3 

2 

1 


ACTUAL  SALES 


'CA 

AV 

'ER/ 

^GE 

n 

Hi 

56 

52 

48 

44 

40 

36 

32 

28 

24 

20 

lb 

12 

8 

4 


JAN  FEB  MAR  APRIL  MAY  JUNE  JULY  AUC  SEPT  OCT  NOV  DEC 


FIG.  43.— WHY  BUTTER  PRICES  FLUCTUATE 

Butter  production  and  sales  are  high  in  the  summer  months  with  the 
result  that  prices  tend  to  fall  as  production  increases. 


94 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


markets,  it  appears  that  a state  wide  cooperative  organization  for 
improvement  in  the  marketing  of  butter  is  readily  possible.  Accord- 
ingly, Theodore  Macklin  and  L.  P.  Gabbard  (Agricultural  Economics) 
undertook  a survey  of  the  operations  of  thirty-one  cream, eries  located 
in  the  counties  of  La  Crosse,  Monroe,  and  Vernon  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  how  cooperative  creameries  in  general  might  improve 
their  marketing  conditions.  A number  of  conclusions  in  accordance 
with  the  experience  of  creamery  operators  have  been  reached: 

1.  Many  farmers  in  each  community  are  not  producing  as  high  a 
grade  of  cream  as  is  necessary  to  make  the  highest  quality  of  butter 
If  the  creamery  refuses  to  accept  the  low  grade  cream,  patrons  shift 
from  one  creamery  to  another,  and  more  creameries  than  are  neces- 
sary to  handle  the  butter  fat  are  kept  open  for  business  with  the 
result  that  unnecessary  running  expenses  are  incurred. 

2.  It  is  found  that  the  cost  of  assembling  butter  fat,  making  butter, 
and  placing  it  on  the  market  by  different  creameries  varied  from 
slightly  less  than  2 cents  per  pound  to  7.6  cents  in  1921-  Transporta- 
tion cost  varied  from  almost  nothing  to  3.75  cents  per  pound,  and 
creamery  operating  costs  ranged  from  1.9  c.ents  to  5.3  cents  per 
pound.  Generally  the  larger  creameries  can  make  butter  at  a smaller 
cost  per  pound. 

3.  The  size  of  the  creamery  seems  to  bear  no  relation  to  transpor- 
tation costs  of  cream  and  butter,  but  it  does  bear  a direct  relation 
to  the  cost  of  the  creamery  operations,  which  shows  that  the  creamery 
manager  is  usually  more  expert  in  the  making  of  butter  than  in 
marketing  it. 

4.  There  is  a great  variation  in  the  prices  which  the  different 
creameries  receive  for  their  butter  from  month  to  month  and  for  the 
year.  This  is  in  part  due  to  differences  in  the  quality  of  the  product, 
but  undoubtedly  the  plan  of  selling  also  exerts  an  effect.  The  average 
price  of  butter  sold  to'  retailers  was  4 cents  per  pound  above  that  sold 
to  wholesalers.  Though  the  disposal  of  their  product  to  retailers 
pays  best,  few  creameries  have  developed  this  kind  of  market. 

5.  While  there  is  room  for  improvement  in  all  phases  of  creamery 
operations,  the  greatest  need  lies  in  the  marketing  end  of  the  busi- 
ness where  more  expert  service  is  required. 

6.  Expert  sales  service  at  a reasonable  cost  per  pound  cannot  very 
well  be  obtained  by  local  creameries  individually,  because  they  have 
too  little  butter  to  market.  A better  sales  service,  however,  is  pos- 
sible at  a small  cost  by  federating  cooperative  creameries  so  that  a 
large  volume  of  butter  will  go  to  market  through  a single  sales  sys- 
tem. The  development  of  such  cooperative  creamery  federations 
that  can  establish  their  own  selling  system  is  the  next  logical  step 
in  the  butter  industry. 

That  the  dairy  industry  in  the  state  of  Wisconsin  needs  a wider 
application  of  such  methods  is  apparent  when  Polk  county’s  achieve- 
ments in  this  direction  for  the  past  few  years  are  considered. 
Already,  unit  No.  1 of  the  Wisconsin  Cooperative  Creamery  Associa- 
tion has  been  established  in  this  county,  and  H.  P.  Sond,ergaard  at 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


95 


Balsam  Lake  is  its  field  man.  About  8,000,000  pounds  of  butter  were 
shipped  to  New  York  and  Philadelphia  during  1921,  and  according 
to  John  Klinka,  county  agent  for  Polk  county,  an  increase  of  ap- 
proximately a million  pounds  in  these  eastern  shipments  will  result 
in  1922.  Twenty-eight  cooperative  creameries  are  included  in  this 
shipping  unit,  and  twenty-one  of  them  are  in  the  fi.eld  unit.  Accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Klinka,  the  organization  has  easily  increased  the  income 
from  butter  for  this  territory  by  $50,000  in  a year. 

That  there  is  every  prospect  of  developing  powerful  statewide  or- 
ganization out  of  this  Polk  county  idea  is  evidenced  by  the  fact 
that  65 , creameries  are  already  members  of  the  Wisconsin  Coopera- 
tive Creameries  Association.  This  organization  has  rendered  signal 
service  in  reducing  the  shrinkage,  which  is  ordinarily  experienced 
in  the  shipping  of  butter,  and  in  the  promotion  of  more  exact  methods 
in  the  manufacture  and  handling  of  the  product.  With  the  premium 
that  is  offered  for  butter  scoring  93  on  the  eastern  markets,  many 
Wisconsin  creameries  that  formerly  only  attempted  to  make  a but- 
ter scoring  92  are  learning  that  with  a little  extra  effort  they  can 
obtain  a product  of  such  quality  as  will  enable  them  to  receive  the 
fancy  prices  paid  by  the  trade  for  butter  testing  93. 

Through  these  efforts  it  is  probable  that  we  shall  soon  r,each  the 
time  when  all  makers  of  first  class  butter  will  use  only  sweet  cream 
and  that  butter  makers  who  are  trained  to  make  a first  class  product 
only  will  be  employed.  When  a first  class  product  is  combined  with 
intelligent  marketing,  Wisconsin  dairymen  will  reap  their  fullest 
reward  for  such  effort.  To  provide  suitable  brand  names  for  Wis 
consin  butter  and  then  to  market  it  through  single  representatives 
in  the  large  eastern  cities  is  another  step  which  will  naturally  grow 
out  of  this  organization  work;  but  this,  too,  will  depend  for  its  suc- 
cess upon  the  quality  of  the  product  which  is  to  be  handled.  The 
Polk  county  idea,  whereby  the  quality  of  the  product  is  so  improved 
by  the  producers  themselves  that  there  will  develop  a market  de- 
mand based  on  merit,  is  probably  the  natural  solution  of  the  prob- 
lems of  Wisconsin  dairymen,  and  its  gradual  application  on  wider 
areas  appears  desirable. 

The  Town  as  the  Farmer’s  Service  Station 

OTJT  OF  a study  of  country  neighborhoods  made  last  year,  an 
investigation  of  the  service  relationships  between  the  farmer 
and  the  town  has  grown.  The  work  is  being  carried  on  in 
three  areas:  eastern  Dane  county,  the  Elkhorn  area  in  Walworth 

county,  and  the  Waupaca  area  in  Waupaca  county,  by  J.  H.  Kolb  (Ag- 
ricultural Economics).  This  study  includes  the  economic  services, 
such  as  merchandising,  marketing  and  financial,  educational,  religious, 
social,  and  the  services  of  communication  and  organization.  In  one 
town,  with  a population  of  490  people,  85  different  agencies  were 
discovered  which  have  direct  relations  with  the  farming  population 
which  surrounds  them  Tn  another  section  including  six  small  towns 


96 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


it  was  found  that  the  farmers  furnished  about  65  per  cent  of  the 
patronage  for  the  non-commercial  agencies,  such  as  church,  school, 
social  and  fraternal  organizations,  but  assumed  only  about  15  per 
cent  of  the  leadership. 

The  town  needs  the  farmer  and  the  farmer  needs  the  town.  This 
relationship  can  be  of  more  mutual  benefit  when  given  attention 
and  when  united  effort  is  made  for  its  organization  than  when  it  is 
neglected.  It  is  probable  also  that  this  planned  and  orderly  rela- 
tionship will  come  about  most  readily  when  each  group  perfects  its 
own  organization  and  the  cooperation  is  the  result  of  federated  effort. 

An  organized  relationship  between  the  town  and  the  farmer  is 
greatly  dependent  upon  a thorough  knowledge  and  mutual  under- 
standing regarding  the  services  and  functions  which  one  group  per- 
forms for  another.  Each  group  must  know  something  of  the  difficulty 
of  the  costs,  problems,  and  needs  of  the  various  services.  The  pro- 
cess is  educational  and  it  is  necessary  to  establish  confidence. 

The  mainspring  of  this  whole  scheme  of  organization  will  always 
be  that  of  motive.  Any  proposed  activity  in  order  to  be  assured  of 
confidence  and  permanency  must  have  a definite  purpose  and  render 
a worth  while  service. 

Analysis  of  Costs  Shows  Why  Some  Farms  Pay 

SOME  FARMS  pay  while  others  of  similar  soils  and  topography, 
with  the  same  seasonal  conditions  and  identical  markets,  fail  to 
do  so.  During  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  a general  decline 
in  prices,  and  those  of  farm  commodities  have  remained  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  list.  Unddr  such  conditions  many  farms,  which  during  other 
times  made  money,  have  lost  heavily.  Large  farms  generally  have 
been  heavier  losers  than  the  small  ones;  and  the  few  farms  which 
actually  made  money  were  distributed  among  all  sizes  from  the 
smallest  to  the  largest. 

A study  was  made  in  Walworth  county  under  the  direction  of 
P.  E.  McNall  to  determine  why  some  farms  paid  and  to  learn,  if 
possible,  to  what  extent  it  is  desirable  to  supplement  the  dairy  with 
other  lines  of  income.  It  was  found  that  the  two  outstanding  ways 
in  which  the  farms  that  made  money  differed  from  the  others  were 
the  increased  number  of  sources  of  income  for  the  farm  and  the 
greater  production  of  the  dairy  herd. 

The  w dl  diversified  farms,  or  those  having  four  or  five  sources 
of  incoin  i of  more  than  $100  each,  made  considerably  more  than 
ihe  poorly  diversified  farms.  In  order  of  their  importance  the  chief 
incomes  were  obtained  from  dairy  products,  hogs,  young  cattle, 
poultry,  grain,  hay,  and  truck  crops.  The  less  diversified  farms  de- 
pended almost  altogether  upon  dairy  products  for  their  income. 

Good  diversity  provides  opportunity  for  the  better  use  of  man  and 
horse  labor  and  for  the  utilization  of  by-products  such  as  skim  milk 
from  the  dairy  herd  and  to  spread  the  risks  of  the  business.  Un- 
favorable weather  conditions  or  live  stock  diseases  seldom  affect 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


97 


more  than  one  crop  or  more  than  one  group  of  animals  at  a time, 
and  the  farmer  having  several  sources  of  income  is  not  likely  to  he 
hit  in  all  of  them  at  once. 

In  this  study  it  was  also  shown  that,  where  average  production 
per  cow  in  the  dairy  herd  was  low,  the  income  from  this  source  was 
also  low.  The  average  production  of  milk  per  cow  (5,600  pounds  in 
Walworth  county),  was  not  enough  to  tee  a paying  proposition.  As 
the  production  per  cow  increased  from  an  average  of  4,625  pounds 
in  the  lowest  herd  to  8,138  pounds  per  cow  in  the  best  herd,  the 
average  farm  income  increased  from  $476  to  $1,205.  The  cost  of 
milk  produced  in  this  case  decreased  $1.19  per  hundred  weight. 

The  amount  of  feed  and  the  hours  of  labor  required  to  produce 
10Q  pounds  of  milk  were  considerably  less  with  high  producing  than 
with  low  producing  herds.  The  greatest  saving  can  be  made  in  the 
case  of  grain  and  other  concentrates.  In  herds  where  the  average 
production  per  cow  was  as  low  as  5,000  pounds  or  less,  38  pounds 
of  concentrates  were  used  to  produce  100  pounds  of  milk,  while  only 
31  pounds  were  required  in  herds  where  production  reached  from 

5.000  to  7,000  pounds  per  cow.  In  those  herds  where  it  ran  above 

7.000  pounds’per  cow  27  pounds  of  concentrates  were  used  to  produce 
a hundredweight  of  milk. 

It  appears  that  many  farmers  fed  too  heavily  of  grain  in  the  ration 
ior  their  farms  to  be  profitable.  On  thirty-four  farms,  where  on  an 
average  3,000  pounds  of  grain  and  other  concentrates  were  fed  per 
cow,  the  average  milk  production  was  5,900  pounds.  This  shows 
that  60  pounds  of  grain  and  other  concentrates  were  used  to  pro- 
duce 100  pounds  of  milk.  On  one  hundred  other  farms,  where  be- 
tween 1,000  and  2,000  pounds  of  concentrates  were  fed  per  cow  per 
year,  the  average  production  was  6,000  pounds  per  cow  and  the 
amount  of  concentrates  used  for  each  100  pounds  of  milk  was  26 
pounds.  On  these  farms  the  net  return  per  cow  was  $54  larger  than 
on  those  where  the  heavier  grain  rations  were  fed. 


Farm  Tenancy  Increasing  in  Wisconsin 

ESS  FARM  tenancy  is  found  in  Wisconsin  than  in  any  of  the 


bordering  states.  For  the  state  as  a whole  the  amount  of 


tenancy  is  about  14  per  cent,  a very  large  part  of  which  is 
found  in  the  southern  and  eastern  counties.  In  some  of  the  southern 
counties  the  tenancy  runs  above  30  per  cent  while  in  some  of  those 
in  the  extreme  north  it  falls  below  5 per  cent.  On  the  whole,  there 
is  a very  slight  but  gradual  increase  in  farm  tenancy  in  the  state, 
most  of  which  seems  to  occur  in  counties  where  the  percentage  is 
already  high. 

A recent  study  directed  by  B.  H.  Hibbard  (Agricultural  Economics) 
covering  farms  in  Green,  Rock,  and  Jackson  counties  shows  some 
interesting  facts.  The  investigation  showed  that  in  all  of  these 
counties  the  owned  farms  were  smaller  than  the  tenant  farms,  but 


98 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


the  tenant  farms  showed  the  larger  proportion  of  tilled  land,  while 
the  owned  farms  had  the  larger  proportion  of  pasture. 

Over  a period  of  ten  years  it  was  found  that  70  per  cent  of  the 
owned  farms  had  made  important  improvements  at  an  average  value 
of  $1,119;  while  on  the  57  per  cent  of  the  tenant  farms,  on  which  such 
improvements  were  made,  only  $526  were  spent  on  an  average.  Less 
than  two-fifths  as  much  improvement  was  being  made  on  tenant  farms 
as  on  owned  farms. 

In  the  Green-Rock  counties  district  the  tenants  owned  almost  as 
many  automobiles  and  10  per  cent  more  tractors  than  were  found 
among  the  land  owning  farmers.  But  in  Jackson  county  the  tenants 
owned  relatively  only  about  four-fifths  as  many  of  each. 

As  in  other  surv.eys  made,  it  appears  from  this  study  that  about 
46  per  cent  of  the  tenants  are  relatives  of  the  landlord  and  that  in 
both  these  districts  tenancy  in  most  cases  is  merely  a step  toward 
land  ownership. 

Fertilizer  Needs  of  Soils  determined  by  Greenhouse  Tests 

—— — * ’ ’ soils  of  unglaciated  southwestern  Wisconsin 


iviiumgciu  tu  uue  level  and  undulating  sands,  loams,  and  clays  of 
the  north,  a great  variety  of  soil  types  is  found.  In  so  wide  a range 
of  soils  there  naturally  exists  a great  variety  of  soil  problems.  To 
determine  more  definitely  the  fertilizer  needs  of  various  Wisconsin 
localities,  26  different  soils  from  17  counties  of  the  state  were  studied 
during  the  past  year  under  the  direction  of  E.  Truog  (Soils). 

Chemical  analysis  and  greenhouse  tests  were  made.  The  soils  were 
placed  in  two-gallon  jars  and  treated  with  lime  and  fertilizer,  both 
singly  and  in  various  combinations,  and  alfalfa  was  sown  in  all  of 
the  jars.  With  the  proper  treatment,  it  was  possible  to  make  alfalfa 
grow  luxuriantly  on  all  of  the  soils,  which  varied  from  non-acid  to 
very  strongly  acid.  How  they  responded  to  liming  is  shown  by  the 
following  data: 

(a)  Three  non-acid  soils — none  responded  to  lime, 

(b)  Two  very  slightly  acid  soils — none  responded  to  lime, 

(c)  Six  slightly  acid  soils — three  responded  to  lime  and  three  did 

not, 

(d)  Six  medium  acid  soils — all  responded  to  lime, 

(e)  Six  strongly  acid  soils — all  responded  to  lime, 

(f)  Three  very  strongly  acid  soils — all  responded  to  lime. 

The  results  indicate  that  when  a soil  is  not  acid  or  only  very 
slightly  acid,  lime  is  usually  not  needed  even  though  the  alfalfa 
plant  is  extremely  high  in  lime  requirement.  If  soil  is  slightly  acid, 
however,  lime  must  be  used  to  obtain  best  results  unless  the  soil  is 
very  high  in  fertility.  When  soil  is  more  than  slightly  acid,  lime 
should  always  be  used  for  growing  this  crop. 

As  shown  in  the  following  list,  most  *of  the  26  soils  also  responded 
to  treatment  of  phosphate  and  potash  fertilizers. 


region  which  lies  along  the  shore  of  Lake 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


99 


(a)  Seven  responded  to  phosphate  alone, 

(b)  Three  responded  to  potash  alone, 

(c)  Eight  responded  to  a combination  of  potash  and  phosphate, 

(d)  Eight  did  not  respond  to  either. 

Of  the  eight  soils  which  responded  neither  to  phosphate  nor  to 
potash,  seven  responded  to  lime  leaving  only  one  of  the  26  which  did 
not  respond  to  some  treatment.  Since  alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  exact- 
ing crops  in  regard  to  its  lime  requirements  and  fertilizer  needs, 
these  results  emphasize  the  fact  that  proper  soil  treatment  should 
precede  the  seeding  of  this  crop. 

Methods  of  Applying  Fertilizers 

FERTILIZER  research  has  been  carried  on  for  several  years 
through  fellowships  established  by  the  National  Fertilizer  Asso- 
ciation, and  during  the  past  year  H.  J.  Harper,  working  with 
E.  Truog  (Soils),  has  been  successful  in  obtaining  some  notable 
increases  with  oats  by  means  of  fertilizer  treatment.  It  was  found 
that  small  amounts  of  fertilizers  give  better  results  when  applied 
in  the  drill  row  than  when  applied  broadcast.  In  the  case  of  oats 
maturity  was  appreciably  hastened  by  the  use  of  phosphate  and 
potash.  Studies  of  the  effect  of  hill  application  of  fertilizer  with  corn 
on  the  root  development  have  also  been  made.  When  the  soil  was 
washed  away  from  a number  of  hills  of  corn,  it  was  found  that  the  use 
of  fertilizer  in  this  way  did  not  restrict  growth  either  in  amount  or 
extent — in  fact,  it  usually  causes  an  increase  in  the  root  development. 

Investigations  as  to  why  some  plants  such  as  potatoes  are  easily 
prevented  from  coming  up  when  fertilizers  are  applied  in  certain 
ways  while  other  plants  like  corn  are  not  so  easily  affected,  have 
been  undertaken  by  O.  C.  Magistad  under  direction  of  E.  Truog 
(Soils).  He  has  found  that  the  osmotic  pressure  of  the  juice  of 
potato  sprouts  and  certain  other  sprouts  is  very  low  compared  to  that 
of  the  sprouts  of  corn.  It  is  possible,  therefore,  for  fertilizer  in  con- 
tact with  potato  sprouts  to  draw  the  water  out  of  them  and  cause 
them  to  dry  up.  Corn  sprouts  are  not  nearly  so  easily  affected.  This 
indicates  that,  in  the  case  of  potatoes,  fertilizer  should  not  be  applied 
directly  over  the  seed  in  large  amounts,  but  rather  it  should  be 
mixed  with  the  soil,  and  it  would  probably  be  better  to  apply  it 
along  both  sides  of  the  row  rather  than  near  the  seed  unless  the 
application  is  made  broadcast,  which  is  probably  most  satisfactory. 

In  this  connection  a study  of  the  effect  of  fertilizer  in  increasing 
the  salt  concentration  and  the  osmotic  pressure  of  the  corn  sap  and 
its  relation  to  freezing  has  been  made.  It  has  been  found  that  the 
use  of  fertilizer  in  the  hill  may  increase  the  salt  concentration  of  the 
corn  sap  sufficiently  to  enable  it  to  withstand  a lower  temperature 
than  the  unfertilized  corn. 


100 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


[ 


Spots  on  Alfalfa  Leaves  May  Mean  “Potash  Starvation” 


IN  THE  study  of  these  26  Wisconsin  soils,  the  greenhouse  tests  I 
indicated  that  very  frequently  potash  was  the  limiting  factor  in 
alfalfa  growth;  and  where  this  condition  obtained,  characteristic  I 
white  spots  appeared  first  along  the  border  of  some  of  the  leaves 
and  later  spread  over  nearly  the  whole  leaf,  which  then  became  yellow 
in  color.  These  markings  showed  a distinct  pattern-like  appearance 
and  cannot  be  confused  with  white  spots  upon  the  leaves  from 
other  causes. 

This  discovery  was  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  Extension 
Service  workers  so  that  they  might  make  observations  of  the  alfalfa  | 


/ 


FIG.  4 4. — ALFALFA  LEAVES  SHOW  POTASH  DEFICIENCY 


Potash  is  frequently  a limiting-  factor  in  growing  alfalfa 
this  condition  brings  about  the  characteristic  spotting  of  the 
shown  above.  6 


and  often 
leaves  as 


fields  in  the  state  to  determine,  if  possible,  whether  other  indications 
of  “potash  starvation”  could  be  found.  As  a result  of  this  work,  a 
number  of  cases  have  been  reported,  which  seem  to  show  that  it  is 
probable,  potash  is  very  frequently  a limiting  factor  in  the  produc- 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


101 


FIG.  45. — ACID  PHOSPHATE  IMPROVES  CORN  CROP 


102 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


tion  of  the  alfalfa  crop.  The  greenhouse  trials  on  this  work  seem 
to  be  very  definite  and  conclusive,  but  a wider  field  experience  will 
settle  this  question  with  more  finality.  For  the  present  these  symptoms 
on  the  leaves  may  possibly  serve  as  a method  of  detecting  the  lack 
of  available  potash  in  our  soil. 


Phosphate  Fertilizers  Produce  Well  at  Ashland 

IN  EXPERIMENTS  conducted  on  a large  number  of  plots  with 
corn,  barley,  oats,  and  clover  rotations,  and  on  rutabagas  at  the 
Ashland  Station  by  the  Soils  department,  the  work  of  the  past  year 
has  verified  .earlier  findings  in  regard  to  the  beneficial  effects  of 
phosphate  fertilizers.  In  oats,  increases  of  nearly  10  bushels  per 
acre  were  obtained  in  some  of  the  plots  where  phosphate  fertilizers 
were  applied  in  combination  with  manure,  and  a gain  of  five  bushels 
per  acre  resulted  from  the  use  of  manure  alone  at  the  rate  of  10 
tons  per  acre.  In  the  case  of  clovers  even  more  striking  differences 


FIG.  46.— ALFALFA  ON  SANDY  SOIL,  MEDIUM  ACID,  AND  LOW  IN 

PHOSPHORUS 

Alfalfa  responded  to  lime,  phosphorus,  and  potassium: 

281  ^reatr^o?tL  283  Phosphorus,  284  potassium,  286  phosphorus 
and  potassium,  288  lime,  292  lime  and  phosphorus  and  potassium. 


were  obtained;  manure  and  acid  phosphate  showed  an  increase  of  546 
pounds  per  acre  over  the  check  plots,  while  plant  residues  and 
rock  phosphate  increased  the  yield  nearly  1,100  pounds  per  acre. 

Rutabagas  require  large  amounts  of  phosphates  for  successful 
development,  and  for  that  reason  this  crop  is  very  frequently  used 
to  determine  the  phosphatic  needs  of  the  soil.  In  past  years  this 
crop  has  been  grown  as  a substitute  for  corn  at  the  Ashland  Station 
on  account  of  the  high  yield  and  excellent  quality  of  the  roots 
obtained.  It  has  been  found  to  be  a much  more  dependable  crop  than 
corn,  and  its  yields  are  as  a rule  about  twice  as  large  on  a given 
acreage.  In  fertilizer  trials  the  response  of  the  rutabaga  crop  to 
various  treatments  was  rather  striking,  the  yield  in  some  cases  being 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


103 


increased  more  than  50  per  cent  over  that  of  the  untreated  plots. 
The  following  table  shows  the  average  result  obtained  with  the 
rutabaga  crop  under  various  fertilizer  treatments. 


Treatment 

Rutabagas 
2-year  average 

Plant  residues  and  acid  phds.  400  lbs 

21,590 

27,310 

23,454 

18,020 

10  tons'  manure  and  am'd  phns.  400  lhs 

Manure  __  

No  fertilizer __  _ _ _ 

Why  Some  Soils  Become  More  Acid  Than  Others 

UPLAND  soils  on  weathering  become  acid  because  the  bases, 
such  as  calcium  and  magnesium,  are  leached  away  more  rapidly 
than  the  acids,  and  some  of  our  soils  have  become  much  more 
| acid  than  others  even  though  they  have  not  undergone  a greater 
: degree  of  weathering.  It  was  thought  that  the  reason  for  this  might 

be  due  to  the  fact  that  some  minerals  on  weathering  leave  much 
more  acid  residues  than  others;  and  therefore  the  amount  of  acidity 
which  developed  in  a soil  might  be  dependent  largely  on  the  relative 
amounts  of  the  various  minerals  present  in  the  rock  from  which  the 
particular  soil  was  formed.  Investigations  have  been  carried  on 
during  the  past  year  by  C.  D.,  S’amuels  under  E.  Truog  (Soils)  in 
order  to  determine  this  fact. 

In  this  work  ten  different  minerals  were  ground  to  a fineness  wh,ere 
they  would  pass  through  a 100-mesh  sieve;  and  then  weathered  and 
leached  by  treating  them  with  carbonated  water  for  42  days.  The 
amount  of  material  dissolved  in  this  process  was  determined  every 
two  days  by  filtering  and  evaporating  the  solution,  then  weighing 
There  was  a distinct  difference  in  the  acidity  of  the  residues  from 
the  dissolved  residues.  By  placing  litmus  paper  in  contact  with 
the  minerals  left  after  the  extraction,  the  point  at  which  materials 
became  acid  was  noted;  and  the  acidity  of  the  residue  was  also  de- 
termined by  means  of  the  Truog  test  and  the  hydrogen  electrode, 
the  various  minerals,  and  from  this  it  has  been  concluded  that  the 
original  make-up  of  the  soils  is  an  important  factor  in  determining 
the  strength  of  the  acid  formed  on  leaching.  The  results  indicate 
merely  that  one  of  the  reasons  why  some  soils  become  much  more 
acid  than  others  is  the  larger  proportion  of  certain  minerals  which 
they  originally  contained.  The  micas  muscovite  and  biotite  are 
abundant  in  some  soils  and  weather  rapidly  into  distinctly  acid  resi- 
dues, which  may  account  for  the  high  acidity  of  such  soils. 

In  four  different  upland  soils  where  the  organic  matter  was  removed 
by  treating  them  with  hydrogen  peroxide,  it  was  found  that,  after  the 
removal  of  the  organic  matter,  the  soils  showed  an  even  greater  degree 


104 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


of  acidity  than  before,  which  indicates  that  the  acidity  of  upland  soils 
is  largely  due  to  mineral  acids  rather  than  to  organic  residues. 

r 

A Comparison  of  Soil  Acidity  Methods. — A comparison  of  three  dif- 
ferent methods  of  testing  acidity — the  hydrogen  electrode,  the  sugar 
inversion  method,  and  the  Truog  Test — was  made  on  forty-two  differ- 
ent soils  by  F.  W.  Parker  and  O.  C>  Bryan  (Soils).  The  results  indi- 


FIG.  47. — ALFALFA  ON  A BLACK  SILT  LOAM,  STRONGLY  ACID,  AND  i 
LOW  IN  AVAILABLE  PHOSPHORUS 


Alfalfa  responded  to  ph'osphorus  and  lime.  Lime  alone  gives  no  in- 
crease, while  in  combination  with  phosphorus  it  gives  a marked  in- 
crease over  ph'osphorus  alone: 

240  no  treatment,  241  phosphorus,  242  potassium,  244  phosphorus  and 
potassium,  246  lime,  252  lime  and  phosphorus  and  potassium. 


cated  a fairly  good  correlation  between  the  three  methods  used.  The 
sugar  inversion  method  and  the  Truog  Test  correlated  better  than 
either  of  them  did  with  the  results  obtained  by  the  hydrogen  electrode,  ; 


Liming  Shows  Good  Results  at  Spooner 

CONTRARY  to  the  results  of  previous  years,  the  1922  hay  crop. 

both  first  and  second  cuts,  showed  decidedly  improved  yields  i 
at  the  S’pooner  Station  where  liming  was  practiced.  In  some  J 
of  the  plots  the  lime  areas  showed  increases  of  over  50  per  cent  over 
the  unlimed;  and  on  an  average  all  of  the  limed  land  produced  over  30 
per  cent  more  hay  per  acre  than  the  unlimed  areas. 

One  of  the  striking  things  exhibited  in  these  liming  experiments  was 
the  fact  that  weeds  early  gained  a foothold  on  the  unlimed  land-  As 
the  alfalfa  becomes  weakened  through  unfavorable  conditions,  it  read- 
ily yields  to  the  encroachments  of  the  weeds  which  are  competing 
with  it.  While  no  exact  data  are  available,  the  best  estimate  placed 
the  percentage  of  weeds  in  the  unlimed  alfalfa  hay  at  about  15  per 
cent,  which  shows  that  lime  in  this  case  influenced  the  quality  as  well 
as  the  quantity  of  the  crop. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


105 


Fertilizer  Work  at  Spooner 

GENERAL  fertilizer  work  has  been  carried  on  at  Spooner  since 
1917  under  the  direction  of  F.  L.  Musbach  and  A.  R.  Whitson 
(Soils  Department);  and  in  the  six  years  of  work  considerable 
organic  matter  in  the  form  of  green  manure  crop  has  been  added  to 
a soil  which  was  originally  low  in  this  essential  substance.  In  fact, 
this  sandy  soil  has  been  supplied  with  organic  matter  to  such  an  extent 
that  at  present  the  yelds  of  crops  are  not  markedly  increased  by  the 
use  of  stable  manure  or  manure  reinforced  with  commercial  fertilizers. 

In  the  past  year  a supplementing  of  manure  with  varying  amounts  of 
phosphates  has  not  shown  profitable  increases  on  the  light  soil  at 
Spooner,  and  manure  alone  in  some  cases  yielded  more  than  the  plots 


FIG.  4 9. — AEROPLANE  VIEW  OF  MARSHFIELD  BRANCH  STATION 
(FARM  NO.  2)  SHOWING  EXPERIMENTAL  PLOTS 

On  the  right  of  the  highway  the  plots  of  farm  No.  1 of  the  Marsh- 
field Station  are  shown.  Upward  of  600  plots  devoted  to  experimenta- 
tion in  soils  and  crops  are  found  on  farms  No.  1 and  2. 


on  which  a combination  of  fertilizers  was  used.  This  is  doubtless  due 
to  the  unusually  high  content  of  phosphorus  in  the  manure  coming 
from  the  feeding  of  more  concentrates  high  in  that  element  than  the 
ordinary  farmer  feeds. 

I Observations  of  the  work  at  Spooner  indicate  that  distributing  fer- 
tilizer over  two  crops  instead  of  one  shows  consistent  increases  in 
yields;  and  as  the  work  continues  it  is  expected  that  the  distribution 
of  phosphate  fertilizers  over  two  crops  will  be  found  good  practice. 


106 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


How  Can  Stable  Manure  Be  Best  Utilized 

OUESTIONS  in  regard  to  the  rate  of  application,  the  place  in  the 
rotation,  and  the  best  method  of  applying  barnyard  manure  as 
a fertilizer  are  often  asked.  In  order  to  find  satisfactory  an- 
swers to  some  of  these  questions  as  they  may  apply  to  the  sandy  loams 
in  some  parts  of  the  state,  experimental  work  was  begun  in  1918  at 
the  Spooner  Branch  Station.  Compilation  by  Messrs.  Musbach  and 
Whitson  of  the  results  for  several  years  show  that  top  dressing  is  a 
slightly  better  practice  than  plowing  under.  When  manure  was  applied 
to  corn  ground  and  thoroughly  disked  in,  the  following  results  were 
obtained. 


Rye 

Treatment  with  yard  manure 

Corn 

Hay 

1920-21 

' 1921  . 

1920-22 

1922 

- 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Lbs. 

9 T.  plowed  under 

19.40 

21.27 

44.68 

1589.0 

9 T.  top  dressed 

21.37 

23.40 

| 

46.51 

1621.6 

Green  Manuring  Alone  Does  Not  Maintain  Fertility 

THAT  green  manuring  alone  is  not  sufficient  to  maintain  the 
yields  of  crops  grown  was  demonstrated  in  recent  years  in  ex- 
perimental work  at  the  Spooner  Branch  Station.  In  these  trials 
neither  stable  manure  nor  commercial  fertilizers  were  used  since  the 
work  was  begun  in  1914,  and  a rotation  of  corn,  oats,  potatoes,  and 
clover  was  used.  Green  manuring  crops,  such  as  lupine  and  sand  vetch 
between  the  rows  of  corn  and  potatoes,  soybeans  alternated  with  corn 
and  followed  by  clov,er  after  potatoes,  and  serradella  alternated  with 
corn  and  seeded  to  rye  after  the  potato  harvest,  were  tried  over  a 
period  of  years.  The  results  of  the  work  in  1922  show  that  all  of  the 
plots  hav,e  fallen  off  considerably  in  yield  from  the  average  of  the 
four  preceding  years.  While  green  manure  can  be  used  to  make  the 
fertility  in  the  soil  more  rapidly  available  to  the  crops  grown,  the 
results  of  these  experiments  indicate  that  the  practice  in  itself  is  en- 
tirely insufficient  .to  maintain  crop  yields  on  this  soil  type  over  a long 
period  of  time. 


Deep  Tillage  Trials  at  Ashland 

EXPERIMENTS’  at  the  Ashland  Station  for  several  years  have 
shown  that  deep  tillage  increases  slightly  the  yields  obtained 
from  most  crops,  but  the  difference  produced  by  this  treatment 
is  not  enough  to  make  it  profitable.  The  cost  of  applying  such  treat- 
ment is  too  high,  and  the  returns  this  year  corroborate  those  reported 
earlier  that  make  it  inadvisable  to  advocate  this  method.1 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


107 


The  result  of  trials  for  several  years  is  that  fall  plowing  to  a depth 
of  6 or  7 inches  is  the  most  satisfactory  practice  in  the  long  run;  and 
on  the  heavy  soils  in  that  section  of  the  state  this  practice  is  recom- 
mended. 


PIG.  50.— MANURED  AND  PHOSPHATED  PLOT  AT  THE  SPOONER 

STATION 

Limed  plot  yielded  4563  pounds  and  the  unlimed  2893  pounds. 


Managing  Sandy  Soils  at  Hancock 

IN  VIEW  of  the  fact  that  about  one-fifth  of  the  total  soil  area  of 
Wisconsin  is  of  a more  or  less  sandy  nature,  the  problems  con- 
nected with  the  farming  of  these  light  soils  become  increasingly 
important  as  more  and  more  of  this  land  is  brought  under  cultivation. 
The  Hancock  Branch  Station  was  established  in  the  sandy  section  of 
the  state  in  1917  for  the  purpose  of  determining  which  crops,  fertilizers, 
and  cultural  practices  are  most  suitable  for  such  land.  Continued 
studies  of  these  problems  have  been  made  during  the  past  year  by  A 
R.  Whitson  and  A.  R.  Albert  (Soils)  with  special  reference  to  crops 
and  fertilizers  needed  on  the  sandy  soils  at  Hancock. 

Fertilizer  and  lime  trials  were  conducted  with  a three-year  rotation  of 
corn,  rye,  and  clover  or  soybeans.  It  was  found  that  on  these  light 
soils  the  plowing  und,er  of  manure  for  corn,  rye,  and  soybeans  was  most 
satisfactory;  while  top  dressing  seemed  to  produce  a higher  yield  in 
clover.  An  application  of  eight  tons  plowed  under  for  corn  increased 
the  yield  19.3  bushels  per  acre  over  untreated  plots;  the  gain  in  rye 
was  4.4  bushels  and  in  hay  319  pounds  per  acre.  At  current  prices  the 
increase  obtained  from  the  manure  over  a three-year  period  is  valued 
at  $16,  which  makes  a return  of  $2  for  each  ton  of  manure  applied. 

Studies  to  determine  the  relative  needs  of  different  plant  food  ele- 
ments showed  that  available  potash  and  nitrogen  are  lacking  and 


108 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


that,  when  commercial  fertilizers  are  substituted  for  stable  manure,  it 
is  essential  that  these  elements  be  supplied.  Whether  it  is  profitable 
to  supply  potash  fertilizers  in  addition  to  manure  has  not  yet  been 
determined,  but  the  addition  of  phosphates  has  produced  small  but 
consistent  crop  increases.  The  method  of  application  of  commercial 
fertilizers  does  not  seem  to  make  any  appreciable  difference.  Beneficial 
results  were  also  obtained  by  the  use  of  lime,  but  the  influence  of  an 
application  of  one  ton  per  acre  seems  to  be  almost  as  effective  as 
larger  applications  on  these  sandy  soils  for  clover. 

Crops  for  Sandy  Soils. — That  alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  successful 
crops  on  these  sandy  soils  when  properly  managed  has  been  amply 
demonstrated.  The  1922  yield  of  this  crop  on  land  seeded  four  years 
ago  was  5,300  pounds  of  hay  per  acre  in  two  cuttings,  and  on  fields 
seeded  three  years  ago  the  average  yield  was  4,700  pounds  per  acre. 
Alfalfa,  however,  requires  heavier  applications  of  limestone  than  other 
legumes;  and,  in  addition,  it  should  be  manured  or  treated  with  phos- 
phate and  potash  fertilizer.  Potatoes  or  corn  should  follow  alfalfa  in 
the  rotation;  and,  after  cropping  the  fields  for  one  year,  it  should  be 
re-seeded  to  alfalfa.  This  practice  does  not  permit  a constant  three- 
year  rotation  in  all  fields,  so  that  the  retention  of  clover  or  soybeans, 
in  rotation  with  corn  and  rye  on  the  main  fields  of  the  farm  seems  de- 
sirable. Potatoes  should  only  be  grown  on  the  better  portions  of  the 
sandy  areas,  and  it  is  necessary  that  the  crop  be  well  fertilized.  When 
grown  after  alfalfa,  the  potato  crop  provides  excellent  opportunity  for 
the  preparation  of  the  ground  for  re-seeding  to  alfalfa. 

Progress  of  the  Soil  Survey 

IN  TWENTY-SIX  Wisconsin  counties  the  field  work  of  a detailed 
soil  survey  has  been  completed,  and  work  in  the  two  additional 
counties  of  Pierce  and  Monroe  is  now  in  progress.  A general 
reconnaissance  survey  to  assist  primarily  in  land  settlement  was  com- 
pleted several  years  ago,  and  the  next  step  in  the  work  will  be  to 
complete  the  detailed  survey  by  counties  as  rapidly  as  this  work  can 
be  conducted.  During  the  field  season  of  1922,  a total  of  761  square 
miles  have  been  mapped. 

During  the  past  year  some  new  phases  have  been  stressed  in  addi- 
tion to  the  usual  system  of  soil  mapping,  which  has  been  in  progress 
since  this  work  began.  Much  attention  has  been  given  to  topography, 
because  it  is  one  of  the  determining  factors  in  farm  operations  and  in 
the  value  of  farm  lands.  A considerable  number  of  calcium  and  mag- 
nesium determinations  covering  the  most  important  types  of  soil 
mapped  have  also  been  made  during  the  past  two  years,  and  sur- 
prising variation  in  total  calcium  content  of  the  soils  has  been  found. 
Most  of  the  heavier  types  of  silt  and  clay  loam  are  fairly  well  supplied 
with  lime.  The  amount  of  lime  in  the  silt  loams  of  central  and  northern 
parts  of  the  state,  such  as  Colby  silt  loam  and  the  Kennan  fine 
sandy  loam,  is  as  large  as  that  in  the  silt  loams  of  southwestern  Wis- 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


109 


consin  and  nearly  equal  to  that  in  the  southeastern  portion  of  the  state, 
while  certain  types  of  sandy  soil  and  fine  sandy  loam  derived  from 
members  of  the  Potsdam  sandstone  series  proved  to  be  very  low  in 
their  total  calcium  content,  there  being  in  many  cases  less  than  one- 
third  of  the  normal  amount  present.  This  information  will  be  very 
helpful  in  determining  the  needs  of  lime  as  a fertilizer. 

In  the  peat  soils  a remarkable  variation  in  the  lime  content  has 
also  been  found.  The  peats  from  the  southern  part  of  the  state  have 


FIG.  48.— THE  SOIL  SURVEY  NEARLY  COVERS  WISCONSIN 

Reconnaissance  survey  maps  are  available  of  the  northern  counties, 
and  detailed  maps  are  prepared  on  the  southern  counties  which  have 
been  surveyed. 


from  1.5  to  3 per  cent  of  total  calcium,  while  those  from  certain  areas 
in  central  and  northern  Wisconsin  are  as  low  as  0.1  per  cent.  In 
others  words  the  southern  peats  contain  ten  times  as  much  lime  as 
some  of  those  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  state. 


110 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


It  is  already  evident  from  this  work  that  the  total  content  of  the 
calcium  in  the  soil  must  be  considered  as  well  as  the  degree  of  acidity 
in  determining  the  amount  of  lim,e  that  should  be  applied.  The  in- 
formation regarding  the  lime  content  of  our  soil  will  doubtless  also  as- 
sist in  determining  the  need  for  lime  in  the  rations  of  animals  produced 
in  those  sections  of  the  state  in  which  the  soils  are  found  to  be  ex- 
ceptionally poor  in  calcium. 

As  a part  of  the  field  work  in  the  mapping  of  soils,  examination  of 
all  limestone  and  marl  deposits  which  are  likely  to  be  used  as  sources 
of  agricultural  lime  is  being  made.  Twenty-five  different  deposits  in 
Pierce  county  have  already  been  examined  in  an  effort  to  assist  the 
farmers  in  finding  sources  of  lime  which  will  reduce  the  cost  of 
hauling.  In  ord.er  to  make  the  soils  maps  of  the  greatest  possible 
usefulness  in  banks  and  schools  and  by  the  public  in  general,  a new 
legend  has  been  devised  whereby  the  data  can  be  summarized  upon  the 
map  itself. 

Deep  Ditches  and  More  Tile  for  Drainage 

ONSTRUCTION  of  drains  on  large  areas  of  marsh  land  in  central 


Wisconsin  was  begun  in  1901.  The  work  has  been  carried  on 


continuously  ever  since  that  time  and  is  still  in  progress.  Its 
importance  in  Wisconsin  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  prior  to  1920  over 
$4,600,000  has  been  expended  on  land  drainage  work  covering  almost 
800,000  acres.  The  object  of  this  work  is  largely  to  drain  the  peat, 
muck,  and  sandy  marsh  land  which  has  been  too  wet  for  farming.  The 
major  portion  of  it  has  been  done  in  Juneau,  Portage  and  Wood  coun- 


The total  area  of  swamp  lands  and  periodically  wet  lands  in*  Wiscon- 
sin that  could  be  drained  profitably  has  been  estimated  3,500,000  acres. 
The  redemption  of  this  area  or  such  of  it  as  is  suitable  for  agricultural 
purposes  can  only  be  accomplished  by  drainage;  in  many  places  con- 
struction of  roads  and  proper  sanitation  can  only  be  achieved  in  this 
way.  It  is  therefore  obvious  that  the  future  work  of  the  drainage  en- 
gineer will  be  one  of  increasing  importance  in  the  state. 

There  are  two  ways  to  drain  land.  Deep  outlet  ditches  will  do  the 
job  if  they  are  close  enough  together,  or  shallower  and  fewer  open 
ditches  will  do  it  if  supplemented  by  lines  of  tile  from  4 to  8 rods 
apart.  The  big  question  usually  is,  which  method  is  the  cheaper.  Ob- 
servations made  during  the  year  in  the  Portage  County  Drainage  dis- 
trict by  E.  R.  Jones,  O.  R.  Zeasman,  C.  Helwig,  and  S.  Norling*  (Agri- 
cultural Engineering)  indicate  that  peat  soils  with  a sandy  subsoil  can 
be  most  easily  drained  by  means  of  large  deep  ditches  which  may  be  as 
much  as  a mile  apart,  while  shallower  ditches  are  less  satisfactory  and 
must  in  nearly  all  cases  be  supplemented  by  tile.  Furthermore  it  is 
doubtful  if  the  expenditure  involved  in  tiling  can  be  justified  except 

♦In  cooperation  with  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


ties. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


111 


where  intensive  cropping  is  practiced.  Similar  results  were  also  ob- 
served in  the  Cranberry  Creek  and  the  Little  Yellow  drainage  districts 
in  Juneau  county. 

One  mile  of  open  ditch  6 feet  wide  at  the  bottom,  8 feet  d.eep,  and  22 
feet  wide  at  the  top  costs  about  $3,200,  which  is  about  five  dollars  an 
acre  when  distributed  over  a section  of  land.  Satisfactory  tiling  can- 
not be  done  at  so  low  a cost. 

As  a result  of  the  extensive  drainage  operations  in  Wisconsin,  en- 
gineers have  concluded  that  peat  and  sandy  marsh  lands  in  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  state  usually  can  be  drained  at  a reasonable  cost.  In 
the  district  examined  in  the  largest  marsh  areas  of  the  state  it  appears 
that  sufficient  returns  may  be  secured  from  properly  drained  marsh 
lands  to  justify  capital  expenditures  of  approximately  $15  per  acre  for 
main  outlet  ditches  spaced  from  y2  to  1 mile  apart  on  comparatively 
flat  land.  Such  expenditure  should  cover  also  the  construction  of 
border  or  diversion  ditches  which  are  necessary  to  intercept  seepage. 

The  peat  and  sandy  soils  of  this  region  do  not  become  overdrained 
nor  too  dry  on  account  of  deep  drainage,  as  is  sometimes  believed.  The 
opposite  of  this,  rather,  has  been  observed.  Shallow  drainage  during 
the  early  part  of  the  growing  season  prevents  plant  roots  growing  to 
a proper  depth  to  sustain  growth  during  the  later  dry  periods.  No 
cases  have  been  found  where  shallow  drains  afforded  good  drainage, 
but  all  observations  indicate  that  drains  deep  enough  to  keep  the 
groundwater  4 to  6 feet  or  more  below  the  surface  are  necessary. 
Finally,  an  all  important  matter  in  connection  with  drainage  work  is 
maintenance.  After  drainage  ditches  and  outlets  are  constructed,  they 
must  be  kept  in  condition  to  operate.  Full  responsibility  for  maintain- 
ing drainage  should  be  given  the  drainage  districts,  and  definite  meth- 
ods should  be  established  for  doing  this  work. 


Drain  Tile  Investigations 

OBSERVATIONS  by  E.  R.  Jones  and  O.  R.  Zeasman  (Agricultural 
Engineering)  have  been  continued  through  the  year  on  the 
subject  of  concrete  drain  tile.  As  the  methods  of  manufacture 
are  improved,  an  increasing  durability  in  concrete  tile  is  obtained. 
With  the  use  of  a cleaner  aggregate,  a wetter  and  richer  mixture,  firmer 
and  more  thorough  packing,  and  curing  in  a steam  room  for  a longer 
period  of  time,  a tile  of  greater  and  more  uniform  density,  reduced 
water  absorbing  capacity,  and  more  endurance  is  produced.  S'ome  fac- 
tories are  still  making  poor  concrete  tile. 

The  better  grades  of  concrete  tile  compare  favorably  with  good  shale 
tile.  The  severest  test  of  tile  is  where  it  is  placed  in  peat  soils.  Spec- 
imens of  good  concrete  tile  that  have  been  lying  for  two  years  in  the 
peat  of  the  University  Marsh  show  only  a trace  of  disintegration  at 
the  water  line  on  the  outside,  but  some  specimens  of  porous  concrete 
tile  showed  general  softening  after  only  one  year’s  contact  with  the 
peat.  In  clay  soils  or  clay  under  peat  it  has  been  shown  that  good 


112 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


concrete  tile  are  satisfactory,  which  makes  them  adapted  to  at  least 
75  per  cent  of  Wisconsin  lands  ready  for  drainage. 

The  problem  of  the  durability  of  soft,  porous,  laminated,  surface 
clay  tile  seems  to  be  equally  great.  Some  soft  clay  tile  laid  in  Wiscon- 
sin in  1856,  three  feet  under  ground,  are  still  in  good  condition.  It  is 
belieyed  that  their  state  of  preservation  is  due  to  their  freedom  from 
lamination.  Of  course,  they  froze  every  winter  but  they  were  always 
empty  when  they  froze  and  did  not  thaw  out  until  spring.  Further- 
more, they  wer.e  burned  with  a wood  fire  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

The  differefi.ee  between  the  dry  weight  and  the  wet  weight  of  a tile 
shows  its  absorption.  The  dry  weight  is  obtained  after  three  hours’ 
drying  in  a warm  oven.  The  wet  weight  is  found  by  weighing  im- 
mediately after  taking  from  water  in  which  the  tile  has  first  been 


(A)  (B) 

FIG.  51. — MANNER  OF  BREAKING  IS  TEST  OF  CONCRETE 

^In  good  concrete  tile  the  stones  must  break  clean,  (A)  while  in  the 
poorer  grades  they  often  are  stripped  out  of  the  aggregate  without 
breaking  (B). 


boiled  for  five  hours,  and  then  cooled.  Clay  or  shale  tile  that  absorb 
water  to  the  extent  of  more  than  14  per  cent  of  their  dry  weight  are 
undesirable  and  if  more  than  20  per  cent  their  life  is  short,  because 
frequent  freezing  and  thawing  will  quickly  cause  them  to  crumble. 
Concrete  tile  with  an  absorption  greater  than  7 per  cent  are  too  porous 
to  be  recommended,  particularly  in  peat  or  sand  under  peat. 

The  detection  of  poor  clay  or  shale  tile  is  relatively  easy,  because  it 
can  be  determined  by  scratching  the  surface  with  a nail  or  examining 
the  tile  walls  for  laminations.  If  the  surface  scratches  easily  or  if  there 
is  excessive  breakage  in  shipment,  it  may  be  concluded  that  the  tile 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


113 


is  too  soft.  Lamination  may  be  detected  by  an  attempt  to  split  the  tile 
walls  with  a knife. 

To  t.est  the  qualities  of  a concrete  tile  is  a somewhat  more  difficult 
problem.  One  test  is  to  break  the  tile  and  observe  whether  the  pebbles 
have  been  broken  squarely  or  whether  they  have  been  stripped  away 
from  the  cement.  If  they  do  not  break  squarely,  the  tile  is  probably  too 
weak  or  porous  for  use. 

The  agricultural  engineering  laboratory  tests  tile,  clay  or  concrete, 
for  any  farmer,  engineer,  or  dealer,  sent  to  the  laboratory,  freight  and 
express  prepaid,  with  a letter  giving  the  name  of  the  sender  and  the 
manufacturer.  Clay  tile  from  some  factories  have  shown  an  absorp- 
tion as  high  as  27.5  per  cent.  Some  concrete  tile  run  as  low  as  3.2 
per  cent  water  absorption,  thus  making  them  very  strong  and  service- 
able  while  others  from  the  same  factory  showed  over  13  per  cent  ab- 
sorption. When  an  owner  is  putting  in  a permanent  improvement  of 
this  character,  he  should  know  definitely  whether  his  tile  are  going 
to  stand  up  or  not.  A few  poor  ones  in  a batch  affect  the  value  of  the 
whole,  because  a line  of  tile  is  no  better  than  its  poorest  member. 

Brush  Plow  Improved  by  Staff  Engineers 

ONE  OF  THE  big  problems  in  upper  Wisconsin  is  that  of  bringing 
the  wild  land  under  cultivation  in  the  shortest  possible  time  as 
well  as  at  the  lowest  cost.  For  some  years  men  have  tried,  by 
means  of  grub  breaker  and  brush  plows,  to-  subdue  areas  where  the 
stumps  were  few  and  well  decayed  and  only  the  brush  remained  as  ail 
obstacle.  A need  of  suitable  equipment  exists,  however,  which  will 
adequately  handle  the  breaking  job  on  land  overgrown  with  brush  or 
filled  with  the  roots  and  stumpage  of  brush  that  has  been  removed- 
In  view  of  the  fact  that  any  method  which  will  help  to  reduce  the 
cost  of  putting  this  new  land  under  cultivation  must  mean  much  to  the 
state  of  Wisconsin  and  especially  to  the  farmers  in  the  northern  coun- 
ties, John  Swenehart  and  F.  W.  Duffee  (Agricultural  Engineering)  have 
continued  their  investigations  of  brush  plows  during  the  past  year. 

They  find  that  the  chief  difficulty  with  brush-breaking  plows  has  been 
that  roots  and  brush  accumulate  under  the  beam  and  throw  the  plow 
out  of  the  ground,  thereby  causing  much  waste  of  time,  and  a great 
deal  of  hard  work  must  be  undergone  in  order  to  free  the  plow  from 
these  obstacles.  All  of  the  plows  as  ordinarily  designed  have  beams 
set  directly  above  or  slightly  to  the  right  of  the  landside,  which  read- 
ily causes  the  accumulation  of  trash  against  the  beam  to  lift  the 
plow  out  of  the  ground  rather  than  being  forc.ed  under  with  the  furrow 
slice. 

In  order  to  obviate  this  difficulty  some  special  castings  were  designed, 
which  provide  an  offset  for  the  beam  to  the  left  side  of  the  plow.  This 
reduces  greatly  the  amount  of  brush,  roots,  and  trash  striking  the  plow 
and  piling  up  under  the  beam.  It  permits  the  space  directly  in  front 
of  and  above  the  plow  to  remain  relatively  free,  and  most  of  the 
brush  is  caught  and  turned  under  by  the  rolling  action  of  the  furrow 


114 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


slice.  A standing  cutter,  the  upper  end  of  which  curves  backward  and 
to  the  right  was  also  designed  to  further  overcome  the  difficulty.  This 
also  aids  in  rolling  the  brush  over  and  keeping  it  moving  so  that  it 
is  plowed  under  instead  of  accumulating  on  top. 

In  trials  conducted  under  extreme  field  conditions  near  Jump  River, 
Taylor  county,  where  poplar,  willow,  and  tag  alder  brush  were  heavier 
than  is  ordinarily  encountered  it  was  found  that  such  growth  under  15 
feet  high  did  not  cause  trouble  except  when  caught  squarely  on  the 
point  of  the  plow.  Poplar  trees  as  high  as  30  feet  caused  trouble  with 
the  tractor.  The  soil  was  a dry  silt  loam  with  considerable  stone, 
which  caused  trouble  with  the  traction  hut  seldom  interfered  with  the 
plow.  A 16-30  heavy  wheel  type  tractor  was  used.  Similar  results  w,ere 
obtained  at  Merrill  in  comparison  with  other  plows.  A table  of  the 
data  taken  at  Jump  River  follows: 


No.  clogs 

Time  loss 

Plow 

per  round 

percentage 

Job  done 

Sp.  No.  3 

2.5 

10 

Good 

Standard  No.  1 

10. 

48 

Poor 

Plow  Special  No.  3 was  specially  designed  by  the  College  staff.  The 
right  edge  of  the  beam  was  4-5  inches  to  the  left  edge  of  the  land 
side  and  8.5  inches  offset  from  the  original  position.  Clearance  from 
the  lower  edge  of  the  shar,e  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  beam  was  over  26 
inches,  which  is  approximately  that  of  standard  brush  breaker  plows. 
The  width  of  the  furrow  was  20  inches,  and  a special  cutter  was  used. 
The  work  of  this  plow  was  considerably  superior  to  that  of  Standard 
No.  1,  which  is  designed  and  sold  by  manufacturers  for  brushwork. 
With  the  specially  designed  plow  there  was  a remarkable  reduction  in 
the  number  of  clogs  and  the  consequent  time  losses,  and  the  resulting 
job  was  much  more  satisfactory.  When  clogging  did  occur,  it  was 
found  that  the  accumulated  material  was  removed  more  readily  with 
the  offset  beam  and  wing  cutter;  in  many  cases  necessitating  only  the 
backing  up  of  the  plow  in  order  to  give  the  accumulation  a chance  to 
be  thrown  out  when  the  plow  was  again  pulled  forward. 

Dynamometer  tests  with  this  outfit  indicate  that  draw  bar  pulls  of 
2,500  to  3,000  pounds  are  frequent,  and  that  pulls  of  over  4,000  pounds 
are  often  needed  to  pull  the  plows  through  cradle  knolls  and  large 
brush  stubble.  This  means  that  at  least  8 good  draft  horses  or  equiv- 
alent pulling  power  would  be  required  to  handle  an  outfit.  In  case 
horses  were  employed,  however,  it  might  be  necessary  to  remove  the 
brush  which  a heavy  tractor  is  able  to  knock  down. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


115 


Clearance  under  the  beam 
which  is  so  important  in  pre- 
venting clogging  has  been  in- 
creased in  the  perfected  plow. 


The  plow  and  standard  of 
the  perfected  machine  are  set 
to  the  right  of  the.  line  of  the 
original  beam. 


Clogging  with  the  old  type 
of  plow  was  common,  result- 
ing in  considerable  loss  of 
time. 


A good  job  of  turning  un- 
der brush  and  small  trees. 


If  the  tractor  can  break 
down  the  second  growth 
trees,  they  seldom  interfere 
with  the  plow  though  they 
may  be  15  to  30  feet  high. 


116 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


Marsh  Plowing  With  Tractors 


FOLLOWING  the  development  of  the  marsh  plow,  some  investiga- 
tions and  observations  have  been  made  regarding  tractor  sizes 
and  lug  equipment  for  this  work  by  F.  W.  Duffee  (Agricultural 
Engineering).  The  20-inch  plow,  which  is  most  commonly  used  for 
marsh  plowing,  usually  requires  a 12  to  15  horse  power  draw  bar  rating 
in  the  tractor.  In  practically  all  cases  it  was  found  that  tractors 
weighing  from  4,500  to  6,000  pounds  operated  most  satisfactorily.  The 
small  light  weight  two-plow  tractors  frequently  do  good  work  with  a 
16-inch  plow. 

Where  wheel  tractors  are  used,  the  rear  wheels  should  be  at  least 
20  inches  wide,  and  a 24-inch  width  is  even  better,  especially  if  one 
wheel  runs  in  the  furrow.  Angle  iron  lugs  at  least  3 inches  and  pref- 
erably 4 inches  in  width  have  been  found  most  satisfactory.  Several 
tractors  equipped  with  spade  lugs  were  tried  out,  but  failed  entirely; 
and,  when  the  same  machines  were  equipped  with  angle  iron  lugs,  they 
operated  very  successfully. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  equip  the  front  wheels  with  extra  ex- 
tension rims;  and,  if  the  land  is  very  boggy,  a good  clearance  under 
the  tractor  is  also  required. 

Worn  Parts  Greatly  Increase  Mower  Draft 

HAT  a dull  mower  pulls  harder  than  a sharp  one  is  well  known, 


but  that  the  amount  of  increased  draft  is  greater  than  has  been 


supposed  is  shown  by  experimental  work  conducted  by  F.  W. 
Duffee  (Agricultural  Engineering).  The  study  has  shown  that  a two- 
horse  mower  requires  the  power  of  three  horses  when  it  is  extremely 
dull  or  when  some  of  the  cutting  parts  are  badly  worn;  while  two 
horses  may  pull  such  a machine,  they  are  subjected  to  an  undue  strain. 

A mower  cuts  like  a pair  of  shears,  and  sharpening  the  cutting  edges 
is  only  one-half  of  the  problem,  for  in  order  to  work  properly  the  cut- 
ting parts,  the  section  of  the  knife  and  the  thin  steel  ledger  plate  of 
the  guard,  must  be  both  sharp  and  fit  together  closely.  The  knife  can 
be  ground  on  the  grindstone  or  emery,  but  the  ledger  plates,  when 
worn,  must  be  replaced.  If  the  wearing  plates  which  support  the  knife 
in  the  rear  are  worn  so  as  to  permit  the  points  of  the  section  to  be 
raised  from  the  ledger  plate,  poor  cutting  and  heavy  draft  will  result 
and  the  solution  lies  in  replacing  of  the  wearing  plate. 

In  this  work  an  old  5-foot  mower  was  used,  the  cutting  parts  of 
which  were  worn  so  badly  that  it  was  about  to  be  discarded  though 
all  the  gears  and  bearings  except  those  on  the  pitman  were  in  good 
condition.  The  cost  of  putting  this  mower  into  first-class  condition 
by  repairs  consisting  of  a new  pitman,  knife,  guard,  wearing  plate, 
clips,  and  knife  head  was  a little  over  $13.  This  shows  that  a small 
amount  of  money  and  a few  hours  of  work  will  make  a good  smooth- 
running, clean-cutting  mower  out  of  the  machine  that  was  hard  run- 
ning and  clogged  so  badly  that  it  was  about  ready  for  the  junk  heap. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


117 


PROPERLY  ADJUSTED 

Many  farm  machines  have  in  the  past  been  junked  when  a few  dollars 
invested  in  new  parts  would  have  added  years  to  their  service.  The  life 
of  a mowing  machine  is  in  the  cutting  parts.  Keeping  them  adjusted 
greatly  increases  smoothness  of  operation  and  length  of  usefulness. 
Curve  1 is  smooth  and  shows  the  light  steady  pull  of  a sharp  mower. 
Curve  2 shows  that  a worn  mower  is  a heavy  uneven  puller  and  that 
the  load  may  be  3 times  as  great  as  in  a properly  working  machine 


118 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


The  life  of  a mower  lies  largely  in  its  cutter  bar;  and  to  keep  it  in 
order  the  following  points  should  be  observed: 

1.  Keep  the  knife  sharp  and  the  sections  tight. 

2.  Keep  sharp  ledger  plates  in  the  guards. 

3.  Keep  guards  level  by  bending  or  shimming. 

4.  Replace  the  wearing  plates  when  they  become  so  worn  that  the 
tips  of  the  sections  no  longer  rest  on  the  ledger  plate. 

5.  Replace  the  knife  head  and  knife  head  guide  if  the  wear  cannot 
be  sufficiently  taken  up  when  they  become  worn. 

6.  Keep  the  clips  hammered  down  just  tight  enough  so  as  to  elim- 
inate play  and  avoid  binding. 

7.  Sections  should  center  at  the  extreme  ends  of  the  knife  stroke 
with  the  tongue  30  inches  from  the  ground. 

PUBLICATIONS 

The  Experiment  Station  in  1921-1922  published  11  new  popular  bul- 
letins and  3 reprints,  and  2 new  research  bulletins.  Thirteen  new  cir- 
culars and  9 reprints;  also  14  new  stencil  bulletins  were  issued  by  the 
Extension  Service. 

The  bulletins  are  listed  below: 

POPULAR  BULLETINS 

Bulletin  334. — Combat  Potato  Leafhopper  with  Bordeaux.  (J.  E. 
Dudley,  Jr.,  and  H.  F Wilson.)  History  of  the  leafhopper  and  control 
of  hopperburn  by  applications  of  bordeaux  mixture. 

Bulletin  335. — Judging  Dairy  Cattle.  (G.  C.  Humphrey.)  As  suc- 
cessful dairymen  are  usually  good  judges  of  dairy  cattle,  it  is  impor- 
tant for  all  men  to  acquire  this  art. 

Bulletin  336. — Farm  Poultry  Buildings.  (J.  G.  Halpin,  J.  B.  Hayes, 
and  O.  R.  Zeasman.)  Discussion  of  various  kinds  of  poultry  houses, 
with  drawings  of  certain  types. 

Bulletin  337. — Tobacco  in  Wisconsin.  (James  Johnson  and  C.  M. 
Slagg.)  This  bulletin  treats  of  types,  soils,  and  seed;  as  well  as  cul- 
tural, harvesting,  and  marketing  methods. 

Bulletin  338. — Winter  Care  of  Bees  in  Wisconsin.  (H.  F.  Wilson.) 
Loss  of  bees  during  wintering  is  the  most  serious  problem  among  state 
beekeepers,  but  this  can  be  prevented  by  proper  temperature,  good 
stores,  and  bees  of  correct  age. 

Bulletin  339. — New  Pages  in  Farming.  Annual  Report  of  the  Direc- 
tor 1920-1921.  (H.  L.  Russell  and  F.  B.  Morrison.)  A review  of  results 

secured  on  the  different  experimental  projects  conducted  at  the  Ex- 
periment Station. 

Bulletin  340. — Wisconsin  Oats.  (B.  D.  Leith  and  E.  J.  Delwiche.) 
As  the  leading  grain  crop  in  the  state,  the  culture  of  oats  deserves 
careful  attention. 

Bulletin  341. — The  Use  of  Fertilizers  on  Dairy  Farms.  (A.  R.  Whit 
son  and  Griffith  Richards.)  A thorough  discussion  of  fertilizers  to  be 
used  in  building  up  different  types  of  soil. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


119 


Bulletin  342. — Milk — the  Best  Food.  (H.  Steenbock  and  E.  B.  Hart.) 
Milk,  containing  fat-soluble,  water-soluble,  and  anti-scorbutic  vita- 
mines,  is  a perfect  food,  and  should  occupy  an  important  place  in  the 
daily  diet. 

Bulletin  343. — Johne’s  Disease.  (B.  A.  Beach  and  E.  G.  Hastings.) 
This  disease,  while  not  widespread  in  Wisconsin,  will  become  more 
and  more  common,  unless  due  consideration  is  given  it  by  the  cattle 
industry.  The  bulletin  serves  the  purpose  of  bringing  this  disease  to 
the  attention  of  cattle  men — both  buyers  and  sellers. 

Bulletin  344. — Better  Cherry  Yields.  (R.  H.  Roberts.)  Ways  and 
means  by  which  cherry  yields  can  be  increased. 

RESEARCH  BULLETINS 

Research  Bulletin  50. — Pump  Drainage  of  the  University  of  Wiscon- 
sin Marsh,  (G.  R.  B.  Elliott,  E.  R.  Jones,  and  O.  R.  Zeasman.)  A re- 
port of  ten  years’  experience  in  the  reclamation  of  a marsh  lower  than 
a lake  immediately  adjacent,  by  means  of  an  electrically  driven,  auto- 
matically controlled  pump. 

Research  Bulletin  51. — Rural  Primary  Groups.  (J.  H.  Kolb.)  A sur- 
vey of  Dane  county  of  the  first  grouping  beyond  the  family  which  has 
social  significance  and  which  is  conscious  of  some  local  unity. 

TECHNICAL  ARTICLES 

Much  of  the  technical  scientific  output  of  the  experiment  station 
staff  is  first  presented  to  the  scientific  public  through  the  medium 
of  the  science  periodicals  and  publications  of  scientific  societies. 
The  publication  of  such  matter  enables  our  workers  to  have  their 
results  scrutinized  by  their  scientific  colleagues.  The  following  ar- 
ticles have  been  published  during  the  past  year,  ending  June  30,  1922: 
Beach,  B.  A.  Control  of  roup  and  chickenpox.  Proc.  Wis.  Vet.  Med. 
Assn.  37-42.  1922. 

Beach,  B.  A.,  Hadley,  F.  B.,  and  Piper,  H.  B.  Tuberculosis  in  a Shet- 
land pony.  Jour.  Am.  Vet.  Med.  Assn.  60:600-605.  1922. 

Beach,  B.  A.,  and  Hastings,  E.  G.  Johne’s  disease  and  its  detection. 
Jour,  of  Inf.  Dis.  30:68-79.  1922. 

Brunkow,  O.  R.,  Peterson,  W.  H.,  and  Fred,  E.  B.  The  influence  of 
certain  factors  upon  the  chemical  composition  of  sauerkraut. 
Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Society.  43:  No.  10.  1921. 

Bryan,  O.  C.  Effect  of  different  reactions  on  the  growth  and  nodule 
formation  of  soy  beans.  Soil  Science.  13:217-302.  1922. 

Cole,  L.  J.  The  inbreeding  problem  in  the  light  of  recent  experi- 
mentation. Proc.  Am.  Soc.  Animal  Prod.  30-32.  1922. 

Dickson,  J.  G„  and  Johnson,  A.  G.  Wheat  scab  and  its  control. 

U.  S.  D.  A.  Farmers’  Bui.  1224.  1921. 

Fluke,  C.  L.  Syrphidae  of  Wisconsin.  Transactions  Wis.  Acad. 

Sciences,  Arts,  and  Letters.  20:215-253.  1922. 

Fred,  E.  B.,  and  Peterson,  W.  H.  The  production  of  pink  sauerkraut 
by  yeasts.  Jour.  Bact  7:257.  1922. 


120 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


Fred,  E.  B.,  Peterson,  W.  H.,  and  Anderson,  J.  A.  The  characteristics 
of  certain  pentose-destroying  bacteria,  especially  as  concerns 
their  action  on  arabinose  and  xylose.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  48:  No. 
2.  1921. 

Hadley,  F.  B.  Results  from  immunizing  cattle  against  contagious 
abortion.  Jour.  Am.  Yet.  Med.  Assn.  60:26-33.  1921. 

Hadley,  F.  B.  What  we  now  know  about  abortion.  Proc.  Wis.  Vet. 
Med.  Assn.  83-90.  1922. 

Hadley,  F.  B.  Minerals  for  livestock.  Vet.  Med.  17:160-162.  1922. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  Halpin,  J.  G.,  and  Steenbock,  H.  The  nutritional  require- 
ments of  baby  chicks.  II.  further  study  of  leg  weakness  in 
chickens.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  52:  No.  2.  1922. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  Steenbock,  H.,  and  Hoppert,  C.  A.  Dietary  factors  in- 
fluencing calcium  assimilation.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  48:33.  1921. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  and  Humphrey,  G.  C.  Can  home-grown  rations  supply 
proteins  of  adequate  quality  and  quantity  for  high  milk  produc- 
tion? III.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  48:305.  1921. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  Halpin,  J.  G.,  and  Steenbock,  H.  Nutrional  requirements 
of  baby  chicks.  II.  Further  study  of  leg  weakness  in  chickens. 
Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  52:379.  1922. 

Hastings,  E.  G.  Constant  temperature  rooms.  Jour.  Indust,  and 
Engin.  Chem.  13:1056.  1921. 

Hibbard,  B.  H.  Farm  tenancy  in  1920.  Jour.  Farm  Economics. 
3:168.  1921. 

Hillstrom,  Ellen.  The  need  for  recognizing  art  principles  in  the 
teaching  of  home  economics.  Jour.  Home  Economics.  14:  No.  2. 
1922. 

Hulce,  R.  S.,  Morrison,  F.  B.,  and  Humphrey,  G.  C.  Comparison  of 
rations  for  dairy  calves.  Record  of  Proceedings  of  Annual  Meet- 
ing of  Am.  Society  Animal  Production.  1922. 

Humphrey,  C.  J.,  Johnson,  A.  G.,  and  McKinney,  H.  H.  Take-all  of 
wheat  and  its  control..  U.  S.  D.  A.  Farmers’  Bui.  1226.  1921. 

Johnson,  A.  G.,  and  Dickson,  J.  G.  Wheat  scab  and  its  control. 
U.  S.  D.  A.  Farmers’  Bui.  1224.  1921. 

Johnson,  James.  The  relation  of  air  temperature  to  certain  plant 
disease.  Phytopath.  1 1 : 446-458.  1921. 

Johnson,  James.  Experimental  evidence  relating  to  the  nature  of 
the  mosaic  virus.  Phytopath.  (abstract)  22:26.  1922. 

Johnson,  James.  Non-parasitic  leaf-spots  of  tobacco.  Phytopath, 
(abstract)  22:26.  1922. 

Jones,  E.  R.  Drainage  Specifications.  Engin.  Society  of  Wis.  14th 
Annual  Report.  35-37.  1922. 

Jones,  E.  R.  Where  drainage  pays.  Tri-state  Development  Congress, 
2nd  Report.  1922. 

Jones,  L.  R.,  and  Doolittle,  S.  P.  Angular  leaf  spot  of  cucumber. 
Phytopath.  11:297-298.  1921. 

Jones,  L.  R.  Experimental  work  on  the  relation  of  soil  temperature 
to  disease  in  plants.  Wis.  Acad.  Sciences,  Arts,  and  Letters. 
20:433-459.  1922. 


Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms 


121 


Jones,  L.  R.,  and  Walker,  J.  C.  The  relation  of  soil  temperature  and 
other  factors  to  onion  smut  infection.  Jour.  Agr.  Res.  22:235- 
262.  1921. 

(Jones,  L.  R.,  and  Keitt,  G.  W.)  Eugene  Washburn  Roark.  The  Sep- 
toria  leaf  spot  of  rubus.  Phytopath.  11:328-333.  1921. 

Keitt,  G.  W.  Third  progress  report  on  apple  scab  and  its  control  in 
Wisconsin.  Phytopath.  12:54.  1922. 

Marlatt,  A.  L.  Collegiate  Training  of  Dietitians.  Jour.  Home  Eco- 
nomics. 14:  No.  2.  1922.  Also  in  The  Modern  Hospital. 

Morrison,  F.  B.,  Humphrey,  G.  C.,  and  Hulce,  R.  S.  Hydrolized  saw- 
dust for  dairy  cows.  Record  Proc.  Annual  Meeting  Am.  Soc.  Ani- 
mal Production.  1922. 

Morrison,  F.  B.,  and  Bohstedt,  G.  Linseed  meal  and  wheat  middlings 
versus  tankage  as  supplements  to  corn  for  pigs.  Record  Proc. 
Annual  Meeting  Am.  Soc.  Animal  Production.  1922. 

Parker,  F.  W.  The  classification  of  soil  moisture.  Soil  Science. 
13:43-54.  1922. 

Peterson,  W.  H.,  and  Fred,  E.  B.  Abnormal  fermentation  of  sauer- 
kraut. The  Canner.  Feb.  1922. 

Peterson,  W.  H.,  Fred,  E.  B.,  and  Verhulst,  J.  H.  A fermentation 
process  for  the  production  of  acetone,  alcohol,  and  volatile  acids 
from  corncobs.  Jour,  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chem. 

13:757.  1921. 

Sammis,  J.  L.  The  yield  and  composition  of  cheese  from  high  and 
low  testing  milk.  Annual  Report  Wis.  Cheese  Makers’  Assn. 
1922. 

Slagg,  C.  M.  Preliminary  report  on  a study  of  the  wildfire  disease  of 
tobacco.  Phytopath,  (abstract)  22:25.  1922. 

Steenbock,  H.,  Nelson,  E.  M.,  and  Hart,  E.  B.  Fat-soluble  vitamine 
IX.  The  incidence  of  an  ophthalmic  reaction  in  dogs  fed  a fat- 
soluble  vitamine  deficient  diet.  Am.  Jour.  Physiology.  58:14. 
1921. 

Steenbock,  H.,  Sell,  M.  T.,  and  Boutwell,  P.  W.  Fat-soluble  vitamine 
VIII.  The  fat-soluble  vitamine  content  of  peas  in  relation  to  their 
pigmentation.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  47:  No.  2.  1921. 

Swenehart,  John.  Progress  in  cut-over  land  reclamation.  Clover- 
land.  19:8.  1922. 

Swenehart,  John.  New  engineering  development  in  land  clearing. 
Agricultural  Engineering.  3:63-66.  1922. 

Swenehart^  John.  Picric  acid  as  an  agricultural  explosive.  Agri- 
cultural Engineering.  2:246-248.  1921. 

Tisdale,  W.  B.,  and  Jones,  F.  R.  Effect  of  soil  temperature  upon  the 
development  of  nodules  on  the  roots  of  certain  legumes.  Jour. 
Agr.  Res.  22:17-31.  1921. 

Tottingham,  W.  E.,  and  Rankin,  E.  J.  Nutrient  solutions  for  wheat. 
Am.  Jour.  Botany.  9:270-276.  1922. 

Truog,  E.  The  feeding  power  of  plants.  Science.  56:294-298.  1922. 

Wilson,  H.  F.  Relation  of  climate  to  beekeeping  manipulations. 
Jour.  Econ.  Ent.  15:143-146.  1922. 


122 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  352 


THE  WISCONSIN  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION,  IN  ACCOUNT  WITH 
THE  UNITED  STATES  APPROPRIATION. 


1921-1922 

Dr. 

Cr. 

To  receipt  from  treasurer  of  the  United  States,  as  per 
appropriation  for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1922,  under 
the  acts  of  Congress  approved  March  2,  1887,  and  March 
loofi  _ _ _ 

$30,000.00 

Py  salaries  . 

$17,285.77 
5,953.85 
22.61 
2.85 
752  10 
1,498.78 
194.03 
2,549.10 
60.04 
95.22 
1,383.20 
48.00 
134.95 
19.50 
$30,000.00 

By  labor 

Py  postage  and  stationery 

Ry  freight  and  express 

By  chemicals  and  laboratory  supplies 

Py  seeds,  plants  and  sundry  supplies 

Py  fertilizers 

Py  feeding  stuffs  ..... 

Py  tools,  machinery  and  appliances 

Py  furniture  and  fixtures 

By  scientific  apparatus  and  specimens 

By  live  stock 

Py  traveling  expenses 

By  contingent  expenses 

Total. 

$30,000.00 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  of  the  University  J.  A.  James,  Asst.  Dean 

H.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director  K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Exten- 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Sta  sion  Service, 

tion 


W.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus,  Agriculture 
S.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus,  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 


A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 
F.  A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 
R.  A.  Brink,  Genetics 

L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

E.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 
J.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 
J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 

E.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of 
Dairy  Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Entomology 
E.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

W.  D.  Frost,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
J.  G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  J.  Geib,  Soils 
E.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

F.  B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterin- 

ary Science 

J.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry 
Husbandry 

E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 

E.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Bacteriology 

C.  S'.  Hean,  Librarian 

H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Economics 

A.  W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of 

Agr.  Journalism 

R.  S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Ani- 

mal Husbandry 

J.  A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Edu- 
cation 

J.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

E.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  En- 

gineering 

L.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Path- 
ology 

G.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
/\J.  H.  Kolb,  Economics 

B.  D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

Maele  C.  Little,  Inst.  Management 
■>T.  Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 
Abby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home 
Economics 

— P.  E.  McNall,  Agr.  Economics 
J.  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 
J.  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticul- 
ture 

R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

F.  L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

D.  H.  Reid,  Poultry  Husbandry 
Griffith  Richards,  Soils 

R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
J.  L.  Sam  mis.  Dairy  Husbandry 

E.  S.  Savage,  Animal  Husbandry 

H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 

A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 

W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 

J.  H.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 


W.  E.  Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 
H.  F.  Wilson,  In  charge  of  Economic 
Entomology 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 
and  Soils 


A.  R.  Albert,  Soils 
H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 
Freda  M.  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteriol- 
ogy 

E.  A.  Baird,  Plant  Pathology 
W.  H.  Ebling,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
N.  S.  Fish,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
A.  A.  Granovsky,  Economic  Ento- 
mology 

A.  J.  Haas,  Executive  Secretary 
R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
Elsie  Hess,  Home  Economics 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 

C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 
L.  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 
Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  Journalism 
Samuel  Lepkovsky,  Agr.  Chemistry 
V.  G.  Milum,  Economic  Entomology 
E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
G.  T.  Nightingale,  Horticulture 
A.  J;  Riker,  Plant  Pathology 
Marianna  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 
L.  C.  Thomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 
C.  E.  Walsh,  Agr.  Engineering 


J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  M.  Bethke,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Archie  Black,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Dorothy  Bradbury,  Horticulture 
Lloyd  Burkey,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
Conrad  Elvetejew,  Agr.  Chemistry 
R.  E.  Frost,  Agr.  Journalism 
O.  H.  Gerhardt,  Agr.  Chemistry 
GeraLd  Heebink,  Animal  Husbandry 
»-H.  S.  Irwin,  Agr.  Economics 
-W.  C.  Jensen,  Agr.  Economics 
O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

C.  C.  Lindegren,  Plant  Pathology 
Edgar  Martin,  Animal  Husbandry 

A.  J.  Moyer,  Genetics 

N.  T.  Nelson,  Agronomy 

O.  J.  Noer,  Soils 

G.  A.  Palmer,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  H.  Pierre,  Soils 
E.  Rankin,  Agr.  Chemistry 
T.  E.  Rawlins,  Horticulture 
E.  G.  Schmidt,  Agr.  Chemistry 
W.  P.  Smith,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
M.  E.  Smith,  Inst.  Administration 

D.  G.  Steele,  Genetics 
Henry  Stevens,  Genetics 
Frances  W.  Streets,  Plant  Path- 
ology 

R.  B.  Streets,  Plant  Pathology 
Ferne  E.  Taylor,  Inst.  Administra- 
tion 

M.  N.  Walker,  Plant  Pathology 

B.  L.  Warwick,  Veterinary  Science 
' V.  R.  Wurtz,  Agr.  Economics 

J.  J.  Yoke,  Genetics 


AGR‘SLTIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 

MADISON 


DIGEST 


Plan  the  home  to  save  the  time  and  energy  of  the  farm  woman. 

Since  the  housewife  spends  most  of  her  time  in  the  home  and  has  the 
task  and  responsibility  of  managing  it,  her  needs  should  be  most  con- 
sidered when  planning  a home.  Page  3. 

Screened  working  porches  and  living  porches  contribute  greatly  to 
the  health  of  the  farmer’s  wife  and  daughter.  Page  4. 

Running  water  in  the  farm  home  is  essential.  The  burdens  of  the 
housewife  are  greatly  lightened  by  running  water  in  the  home;  and 
every  member  of  the  family  will  appreciate  the  comfort  and  con- 
venience. Page  4. 

A modified  square  house  is  economical  to  build  and  wastes  the  least 
space  in  hallways.  The  “Compact  House”  is  a broad,  low  building, 
simple  in  construction  and  free  from  useless  ornamentation.  Page  4. 

A square  house  built  so  that  an  extra  half  unit  may  be  added  is  one 

of  the  most  practical  plans  for  a progressive  farm  home.  The  kitchen 
working  areas  are  compact;  the  front  and  side  entrances  are  both 
close  to  the  kitchen;  and  all  rooms  are  well  ventilated.  Pages  7-11. 

The  “Breakfast  Alcove  House”  meets  a very  definite  need  of  the 

farm  woman  who  must  make  every  moment  count  in  the  busy  morning 
hours.  The  broken  roof  line  is  interesting  and  the  house  has  the 
compactness  of  the  more  nearly  square  type.  Pages  11-13. 

A central  hall  extending  from  the  front  to  the  back  of  the  house  is  a 

novel  feature  of  the  “Long  Oblong  House.”  The  downstairs  bedroom 
with  wash  room  and  shower  attached  are  ideal  for  the  farm  home. 

Pages  13-16. 

The  “Hillside  Cottage”  enables  the  farm  woman  to  do  most  of  her 
work  without  climbing  stairs.  This  cottage  is  planned  for  the  hilly 
districts  of  Wisconsin.  Pages  16-19. 

In  the  “Colonial  Farm  House”  the  working  areas  of  the  laundry, 
kitchen,  and  dining  room  are  very  compactly  arranged  for  saving 
time  and  energy.  Pages  19-20. 

The  “Semi-Colonial  House”  combines  the  dignified,  balanced  ex- 
terior of  the  colonial  house  without  the  wasteful  central  hall. 

Page  24. 


Farm  Homes 


Departments  of  Home  Economics  and  Agricultural 
‘Engineering 

FARM  HOMES  can  be  just  as  comfortable,  convenient  and 
attractive  as  city  homes.  Abundant  space  and  plenty  of 
fresh  air  and  sunshine  are  much  easier  to  obtain  than  in  the 
city,  and  native  trees  and  shrubs  make  attractive  settings. 

The  modern  farm  home  should  be  carefully  planned  and  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  the  family.  A city  house  plan  is  often  unsuited  to 
a rural  home  because  of  certain  differences  between  farm  and  city 
life.  Housing  farm  workers,  for  instance,  and  the  need  for 
carrying  on  farm  enterprises  within  the  home  make  some  arrange- 
ments essential  in  the  farm  house  that  would  be  unnecessary  in 
the  city. 

Build  Convenient  Farm  Homes 

Plan  the  farm  home  to  save  the  steps  of  the  farm  women. 
Careful  planning  may  mean  that  instead  of  walking  many  miles  a 
day  to  do  her  work,  the  housewife  may  accomplish  the  same  re- 
sults and  walk  only  a short  distance. 

Avoid  making  any  room  a passage  way  to  other  rooms.  Both 
heat  and  cleaning  are  saved  in  this  way. 

The  main  traveled  paths  in  the  farm  home  should  be  short  and 
direct  to  save  walking. 

Every  farm  home  should  have  a downstairs  bedroom  or  office 
adjacent  to  the  kitchen  and  the  living  room. 

The  kitchen  should  be  the  best  ventilated  room  in  the  house. 
Moist  heat  causes  exhaustion. 

Farm  workers  should  pass  from  the  wash  room  directly  into 
the  dining  room  without  going  through  the  kitchen. 

The  dining  room  should  be  large  enough  to  allow  for  the  full 
spread  of  the  table,  room  for  the  serving  table,  and  passage  way 
around  the  dining  table. 

If  kitchen  and  living  room  are  combined  in  one  there  should 
be  a pantry  connecting  with  it.  Clean,  sanitary  food  makes  for 
health. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  353 


The  door  between  kitchen  and  dining  room  should  be  wide 
enough  for  the  passage  of  the  “speechless  housemaid”  or  wheel 
tray. 

Bedrooms  should  all  open  into  a common  hall.  Each  person 
needs  privacy  some  time  in  the  24  hours. 

Each  bedroom  should  have  cross  ventilation. 

Screened  sleeping  porches  will  save  doctor’s  bills. 

Screened  working  porches  and  living  porches  are  essential  to 
the  happiness  of  the  farmer’s  wife  and  daughter. 

The  farm  home  laundry  may  have  to  be  on  the  first  floor. 

The  basement  should  be  large  enough  for  furnace  room  and 
storage  room,  but  not  large  enough  to  be  a dumping  place  for  use- 
less things. 

Closets  and  cupboards  are  “first  aids”  in  saving  the  strength  of 
the  farm  housewife  and  should  be  liberally  provided. 

Running  water  in  the  farm  home  is  essential;  and  electrical 
appliances  mean  longer  life  for  the  farm  mother. 

Trees,  vines,  and  shrubbery  pleasingly  arranged  will  contribute 
much  to  the  beauty  of  the  farm  home. 

The  Compact  House  (Fig.  1) 

The  compact  house  is  a modification  of  the  square  house  which 
is  cheapest  to  build  and  wastes  the  least  space  in  hallways.  It 
is  a broad,  low  building,  simple  in  construction  and  free  from 
useless  ornamentations.  A living  porch  and  sleeping  porch  ex- 


FIG.  1.— COMPACT  HOUSE. 


Farm  Homes 


5 


FIG.  2. — PLAN  OF  COMPACT  HOUSE. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  353 


tend  beyond  the  square  of  the  basement,  giving  apparent  width 
to  the  house.  They  are  balanced  by  the  chimney  on  the  outside. 

The  house  is  entered  through  the  vestibule,  into  which  light 
comes  from  the  upper  half  of  the  outer  door  and  the  glass  doors 
opening  into  the  main  hall.  The  stairs  rise  near  the  center  of  the 
front  half  of  the  house  and  are  therefore  convenient  to  the  living 
room  and  office  and  the  side  door  which  opens  into  the  laundry. 
One  may  go  upstairs  from  the  kitchen  or  laundry  without  pass- 
ing through  the  dining  room  or  the  living  room.  The  cellar  stair 
is  under  the  front  stair,  opening  into  the  laundry  near  the  kitchen 
and  convenient  to  the  side  door  so  that  supplies  may  be  carried  to 
the  basement  without  passing  through  the  kitchen. 

The  first  floor  lavatory  opens  from  the  laundry  and  is  below 
the  bathroom  on  the  second  floor  so  that  the  plumbing  is  reduced 
to  the  smallest  amount.  (Fig.  2.) 

The  farm  office  may  be  entered  from  the  outside,  or  through 
the  laundry,  or  from  the  front  hall  without  entering  the  living 
room.  The  dining  room  may  be  entered  from  the  front  hall  or 
the  laundry  without  going  through  the  living  room  and  the 
kitchen.  A living  porch  opens  from  the  dining  room  and  the 
living  room  and  is  sufficiently  large  to  be  used  as  a summer  din- 
ing room.  The  kitchen  has  a small  screened  work  porch  from 
which  the  ice  box  may  be  filled. 

The  working  surfaces  in  the  kitchen  are  arranged  so  that  the 
worker  moves  from  the  sink  and  the  work  table  to  the  range,  to 
the  serving  table,  to  the  dining  room,  and  then  back  to  the  sink 
without  crossing  her  path.  Near  the  range  is  a wood  box  that 
may  be  filled  from  the  kitchen  porch  without  entering  the  kitchen. 

The  laundry  is  provided  with  two  tubs,  a stationary  flat  ironer. 
space  for  a water  heater,  range  and  a dumb  waiter  to  the  base- 
ment. The  latter  opens  next  to  the  kitchen  door. 

The  second  floor  contains  four  bedrooms,  sleeping  porch, 
bathroom  and  linen  closets.  Each  bedroom  is  provided  with 
cross  ventilation  and  has  either  a closet  or  a wardrobe. 

A clothes  chute  leads  from  the  bathroom  to  the  laundry.  If  a 
furnace  is  not  put  in  when  the  house  is  built,  the  two  rooms  on 
the  second  floor  may  be  heated  by  stoves. 

If  an  attic  is  desired,  a third  stairway  leading  to  the  attic  can  be 
built  directly  over  the  stairs  leading  from  the  first  floor. 

In  an  emergency,  the  office  could  be  used  as  a sleeping  room  for 
a hired  man. 


Farm  Homes 


7 


The  basement  provides  room  for  the  furnace,  coal,  wood,  fruit 
and  vegetable  storage,  and  a place  for  drying  clothes  in  winter. 

Because  of  the  uncertainty  as  to  the  cost  of  building  materials, 
no  estimate  of  cost  can  be  given.  The  house  may  be  all  wood, 
stone,  brick,  brick  veneer  or  stucco. 

The  Unit-and-a-Half  House  (Fig.  3) 

The  unit-and-a-half  house  is  intended  to  be  built  on  the 
one  unit  plan  with  additions  to  be  made  later  as  the  family 
grows.  In  its  original  form,  it  is  a square  house  and  may  be  built 
with  a hip  roof,  or  the  gable  roof  (illustrated  in  the  drawing  of 
the  completed  house),  which  lends  itself  better  to  the  addition 
of  a half  unit.  The  side  elevation  shows  it  in  the  one  unit  form. 

The  first  floor  plan  (Fig.  4)  shows  the  compact  three-room 
house  with  entrance  hall  opening  into  the  living  room,  back  hall 
and  kitchen.  The  side  door  opening  from  the  ground  level  leads 
to  the  back  hall,  the  basement  and  kitchen.  There  is  a direct  pass- 
age way  through  the  back  hall  into  the  front  hall  so  that  the 
worker  in  the  kitchen  may  reach  the  front  door  without  going 
through  the  living  rooms. 

The  back  porch  could  be  made  wider  than  seven  feet  and 
screened  in.  A 9xl2-foot  porch  is  a very  satisfactory  working 
and  even  dining  porch  for  the  small  family  group. 

The  living  room  and  dining  room  are  connected  by  double 
doors  so  that  they  may  be  thrown  together,  making  a larger  space 
for  entertainment,  or  they  may  be  separated  and  the  living  room 
used  in  emergency  as  a temporary  bedroom. 


FTG.  3. — ONE  UNIT  HOUSE  WITH  HALF  UNIT  ADDED 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  353 


FIG.  4. — PLAN  FOR  ONE  UNIT  HOUSE.  (HALF  UNIT  TO  BE  ADDED.) 


Farm  Homes 


9 


BedRoom  or. 

Omc£ 

G'-6"  ,9' 


Lining  Q^dh  \Djnin<s 

r3  o' . /5  o'  J^n-6’ . /3'  o" 


Kitchen 

9 -6*  ./3‘ -O' 


\Bewimg 


•Beth  fim/ 


Picond  JftooQ  Plan 


Beo  Qodm 

N'-O".  //'-€' 

rui 

Beo  Qodh 

9-6‘.JZ'-6" 

1st  h 

k/l_  ; ; 

FIG.  5. — COMPLETED  FLOOR  PLAN  FOR  ONE-AND-A-HALF-UNIT 

HOUSE. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  353 


All  bedrooms  are  provided  with  cross  ventilation  and  with 
closet  room. 

The  front  stairs  are  convenient  from  the  living  room,  the  side 
door  and  the  kitchen,  so  the  second  floor  may  be  reached  without 
going  through  other  rooms. 

The  second  floor  is  provided  with  two  large  bedrooms  and 
one  smaller  room  that  in  the  beginning  may  be  used  as  a child’s 
room  or  nursery.  When  the  house  is  enlarged  this  becomes 
a sewing  room.  There  is  a bathroom  directly  over  the  kitchen 
so  that  the  cost  of  plumbing  is  small.  The  linen  room  next  to 
the  bathroom  is  a very  well  lighted  room.  Later,  when  the  ad- 
dition is  put  on,  it  becomes  a dressing  room  for  the  sleeping  porch. 

A central  chimney  reduces  the  cost  of  construction  and  allows 
the  house  to  be  heated  by  either  furnace  or  special  stoves. 

The  basement  (Fig.  5)  is  planned  with  a furnace  room  and 
a coal  bin  constructed  with  slanting  sides  so  that  as  the  coal  is 
used  it  falls  down  to  the  opening,  reducing  labor  to  the  minimum. 
The  basement  rooms  are  well  ventilated.  There  is  a lavatory  in 
the  basement,  but  this  can  be  installed  only  when  there  is  sufficient 
slope  to  the  land  to  allow  drainage.  When  this  is  true  the  vege- 
table storage  room  could  be  furnished  as  a laundry. 

In  the  plans  for  the  additional  one-half  unit  the  laundry  will 
be  adjacent  to  the  kitchen  and  the  kitchen  porch  will  be  placed  at 
the  side  connecting  the  kitchen  and  the  laundry  as  shown  in  the 
perspective  (Fig.  3)  as  well  as  in  the  plan  of  the  house  (Fig. 
5).  The  other  additions  on  the  first  floor  are  the  lavatory  and 
the  office.  The  office  may  be  entered  from  its  own  porch  or 
through  the  laundry  or  from  the  dining  room.  A small  hall  con- 
necting the  office  and  the  laundry  allows  the  field  workers  to  use 
the  wash  room  and  come  into  the  dining  room  without  going 
through  the  kitchen. 

On  the  second  floor  (Fig.  5)  the  addition  includes  a bedroom 
with  its  closet  and  a sleeping  porch.  The  linen  closet,  which  is 
shown  in  Fig.  4,  now  becomes  a dressing  room  to  the  sleeping 
porch;  and  the  child’s  room,  shown  in  Fig.  4,  becomes  a sewing 
and  linen  room. 

A third  addition,  not  shown  in  the  plans,  but  very  strongly  ad- 
vised, is  a large  living  porch  opening  out  of  the  dining  room  and 
the  living  room.  The  door  from  the  dining  room  onto  the  living 
porch  would  be  in  the  space  between  the  two  windows  and  the 
entrance  from  the  living  room  to  the  living  porch  could  be  through 


Farm  Homes 


11 


the  windows,  which,  in  that  case,  would  be  made  into  glass  doors 
opening  on  the  screened  and  glazed  porch. 

With  the  addition  of  the  living  porch,  the  unit-and-a-half 
house  would  meet  more  nearly  the  needs  of  the  progressive  farm 
home  than  any  of  the  other  plans  presented.  First,  the  working 


FIG.  6.— BREAKFAST  ALCOVE  HOUSE. 


areas  in  the  kitchen : ice  box,  working  tables,  sink,  stoves  and 
china  closet  are  all  planned  to  save  space.  The  front  entrance 
and  the  side  entrance  are  both  close  to  the  kitchen.  The  laundry 
is  well  ventilated  and  the  wash  room  is  convenient  to  the  dining 
room.  There  is  a small  compact  basement  and  all  rooms  are  pro- 
vided with  good  ventilation. 

The  exterior  of  the  house  is  in  good  proportion ; the  lines  are 
simple  and  the  cost  of  construction  will  not  be  excessive.  It 
lends  itself  to  clapboard  construction,  to  clapboard  and  stucco,  to 
English  timber  construction,  and  to  clapboard  and  shingle.  It 
may  have  an  exterior  finish  of  cement  plaster. 

The  Breakfast  Alcove  House  (Fig.  6) 

The  breakfast  alcove  house  meets  a very  definite  request 
from  the  farm  woman  who  must  make  every  moment  count  in 
her  early  morning  hours.  With  the  permission  of  the  owner, 
it  is  adapted  from  a modern  city  house.  The  broken  roof  line 
gives  a pleasing  exterior  while  still  maintaining  the  compactness 
of  the  more  nearly  square  house. 

The  front  entrance  (Fig.  7)  opens  into  the  lighted  vestibule 
which  in  turn  opens  into  the  central  hall  as  well  as  into  the  break- 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  353 


f'lRJT’  F'LOO$J)L!V't 


PIG.  7.— PLAN  FOR  BREAKFAST  ALCOVE  HOUSE. 


Farm  Homes 


13 


fast  alcove.  This  is  and  is  not  a part  of  the  kitchen,  being  sep- 
arated by  the  partition  wall  which  forms  the  back  of  one  of  the 
settles.  The  alcove  is  not  separated  from  the  kitchen  by  a door. 
This  allows  cross  ventilation  in  the  kitchen  and  gives  quick  serv- 
ice in  the  breakfast  alcove.  The  side  door  opens  into  the  back 
hall  which  connects  with  the  dining  room  on  one  side  and  the 
kitchen  on  the  other  and  leads  directly  to  the  basement.  In  this 
hall  there  is  a small  wash  bowl  and  the  dumb  waiter  which  leads 
to  the  basement.  The  hall  space  leads  from  the  kitchen  to  the 
dining  room,  but  does  not  increase  the  walking  distance  any  more 
than  if  the  area  had  been  used  as  a pantry.  The  dumb  waiter  to 
the  basement  enables  the  worker  to  secure  her  supplies  without 
carrying  them  up  the  cellar  stairs.  If  a larger  working  porch 
is  desired,  the  narrow  entrance  platform  may  be  extended  into 
a porch  9 feet  wide  which  could  be  used  as  a dining  porch. 

The  small  lavatory  and  the  office  open  out  of  the  central  hall; 
the  main  staircase  leads  from  the  central  hall  to  the  second  floor 
and  to  the  living  room  and  the  dining  room.  These  and  an  en- 
closed living  porch  may  form  one  general  area,  when  desired,  so 
that  the  house  may  be  used  as  a community  center.  The  office  is 
large  enough  to  be  used  for  a small  downstairs  bedroom.  Where 
there  are  small  children  this  will  be  a great  convenience. 

The  second  floor  contains  four  bedrooms,  sleeping  porch,  bath, 
a linen  closet  and  a storage  closet.  Each  bedroom  is  provided 
with  a large  closet. 

In  this  house  it  is  planned  to  install  a laundry  in  the  basement, 
either  in  the  corner  under  the  breakfast  alcove  or  directly  under 
the  office.  The  furnace  room  will  be  under  the  living  room. 

Low  Oblong  House  (Fig.  8) 

This  house  (Fig.  8)  is  planned  with  a central  hall  extending 
from  front  to  back  with  the  dining  room,  kitchen  and  living  porch 
on  one  side  and  living  room,  bedroom  or  office  and  wash  room 
on  the  other.  The  staircase  begins  at  the  center  of  the  house 
leading  to  the  second  story.  (Fig.  9).  The  basement  stairs 
are  directly  underneath  in  very  close  connection  with  the  back 
screened  porch  and  the  door  opening  into  the  kitchen.  Adjacent 
to  the  screened  porch  is  an  outside  entrance  to  the  basement.  The 
kitchen  is  provided  with  a built-in  ice  box  which  may  be  filled 
from  the  outside  and  is  next  to  the  built-in  cupboard  and  counter 
shelf  and  the  folding  work  table  which  may  be  built  under  the 
window.  The  sink  is  across  the  kitchen  from  the  work  table  and 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  353 


is  therefore  not  so  convenient  as  in  some  of  the  other  plans. 
With  forethought  the  food  and  vegetables  may  be  cleaned,  car- 
ried to  the  work  table  and  the  preparation  completed,  the  food 
cooked,  served  in  the  dining  room  and  the  soiled  dishes  carried 
out  without  crossing  the  main  lines  of  travel.  There  is  no  con- 
nection between  the  china  closet  and  the  sink.  It  would  be  more 
convenient  for  the  housewife  if  the  china  closet  were  built  on  the 
wall  dividing  the  dining  room  from  the  kitchen  and  sliding  doors 
arranged  so  that  the  soiled  china  could  be  put  through  to  the  sink 
table  and  clean  china  put  back  on  the  china  cupboard  shelves ; 
but  it  would  limit  the  length  of  the  dining  table. 

The  living  porch  opens  from  the  dining  room  only.  It  would 
be  much  more  usable  if  it  were  at  least  9 feet  wide,  as  8 feet  is 
too  narrow  for  any  but  a very  narrow  dining  table. 

The  living  room,  opening  to  the  left  of  the  hall,  has  a fireplace, 
book  shelves,  and  a window  seat.  It  is  not  directly  connected 
with  the  dining  room,  so  that  for  entertaining  it  is  not  so  con- 
venient as  some  of  the  other  plans. 

The  downstairs  bedroom  or  office  with  a wash  room  and  shower 
are  ideal  for  the  farm  house,  as  they  permit  all  of  the  workers  to 
use  the  wash  room  and  office  without  going  through  either  the 
kitchen  or  living  room  of  the  house  to  enter  the  dining  room. 

The  hall  space  on  the  second  floor  has  been  reduced  to 
as  small  a limit  as  possible,  but  is  still  liberal  in  area.  The 
bathroom  is  over  the  washroom  so  that  the  cost  of  plumbing  will 


Bee  Boom 

OFL 

Off/ce 

/O'-O  'x //'-o"  V 


/Citcheu 

'0'-6~-X/3'-0~ 


L BedBooa 

/E0'X/J-6[ 


8/JT/Ys 

6-0/7'6\ 


Bed  Boom 

/2-o'x  wy- 


Bed  Boom 

/3‘6'X/S-O" 


Feconv  Floor  Plan 


Farm  Homes 


PIG.  9.— PLAN  FOR  LOW  OBLONG  HOUSE. 


lb 

^ $ 

* 

L/V/A/6  £oom  / 

f3'-6X/3'F 

Bf/JU 

\pww6  Boom  / 

-<  /3:0"X/4F 

16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  353 


not  be  excessive.  All  bedrooms  open  into  a common  hall  area  | 
and  are  provided  with  closets,  three  of  which  have  windows.  I 
There  is  a linen  closet  and  a bedding  closet.  The  owner’s  bed-  I 
room  is  connected  by  a short  passageway  with  the  nursery.  ( 
There  are  no  doors  between.  The  passageway  is  less  than  3 feet 
wide  and  therefore  a door  between  would  be  very  narrow.  If  this 
space  were  utilized,  one-half  in  the  hall  and  one-half  in  the  two 
closet  areas  with  a door  between  the  two  closets,  the  same  pur- 
pose would  have  been  achieved ; namely,  the  close  connection  be- 
tween the  bedroom  and  the  nursery.  The  added  hall  space  would 
be  more  nearly  adequate  for  the  movement  of  furniture  and  for 
better  ventilation  on  the  second  floor,  although  every  bedroom  is 
provided  with  cross  ventilation. 

In  its  exterior  finish,  it  is  essentially  a midwestern  house  with 
its  oblong  stretch  and  wide  overhanging  cornice.  It  may  be  fin- 
ished in  clapboard,  siding,  cement,  or  stucco,  or  it  may  be  con- 
structed of  concrete. 

The  Hillside  Cottage  (Fig.  10) 

This  cottage  is  planned  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  farm  home 
in  the  hilly  districts  of  Wisconsin.  The  large  living  porch  at  : 
the  front  is  balanced  by  the  sleeping  porch  at  the  back.  The 
first  floor  basement  in  the  back  has  been  planned  to  be  used  ! 
as  the  sleeping  or  living  quarters  of  the  men  employed  on  the 
farm.  Comparatively  few  farm  homes  are  built  so  that  the  farm 
woman  can  do  most  of  her  work  without  climbing  stairs.  In  this 
hillside  cottage  (Fig.  11)  the  large  living  porch  is  recessed  under 
the  main  roof  of  the  house  and  leads  directly  into  the  hall,  on  the 
right  side  of  which  is  a large  living  room  and  on  the  left  the  din-  < 
ing  room  with  its  connecting  passageway  through  the  cellar  stair 
hall  to  a small  kitchen.  In  it  the  ice  box,  the  kitchen  table,  and  i 
the  range  and  cupboard  form  a sequence  on  two  sides,  and  the 
dumb  waiter,  shelves  and  sink  form  a sequence  on  the  opposite 
side  from  the  range.  There  is  sufficient  floor  space  between  but 
Without  any  to  spare.  The  work  of  preparing,  cooking  and  serv- 
ing the  food  follows  in  a direct  path  from  the  ice  box  around  the 
room  to  the  dining  room. 

There  is  a direct  connection  from  the  side  porch  downstairs  to 
the  basement.  The  dumb  waiter  connects  directly  with  the  base- 
ment, is  near  the  vegetable  room,  and  saves  all  the  work  of  heavy 
carrying. 

The  bathroom  is  close  to  the  kitchen  so  that  the  plumbing 


Farm  Homes 


17 


FIG.  10. — HILLSIDE  COTTAGE. 


cost  is  small.  It  is  planned  that  the  range  will  be  either  a gas 
or  oil  burner,  rather  than  coal  or  wood,  as  the  house  is  heated 
with  hot-water  heat. 

There  are  three  bedrooms  and  a sleeping  porch  with  a closet  or 
wardrobe  in  each  of  the  bedrooms.  The  owner’s  bedroom  is  pro- 
vided with  a fireplace.  The  chimney  stack  contains  flues  for  the 
fireplace,  the  furnace,  and  the  laundry  stove. 

The  basement  at  the  back  is  all  above  the  ground  level.  Un- 
der the  dining  room,  kitchen,  living  room  and  first  floor  bed- 
room are  a vegetable  room,  trunk  room,  laundry,  furnace  room 
and  coal  and  ash  areas.  Back  of  these,  connecting  with  them 
by  a door,  is  a bedroom  and  bath  and  a main  living  room.  These 
open  on  a paved  pergola  which  should  be  vine  clad. 

This  hillside  type  of  cottage,  because  it  contains  all  of  the  living 
and  sleeping  areas  for  the  family  on  one  floor,  reduces  the  work 
of  the  farm  woman.  It  is  especially  desirable  when  there  are 
small  children  in  the  family,  because  the  bedrooms  and  sleeping 
porch  may  be  reached  in  a moment.  Where  farm  hands  are  not 
employed,  the  basement  living  area  could  be  used  as  a milk  room 
and  garage. 

The  Colonial  Farm  House  (Fig.  12) 

The  colonial  farm  home  is  typical  with  the  white  clapboard, 
green  blinds,  and  lattice  for  roses.  It  has  a wide  central  hall 
with  the  stairs  starting  well  to  the  center  and  leading  to  the 
second  story  with  a landing  two-thirds  of  the  way  up,  thus  giv- 
ing room  for  the  back  hall  underneath  the  landing. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  353 


PLAN  FOR  HILLSIDE  COTTAGE. 


Farm  Homes 


19 


The  cellar  stairs  open  from  the  back  hall  and  are  underneath 
the  stairs  to  the  second  floor.  The  entrance  to  the  kitchen  is  from 
the  front  hall,  from  the  back  hall,  and  the  service  porch.  The 
laundry  is  back  of  the  kitchen  and  uses  the  same  flue  stack.  The 
working  areas  of  the  laundry,  kitchen,  and  dining  room  are  very 
compactly  arranged  for  saving  time  and  energy. 

The  relation  of  the  laundry  and  wash  room  to  the  dining  room 
makes  it  possible  for  field  workers  to  come  to  the  dining  room 
without  passing  through  the  kitchen. 

The  front  vestibule  protects  the  hdll  from  the  change  of  tem- 
perature in  the  winter  and  allows  the  hall  to  be  connected  by  open 
doors  with  the  dining  room  and  living  room  without  unnecessarily 
cooling  the  house.  The  living  room  is  provided  with  bookcases 
and  built-in  seats  as  well  as  a fireplace.  It  is  a large  room  with  a 
glazed  door  opening  onto  a large  living  porch. 

The  second  floor  (Fig.  13)  contains  four  bedrooms  and  a bath. 
If  desired,  a screened  sleeping  porch  could  be  built  over  the  living 
porch  without  seriously  modifying  the  architectural  design  of  the 
house,  though  it  could  be  used  as  an  open-air  uncovered  sleeping 
porch  as  it  is. 

There  is  a minimum  of  waste  hall  space  in  the  second  story 
and  the  bedrooms  are  all  large  and  well  ventilated. 

The  basement  contains  furnace  room,  wood  and  coal  area,  fruit 
and  vegetable  storage  room,  and  general  utility  room  reached 
from  the  back  entrance  without  going  through  any  other  part  of 
the  first  floor. 

The  basement  is  lighted  through  recessed  window  areas  covered 
with  iron  grating.  The  house  is  intended  to  be  built  of  wood,  but 
it  may  be  built  of  stone,  brick,  or  hollow  tile  and  stucco.  It  is  an 
expensive  house,  but  represents  the  ideal  colonial  design  for  farm 
homes,  excellent  in  proportion,  simple  in  construction,  and  free 
from  ornate  ornamentation. 

The  Semi-Colonial  House  (Fig.  14) 

This  house  combines  the  dignified  balanced  exterior  of  the 
colonial  house  without  the  wasteful  central  hall  extending  from 
the  front  door  to  the  back  door. 

The  hall  is  L-shaped  and  the  stair-well  is  the  center  of  the 
house,  thus  saving  space  in  grouping.  The  hall  is  close  to  the 
side  entrance  and  the  stairs,  the  office,  basement  entrance,  lava- 
tory, laundry,  and  kitchen.  (Fig.  15.)  The  stairs  are  open  for 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  353 


F7%GNrr  Elevation 


Qioht  ^5ide  Elevation 


FIG.  12.— COLONIAL  FARM  HOUSE. 

Original  design  by  the  state  architect.  Revision  by  the  department  of 
Agricultural  Engineering  to  meet  farm  conditions. 


Farm  Homes 


21 


Second  Flooji  Flan 


Ft$5t  Flooji  Flan 


h-s-zz. 


PIG.  13.— PLAN  FOR  COLONIAL  FARM  HOUSE. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  353 


Front  Hile&tion 


H-6-2! 


PIG.  14.— SEMI-COLONIAL  FARM  HOUSE. 


Farm  Homes 


23 


<5zcqnp  /Loo£__  Plan 


/loo. ^ Plan 

H:6-2Z 


FIG.  15.— PLAN  FOR  SEMI-COLONIAL  FARM  HOUSE. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  353 


four  steps  so  that  the  effect  is  one  of  space  and  dignity  even 
though  the  stairs  are  enclosed  beyond  the  fourth  tread. 

The  living  room  opens  from  the  central  hall  and  is  connected 
by  single  doors  with  the  dining  room  and  the  living-dining  porch. 
The  fireplace  is  on  the  inner  wall,  thus  saving  heat.  The  living 
porch  is  glazed  and  during  the  fall  and  spring  may  be  a living- 
porch,  warmed  from  the  house.  In  summer,  screens  are  to  be 
added. 

The  dining  room  is  connected  by  a swinging  door  with  the 
kitchen  and  by  a door  with  the  central  hall  so  that  the  men  may 
enter  from  the  side  door  or  office  without  passing  through  the 
living  room  or  the  kitchen. 

The  kitchen,  placed  in  the  center  between  the  dining  room  and 
the  laundry,  is  well  lighted  with  three  windows.  Cross  ventila- 
tion is  provided  by  doors  into  the  laundry  and  into  the  side  hall. 
The  flues  for  the  range  in  the  kitchen  and  the  laundry  are  in  the 
same  chimney  stack.  This  places  the  range  far  away  from  the 
dining  room  and  lessens  the  possibility  of  odors  passing  easily. 
The  ice  box  may  be  filled  from  the  hall. 

The  laundry  room  may  be  used  as  a dairy  room  if  that  seems 
desirable,  otherwise  it  is  a laundry  and  coat  room. 

The  office  may  be  entered  from  the  front  door  or  from  the 
side  door.  There  is  a small  closet  in  it  so  that  it  could  be  used  as 
a sleeping  room  in  emergency. 

The  second  floor  provides  for  four  well-ventilated  bedrooms, 
two  of  which  are  connected  with  a glazed  and  screened  sleeping 
porch. 

The  hall  space  is  small  and  compact.  Each  bedroom  has  a 
closet  or  wardrobe.  The  bathroom  is  over  the  kitchen  so  that  the 
cost  of  plumbing  is  reduced.  There  is  a small  linen  closet  and 
large  dark  attic  space  for  storage.  This  attic  is  reached  by  a 
stairway  over  the  one  leading  from  the  first  floor  to  the  second. 

The  basement  should  be  arranged  for  a furnace  room,  and  coal 
bins  under  the  dining  room,  a work  room  under  the  living  room, 
and  a vegetable  cellar  and  fruit  room  under  the  kitchen  and  office. 

It  is  plentifully  provided  with  basement  windows  so  that  the 
area  will  be  light.  The  cellar  stairs  are  conveniently  arranged  so 
that  they  end  in  the  center  of  the  basement. 


DIGEST 


The  modified  leader  tree  is  better  than  either  the  central  leader  or 
open  center  types.  It  bears  better  crops  of  fruit.  It  is  not  a “double 
deck”  tree.  Page  3 

Plant  one-year-old  nursery  trees.  They  usually  grow  better,  and 
this  should  mean  better  fruiting.  Page  5 

Prune  the  tree  at  planting  time.  Reduce  the  top  in  proportion  to 
the  root  pruning  done  when  digging.  Page  7 

Start  to  form  the  tree-head  the  first  year.  This  avoids  much  trouble 
in  later  years.  Page  8 

Avoid  weak  crotches  by  unequal  heading  of  branches.  Keep  the 
branches  balanced-up  by  proper  heading  back.  Page  10 

The  two-year  tree  should  be  carefully  pruned.  Properly  pruned 
trees  start  to  spread  at  this  age.  Page  19 

Tall  narrow  trees  can  be  prevented.  Careful  attention  in  the  third 
and  fourth  seasons  may  prevent  excess  height  and  density  of  top. 

Page  21 

Open  center  trees  can  be  changed  into  modified  leader  trees.  This 
should  not  be  attempted  after  the  third  to  fourth  year.  Page  26 

Wind-bent  trees  may  be  straightened  up.  Prune  lighter  on  the  wind- 
ward side.  Page  27 

Avoid  heavy  cutting  after  the  fourth  year.  This  tends  to  delay 
fruiting.  Page  27 

Dense  topped  trees  are  late  in  bearing.  A certain  type  of  early  sum- 
mer pruning  may  help  this  trouble.  Page  28 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 

R.  H.  Roberts 

THE  MODIFIED  leader  tree  has  been  very  largely  adopted. 
Its  superior  advantages,  however,  justify  its  much  wider 
use  for  apples,  pears,  and  cherries  and  possibly  for  plums 
and  peaches.1  Some  of  the  advantages  of  this  tree  are:  Freedom 


FIG.  1.— ' WELL  BALANCED  MODIFIED  LEADER  TREES  HAVE 
STRONG  HEADS 

The  spacing  of  the  branches  of  this  tree  is  not  very  good.  Use  of 
the  leader  has,  however,  produced  a strong  head.  The  leader  “A”  has 
been  developed  into  the  upper  main  branch.  The  head  is  shorter  than 
usual,  but  a good  tree  resulted,  Fig.  27.  Note  the  uniform  size  of  the 
main  branches.  This  is  essential  to  producing  a uniformly  vegetative 
top.  Compare  with  Fig.  28.  McIntosh. 


1 In  this  case  the  head  would  be  kept  low  and  relatively  short,  the 
leader  being  used  to  help  distribute  the  main  branches  and  if  possible 
to  avoid  bracing  and  propping  such  as  is  required  for  old  open  center 
peach  trees. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


from  weak  crotches  such  as  occur  in  the  open  center  tree;  a lower 
and  more  spreading  tree  than  the  central  leader  type ; a large  num- 
ber of  main  branches  giving  a top  in  which  the  branches  grow  uni- 
formly; and  a better  fruiting  system  than  in  either  of  the  other 
types  of  trees. 

There  is  much  misunderstanding  or  difference  of  opinion  as 
to  what  constitutes  the  modified  leader  tree.  There  are  at  least 
three  common  erroneous  ideas : It  is  not  a “double-deck”  or 
“two-story”  tree,  neither  is  it  a “central  leader  tree”  with  the 
center  cut  out  “after  two  or  three  years.”  In  fact,  the  modified 
leader  tree  is  in  no  way  a central  leader  tree. 

The  young  modified  leader  tree  is  rather  a tree  with  a cen- 
tral or  tip  branch  left  in  but  cut  back  so  as  to  be  only  slightly 
longer  than  the  lateral  or  side  branches.  The  laterals  are  kept 
well  balanced  with  the  leader  (Fig.  1)  and  a low,  spreading 
tree  is  produced  (Fig.  2)  as  contrasted  with  the  tall,  narrow 
central  leader  tree  (Fig.  3)  or  even  the  tall  but  medium-wide 


FIG.  2. — TREES  WITH  MANY  WELL-BALANCED  BRANCHES  ARE 
LOWER  AND  MORE  SPREADING 
This  tree  has  no  strongly  dominant  leader.  The  lower  branches  are 
relatively  large  because  not  overgrown  by  a strong  leader.  This  com- 
bination gives  a very  desirable  low,  open-topped,  spreading  type  of  tree. 
The  sparse  foliage  is  due  to  autumn  leaf  fall  having  begun.  This-  tree 
was  headed  high  originally,  but  started  with  several  main  branches. 
Compare  with  Fig.  3.  Grimes  Golden. 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


5 


FIG.  3. — LEADER  TREES  GROW  TOO  TALL 

This  necessitates  extra  harvesting-  expense  and  multiplies  spraying 
difficulties,  apparently  without  adding  fruiting  surface.  Wood  produced 
above  the  dotted  line  is  at  the  expense  of  lower  branches-.  Note  the 
dominant  leader  at  this  height.  Compare  with  Pig.  2.  Winesap. 

open  center  tree  (Fig.  4).  After  a sufficient  number  of  main 
or  so-called  scaffold  branches  have  been  developed  the  leader 
is  developed  as  the  highest  one  of  the  main  branches. 

Plant  One-Year-Old  Trees 

The  first  step  in  growing  a modified  leader  apple  tree  is  to 
plant  a one-year-old  nursery  tree.  In  the  first  place  this  tree 
can  be  headed  at  the  desired  height.  It  is  preferable  to  have  the 
lowest  branch  start  from  24  to  26  inches  from  the  ground.  As 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


FIG.  4. — OPEN  CENTER  TREES  USUALLY  GROW  OVER-TALL 

The  so-called  open  center  tree  with  few  main  branches  usually  de- 
velops into  a tree  with  two  or  three  dominant  leaders,  (A).  These  soon 
outgrow  the  lower  branches,  (B).  The  latter  very  frequently  become 
overgrown  and  “run  out”  before  the  tree  comes  to  full  bearing.  Jonathan. 


the  average  tree  produces  branches  from  but  three  to  four  buds 
immediately  below  a cut  (Fig.  18)  the  tree  should  be  headed 
back  five  to  six  inches  above  the  height  preferred  for  the  lowest 
branches.  Heading  the  trees  at  28  to  33  inches  at  planting  time 
is  suggested.  The  reason  for  this  height  is  to  secure  lateral 
branches  with  good  angles  and  proper  spread  (Fig.  5).  If  the 
branches  are  too  low,  bad  crotches  are  formed.  If  they  are  too 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


7 


high,  they  turn  down  in  a few  seasons  due  to  shading  of  the 
higher  branches  and  then  interfere  with  cultural  operations. 
When  started  at  two  to  two  and  one-half  feet,  light  conditions 
are  better  at  the  side  and  above  than  below  the  branch  so  it,  con- 


sequently, maintains  a permanently  upward  direction. 

A second  reason  for  planting  one-year-old  trees  is  that  this 
gives  a tree  which  is  capable  of  making  a strong  growth.  That 
is,  a tree  may  be  a “slow  grower”  if  it  did  not  get  large  enough 


in  the  nursery  to  sell 
after  one  season.  Of 
course,  not  all  two-year- 
old  nursery  trees  are  too 
small  to  sell  the  first  year. 
What  is  wanted  for 
orchard  planting  is,  how- 
ever, a tree  with  the 
capacity  of  growing  vigor- 
ously and  fruiting  profit- 
ably. A tree  which  is 
large  enough  to  sell  as  a 
yearling  should  be  more 
apt  to  do  this  than  a 
smaller  yearling,  or  a 
two-year  tree  grown  from 
a small  yearling. 

It  is  incorrect  that 
planting  older  trees  gives 
more  productive  trees 
than  planting  yearlings. 
If  so,  it  would  be  better 


FIG.  5.  — THE  LOWEST  BRANCIH 
SHOULD  BE  ABOUT  TWO  FEET 
FROM  THE  GROUND 


to  plant  three-  or  four- 
year-old  trees.  What  is 


Very  low  branches  (A)  generally 
form  bad  angles  with  the  trunk.  High 
branches  (C)  grow  too  nearly  horizon- 
tal where  there  are  no  branches  lower 
down  on  the  trunk.  Branches  arising 
from  two  to  two  and  a half  feet  from 
the  ground  usually  form  good  angles 
with  the  trunk  and  also  maintain  an 
upright  position  (B).  See  Fig.  1. 


wanted  is  a tree  that  will 
stand  transplanting  well. 
From  this  standpoint  the 
yearling  is  to  be  preferred 
over  the  two-year  tree.2 


The  third  reason  for  ^choosing  a one-year-old  tree  is  that  it 
usually  starts  better  than  the  two-year-old.  The  latter  is  too 


2 It  is  possible  that  two-year-old  nursery  trees  transplant  better  in 
more  southern  latitudes  where  fall  planting  is  practiced. 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


apt  to  merely  “feather  out” 
and  make  practically  no 
growth  the  first  year  un- 
less it  is  pruned  very 
heavily  (Figs.  6-7).  If 
heavy  cutting  is  done  the 
gain  in  size  over  a yearling 
is  lost.  In  case  it  is  neces- 
sary to  plant  two-year-old 
trees  they  should  really  be 
cut  heavily  to  reduce  the 
top  in  proportion  to  the  re- 
duction in  root  made  at 
digging  time.  If  trees  with 
very  low  heads  are  secured, 
it  is  often  better  to  “whip” 
them  (Fig.  8).  Trees 
treated  in  this  way  can  be 
expected  to  make  a good 
growth  the  first  season 
after  planting,  whereas 
two-year-old  trees  which 
are  pruned  little  at  plant- 
ing time  rarely  start  well, 
especially  in  northern  lati- 
tudes. Also,  two-year 
trees  are  frequently  poorly 
branched,  both  as  to  num- 
ber and  spacing. 

Prune  Carefully  the  First 
Year  After  Planting 

Success  in  forming  an 
orchard  tree  depends 
largely  upon  the  treat- 
ment given  it  the  first  few 
seasons  after  planting. 
This  is  apparent  from 
some  of  the  objects  to  be 
gained  by  pruning  at  this 
time.  These  are : 


FIG.  6. — TWO-YEAR  NURSERY 
TREES  DO  NOT  USUALLY 
START  WELL. 

It  is  usual  for  two-year  trees  to 
merely  “feather  out”  the  first  sea- 
son after  planting-.  Fameuse. 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


9 


FIG.  7.— TWO-YEAR  NURSERY  TREES 
I DO  NOT  USUALLY  BRANCH  WELL 

In  cases  where  the  two-year  trees  do 
make  a good  growth  there  are  generally 
too  few  branches.  When  heading  back 
i(at  arrow)  a high  lateral  branched  tree 
is  secured.  Compare  with  Fig.  8.  Fa- 
!;meuse. 


FIG.  8.— TWO-YEAR  TREES  USUALLY 
GROW  WELL  AFTER  BEING 
“WHIPPED”  AT  PLANTING 

It  seems  best  to  whip  two-yea"  trees 
at  planting  time  if  they  are  low  headed 
enough  (A).  The  top  branch  is  used  as 
trunk  (E).  When  pruning  the  next  sea- 
son, the  upper  branches  are  headed  back 
heavily  (B),  to  keep  them  in  balance 
with  the  lower  ones  (C).  The  smaller 
low  branches  (D)  will  rarely  become 
main  limbs  of  the  tree.  F'ameuse. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


1.  Keeping  the  top 


FIG.  9. — “COMPETING”  BRANCHES 
THICKEN  UP  IN  RELATION  TO 
THEIR  LENGTH 

Note  how  the  two-year-old  branches 
have  thickened  up  in  proportion  to 
their  length  at  the  beginning'  of  the 
growing  season  (at  arrows).  The 
longer  branches  made  the  most 
growth.  Apparently  the  greater  foli- 
age on  this  growth  results  in  a 
greater  diameter  of  the  two-year-old 
wood.  This  fact  or  principle  of 
growth  is  used  to  avoid  weak  crotches 
in  trees  by  heading  back  competing 
branches  unequally.  Fig.  12. 


y The  number  of  years  after  planting- 
speaking  of  the  tree  as  one,  two,  three 


balanced ; 

2.  Preventing  excess 
height  of  top,  and 

3.  Increasing  the  num- 
ber of  main  branches. 

Balancing  of  the  top  is 
the  most  important  reason 
for  pruning  the  yearling 
orchard  tree.3  This  is 
excuse  enough,  however, 
at  this  time.  It  cannot  be 
said,  as  was  formerly 
thought,  that  pruning  in- 
duces  fruitfulness  of 
young  trees.  Many  trees 
would  bear  earlier  if  they 
were  left  unpruned.  An 
exception  to  this  general 
rule  is  in  the  case  of  very 
vegetative,  dense-topped 
trees,  as  young  Trans- 
parent. Such  trees  seem 
to  bear  earlier  if  pruned 
to  admit  light  than  if  left 
unpruned  (page  28).  The 
greater  necessity  for  prun- 
ing the  young  trees  lies, 
however,  in  the  need  for 
keeping  the  branches  in 
balance.  The  object  in 
doing  this  is  to  develop  a 
uniformly  vegetative,  and 
so,  a uniformly  fruitful  top 
and  to  prevent  weak 
crotches. 

These  objects  are  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  the 
following  principle  of 
growth:  ‘'Competing” 

branches  (those  which 

in  the  orchard  is  meant  when 
or  four  years  old. 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


11 


FIG.  10. — LEAVING  THE  LEADER  TOO  LONG  GIVES  A “TWO-STORY” 

TREE 

When  the  leader  (A)  is  left  too  much  longer  than  the  laterals  (B), 
the  latter  become  dwarfed.  The  upper  set  of  laterals  (C)  soon  outgrow 
the  lower  ones  and  the  tree  head  really  begins  at  A.  McIntosh. 

arise  from  near  the  same  place)  will  make  an  unequal  growth  if 
they  arc  of  unequal  length  (Fig.  9).  Likewise,  they  will  make  an 
equal  growth  (in  diameter)  if  they  are  of  the  same  length. 

It  follows,  then,  that  the  size  of  branches  can  be  largely  reg- 
ulated and  bad  crotches  can  be  almost  entirely  prevented  by  un- 
equal heading  back.  The  important  point  is  knowing  the  proper 
relation  to  be  maintained  between  the  branches.  A common 
error  is  to  leave  the  leader  too  much  longer  than  the  laterals.  (Fig. 
10).  This  results  in  the  undesirable  “two-story”  type  of  tree. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


FIG.  11. — PRUNE  THE  TWO-YEAR 
TREE  CAREFULLY 


New  main  branches  (A, A)  are  devel- 
oped from  the  leader.  Growths  over  20 
inches  long-  (in  most  varieties)  are  head- 
ed back  (Fig.  18).  Keep  the  leader  only 
slightly  longer  than  the  other  main 
branches'.  This  tree  may  have  too  many 
branches  for  some  varieties.  Being  a 
Transparent  it  cannot  be  kept  very  open 
or  suckering  results.  Note  the  spreading 
habit  as  in  Fig.  22.  Summer  tipping  was 
done  (B)  with  no  apparent  benefits. 


The  trouble  with  this  tree  is  that  the  upper  set  of  branches  out- 
grows the  lower  one,  necessitating  the  eventual  removal  of  the 
latter  even  before  the  tree  comes  to  bearing  age.  If  the  leader 
is  kept  in  proper  balance  it  is  possible  to  develop  new  branches 
in  continuous  succession  and  not  in  sets  (Fig.  11). 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


13 


Leave  the  Leader  Slightly  Longer  Than  Laterals 

The  central  branch  gains  considerable  dominance  over  the 
laterals  because  of  its  position.  Consequently  the  relatively 
small  difference  of  two  to  three  inches  in  length  is  enough  to 
maintain  it  as  a leader.  The  top  branch  is  one  to  three  inches 
higher  up  on  the  trunk  than  the  laterals.  We  recommend  then, 
to  cut  back  the  leader  at  a height  of  three  to  six  inches  above  the 
level  of  the  cuts  on  the  laterals  (Fig.  12).  This  recommenda- 
tion can  not  become  a rule,  however,  for  the  reason  that  the 


FIG.  12. — KEEP  THE  LEADER  ONLY 
SLIGHTLY  LONGER  THAN  THE 
MAIN  BRANCHES 


The  yearling  nursery  tree  usually 
starts  well.  This  one  was  headed  a little 
too  high.  Lower  branches  as  B and  C 
cannot  usually  compete  successfully 
with  the  upper  ones  so  they  cannot  be 
depended  upon  to  become  main  branches. 
Prune  as  indicated  by  arrows  when  dor- 
mant. Winter  Banana. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


FIG.  13. — STRONG  LEADERS 
SHOULD  BE  CUT  BACK  HEAVILY 


In  cases  where  the  leader  is  much 
stronger  than  the  laterals  it  should 
be  cut  back  shorter  (B)  than  if  the 
branches  are  well  balanced  (A)  as 
in  Fig.  12.  Wealthy. 


branches  are  sometimes 
not  in  balance  at  the  end  of 
the  growing  season  (Figs. 
13-17).  A weak  branch 
should  be  left  relatively 
longer  while  a very  strong 
growth  should  be  cut  back 
somewhat  heavier  than  if  it 
were  well  balanced  with  the 
other  limbs.  For  this  same 
reason  the  lower  branches 
are  often  cut  at  a greater 
length  than  those  higher 
up.  It  is  desired  that  all 
grow  about  alike.  The  up- 
per branches  have  the  ad- 
vantage (at  least  they 
grow  better)  so  the  lower 
ones  are  left  longer  (ac- 
tual length  of  branch). 

The  question  arises  now 
as  to  what  length  the 
branches  of  the  yearling 
orchard  tree  should  be 
headed  back.  For  ordinary 
varieties  we  suggest  that 
18  to  20  inches  is  about 
the  proper  length.  The 
reasons  for  selecting  this 
length  are : 

1.  If  the  branches  are 
left  much  longer 
they  become  long 
and  “leggy”  without 
becoming  well  spur- 
red (Fig.  18). 

2.  If  the  branches  are 
cut  back  much  short- 
er than  18  to  20 
inches  the  tree  top 
does  not  have  suffi- 
cient circumference 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


15 


to  give  space  to  allow  for  increasing  the  number  of  branches 
(Figs.  19,  20). 

3.  The  best  spur  fruiting  systems  are  secured  when  heading 
is  done  at  about  this  length. 

The  tipping  or  heading  back  which  is  done  to  balance  the 
branches  gives  the  other  two  results  to  be  gained  from  pruning 
the  yearling  tree:  excess  height  is  avoided  and  the  number  of 

branches  is  increased  (Fig.  17).  In  many  varieties  as  Duchess 
there  is  a tendency  for  only  one  strong  new  branch  growth  to 


FIG.  14.— WEAK  LEADERS  SHOULD  BE 
LEFT  LONG 

If  the  branch  which  it  is  desired  to  have  as 
a leader  is  weaker  than  the  others,  leave  it 
longer  (A),  than  in  cases  where  the  branches 
are  well  balanced.  Wealthy. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


arise,  that  from  the  terminal  bud.  Some  others,  of  course, 
branch  fairly  well  without  tipping. 

In  case  the  trees  do  not  make  as  much  as  18  inches  of  growth 
it  seems  best  not  to  do  any  tipping.  Remove  the  crossing  branches 
and  let  the  others  grow  from  the  terminal  buds.  While  this 
treatment  gives  rather  unbalanced  two-year  trees,  nevertheless 
it  is  not  desirable  to  cut  back  to  increase  the  number  of  branches 
unless  the  growth  is  over  18  inches  long  (Figs.  14,  15).  The 
top  can  be  balanced  after  its  second  growing  season.  It  will  be 


FIG.  15. — KEEP  THE  TWO-YEAR  TREE  WELL 
BALANCED 

Trees  which  grew  too  little  the  first  season  to 
need  systematic  heading  back  become  unbalanced. 
Cut  the  stronger  branches  heavily  (A)  and  the 
weaker  ones  lightly  (B,  C,  D).  The  top  should  be 
kept  more  nearly  level  than  the  previous  season. 
(Fig.  12).  McIntosh. 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


17 


FIGS.  16,  17.— THE  TREE  HEAD  CAN  SOMETIMES  BE  CHANGED 

Some  trees  tend  to  send  out  new  branches  in  the  second  season  (1,  A). 
A lower  headed  tree  can  be  developed  by  using-  these  latter  as  main 
branches  if  the  previous  leader  is  cut  back  heavily  (1,  B)  as  at  2.  Cut- 
ting at  2,  A would  place  the  head  still  lower  if  desired,  but  a season’s 
growth  would  be  lost.  Transparent. 


larger  and  usually  in  better  shape  than  if  cut  back  too  heavily 
as  a yearling  (Fig.  20). 

When  heading  back  the  laterals,  the  cuts  should  be  made  to 
outside  buds  to  help  spread  the  top  (Fig.  21)  except  for  the 
case  of  horizontally  growing  branches,  especially  of  some  va- 
rieties (Fig.  20,  E).  The  leader  is  headed  so  as  to  keep  it  in 
the  center  of  the  top,  that  is,  cut  to  an ' inside  instead  of  an  out- 
side bud. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


FIG.  18. — LEGGINESS  AND  BRANCH  NUMBER  CAN  BE  REGULATED 

BY  PRUNING 

By  heading  branch  “A”  back  to  “a”,  the  branches  and  spurs  would 
be  in  the  region  of  “b”.  This  method  prevents  excess  height  of  tree. 
Weaker  growing  branches  than  “A”  as  “B”  often  produce  but  one  good 
sized  growth  (c).  Such  limbs  (C)  can  be  made  to  branch  well  (e,  f)  if 
tipping  (d)  is  done. 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


19 


B A 

FIG.  19.— CUT  THE  BRANCHES  BACK  TO  18-20  INCHES  IN  LENGTH 

Diagram  showing  need  of  good  branch  length  (B)  to  give  enough  cir- 
cumference of  top  to  allow  for  an  increase  in  branch  number  without 
crowding  (A). 

It  will  be  noted  (Figs.  12,  13,  18A)  that  the  highest  branch 
grows  most  nearly  in  the  same  direction  as  the  one  from  which 
it  arises.  The  lower  branches  take  a more  spreading  position 
and  form  wider  angles  with  the  parent  branch.  Because  of  these 
facts  the  theoretical  advice  is  frequently  given  that  heading  back 
should  be  done  one  bud  above  where  it  is  desired  to  have  the 
permanent  branch.  The  tip  branch  is  to  be  cut  off  a year  later 
and  a more  spreading  top  secured.  This  is  mentioned  here  in 
order  to  warn  against  general  acceptance  of  this  recommenda- 
tion : it  does  not  usually  work  in  practice.  The  two  main  ob- 
jections are : 

1.  Many  varieties  under  ordinary  conditions  of  vegetation  do 
not  force  out  more  than  two  strongly  growing  branches 
near  the  cut.  Both  are  needed  in  developing  the  top. 

2.  Removal  of  the  strongest  tip  branch  of  every  set  where  tip- 
ping was  done  is  usually  a too  heavy  pruning.  (Light 
pruning  usually  gives  larger  and  earlier  bearing  trees.) 

Train  the  Two-Year  Tree  Carefully 

Mistakes  made  at  this  stage  in  the  life  of  the  orchard  tree  can 
be  overcome  only  at  considerable  expense  and  delay  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  fruitful  tree.  As  with  the  yearling,  tipping  at 
the  time  of  the  regular  dormant  pruning  is  done  to  increase  the 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


FIG.  20. — DO  NOT  CUT  THE  MAIN 
BRANCHES  TOO  SHORT 

Several  bad  results  follow  cutting  the 
branches  too  short:  (1)  There  is  not  enough 
room  for  all  the  branches,  (Fig.  19);  (2)  the 
new  growths  form  bad  notches  (A,  B);  (3), 
the  two-year  branches  seem  to  grow  more 
upright,  making-  bad  crotches  with  the 
trunk,  (D);  low  branches  as  “C”  rarely  be- 
come main  limbs.  In  case  a horizontal 
branch  is  left  on  it  is  headed  back  to  an 
inside  (top)  bud  (E).  Duchess. 


number  of  branches.4  Also  the  branches  are  headed  back  un- 
equally to  prevent  crotches  (where  the  laterals  branch).  Addi- 
tional objects  are  (1)  the  removal  of  crossing  and  crowding 
branches  and  (2)  the  choosing  of  additional  scaffold  branches. 

Extra  branches  should  be  gotten  out  of  the  way  before  the 
other  pruning  is  done  (Fig.  22). 

4 Summer  tipping  is  sometimes  done  but  it  does  not  usually  result  in 
appreciable  beneficial  results  (Fig.  11). 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


21 


Diagram  of  how  the  position  of  a cut  affects  the  direction  of  the  new 
growth  from  a bud.  Close  cutting  (A)  permits  the  new  growth  to  take 
place  almost  in  a straight  line.  Making  the  cut  further  from  the  bud 

(B)  directs  the  growth  more  outward  and  cutting  at  a longer  distance 

(C)  causes  the  new  growth  to  tend  more  toward  the  horizontal.  Do 
not  leave  stubs  which  will  not  heal  over  readily. 


One  principal  object  of  pruning  the  two-year  tree  is  to  increase 
the  number  of  scaffold  branches  (Fig.  11).  How  many  are 
wanted?  Our  present  belief  is  that  the  best  trees  result  from 
having  eight  to  nine  main  branches.  The  main  reasons  why  this 
number  is  best  are : 

1.  A lower,  more  spreading  tree  is  secured. 

2.  Many  branched  trees  have  a better  fruiting  system.  That 
is,  they  usually  bear  earlier  and  produce  larger  crops  of 
fruit  during  their  first  productive  seasons. 

Trees  With  Few  Main  Branches  Become  Tall  and  Narrow 

The  trouble  with  a central  leader  tree  is  that  it  grows  too 
tall  (Fig.  23).  The  so-called  open  center  tree  with  its  few  main 
branches  is  largely  subject  to  the  same  fault.  The  few  main 
growing  tips  elongate  so  rapidly  that  they  overgrow  the  laterals. 
That  is,  the  proper  balance  between  leaders  and  laterals  is  lost. 
Trees  with  many  main  branches  do  not  grow  tall  so  rapidly  and 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


a better  balance  between  branches  keeps  the  laterals  growing 
stronger  so  that  a lower,  more  spreading  tree  is  secured  (Figs. 
22,  24,  25). 

The  reason  that  few-branched  trees  become  tall  and  narrow 


is 


largely  because  the  laterals  do  not  produce  side  branches  but 

only  send  out  a 
branch  at  the  termi- 
nal or  end  buds. 
(Fig.  23).  It  ap- 
pears from  Figures 
18A  and  18B  that  the 
stronger  g r o w i n g 
branches  produce  the 
most  new  lateral 
branches.  If  the 
leader  in  a tree 
greatly  outgrows  the 
lateral  branches  the 
latter  do  not  produce 
many  side  branches, 
but  only  one  or  two, 
even  after  having 
been  tipped.  The 
result  is  a tall  nar- 
row tree  (Fig.  23). 
If  the  leader  is  kept 
in  balance  with  the 
other  main  branches 
the  latter  send  out 
more  laterals  and  a 
spreading  tree  is 
produced  (Fig.  24). 


FIG.  22.  — REMOVE  CROSSING  AND 
CROWDING  BRANCHES  FIRST 

When  pruning  the  two-year-old  or- 
chard tree  take  out  useless  branches,  (A, 
A,  B,  B)  before  attempting  to  head  back 
and  balance  up  the  permanent  branches. 
This  is  a fine  type  of  two-year-old  Trans- 
parent. (Compare  with  Fig.  23.)  The 
leader  was  headed  back  well  (C)  and 
kept  in  balance  with  the  other  branches. 
Note  the  tendency  for  lateral  branches 
to  form  (E).  See  also  the  wide  angle 
formed  by  the  scaffold  branches  with  the 
trunk  (D,  D)  in  this  type  of  well-bal- 
anced many-branched  tree. 


This  viewpoint  sug- 
gests that  the  differ- 
ence between  an  up- 
right and  a spread- 
ing  type  of  tree  of  the 
same  variety  may  not 
be  due  to  hereditary 
characteristics  but  to 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


23 


the  influence  upon  form  of 
branch  number  and  balance 
between  branches.  Tall, 
narrow  trees  apparently  can 
be  largely  prevented  by  proper 
pruning  during  the  second  to 
fourth  year  in  the  orchard. 
The  principal  means  by  which 
the  trees  are  made  more 
spreading  is  to  develop  a large 
number  of  scaffold  branches 
which  produce  good  lateral 
branches  (Figs.  22,  24). 

Pruning  in  the  Third  Year  Is 
Also  Important 

As  a rule,  systematic  shap- 
ing of  the  tree  is  also  needed 
when  it  is  three  years  old. 
Crossing,  crowding  and  use- 
less branches  should  be  re- 
moved as  in  the  two-year  tree. 
Tipping  does  not  always  need 
to  be  done.  After  the  third 
year  systematic  cutting  back 
to  increase  the  number  of 
branches  is  not  usually 
needed  except  for  some 
(usually  upright  growing) 
varieties  which  do  not 
branch  freely.  In  case  the 
terminal  growth  is  over  two 
feet  in  length  it  is  advisable 
to  head-in  the  tips  to  prevent 
excess  height  of  the  trees. 
(Fig.  18A). 

The  main  purpose  in 
pruning  the  three-year  tree 

FIG.  23. — TREES  WITH  FEW  MAIN  BRANCHES  AND  A DOMINANT 
LEADER  GROW  TALL  AND  SLENDER 

Compare  with  Fig.  11  and  Fig.  22.  The  leader  was  left  too  much 
longer  (A)  than  the  laterals  (B).  The  latter  do  not  branch  as  well  (C) 
as  in  balanced  trees.  Also  the  scaffold  branches  grow  too  upright  (D). 
Note  the  excessive  length  of  the  new  growth.  If  the  tree  had  more 
branches  as  in  Fig.  22  the  growth  would  be  more  moderate.  Transparent. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


is  to  overcome  any  tendency  for  it  to  become  unbalanced  (Fig. 
26).  To  prevent  any  misunderstanding  it  should  be  stated  that 
practically  no  consideration  is  given  to  the  form  (shape  of  out- 
line) of  the  tree.  That  is  left  largely  to  be  automatically  ad- 
justed by  keeping  the  branches  in  balance.  For  purposes  of 
this  discussion  the  term  balance  refers  to  the  “weight”  (diameter 
and  length)  of  the  various  branches.  A condition  of  balance 


FIG.  24. — MANY-BRANCHED  TREES  WITH- 
OUT A DOMINANT  LEADER  ARE  MORE 
SPREADING 

Practically  all  of  the  main  branches  are  of  the 
same  size.  Compare  with  Fig.  23.  The  leader 
should  be  definitely  suppressed  at  “A”  or  even 
lower.  Note  the  desirable  development  of  later- 
al branches  (B,  B).  This  is  a tree  “full  of 
brush.’’  but  yet  rather  typical  of  Transparent. 
The  top  is  relatively  flat  and  open  to  the  light. 
It  can  be  expected  to  bear  at  a much  younger 
age  than  tall  narrow  trees,  Fig.  29  and  Fig.  33. 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


25 


exists  when  the  branches  of  a set,  as  the  scaffold  limbs,  have  a 
uniform  size  and  amount  of  top  (Figs.  1,  27).  An  unbalanced 
condition  is  when  one  or  some  of  the  branches  have  grown  over- 
large in  comparison  to  the  others  (Figs.  28). 

The  object  in  keeping  the  wood  growing  uniformly  is  to  de- 
velop a uniformly  fruitful  bearing  surface.  To  do  this  it  is 
necessary  to  keep  the  lower  branches  strongly  vegetative  and  not 
let  them  be  outgrown  by  one  or  two  of  the  center  limbs  (Fig. 
29).  It  is  during  the  second  to  fourth  year  of  the  average  tree 
that  this  matter  can  be  regulated.  Watch  ,the  three-year  tree  to 


FIG.  25. — A FINE  TYPE  OF  YOUNG  GRIMES 

Note  the  relatively  large  size  of  the  lower 
branches  (A,  B).  The  leader  was  suppressed 
early  (C).  A somewhat  greater  length  is  often 
desirable.  This  tree  will  develop  into  the  type 
in  Fig.  2 and  not  like  Fig.  3. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


FIG.  26. — KEEP  THE  THREE  TO  FOUR-YEAR-OLD  TREE  BAL- 
ANCED UP 

In  central  leader  trees  the  leader  outgrows  the  lower  branches.  With 
modified  leader  trees  one  branch  (A)  sometimes  assumes  the  lead. 
Check  these  by  cutting  back  heavily  (B).  McIntosh. 

keep  the  branches  growing  evenly.  Severely  head-in  those  which 
tend  to  grow  too  strongly  (Fig.  26). 

Very  little  can  be  definitely  stated  about  how  to  change  open 
center  trees  into  modified  leader  trees  because  the  former  differ 
so  greatly  among  themselves.  They  are  too  unlike  to  be  covered 
by  specific  rules.  In  general,  do  not  attempt  to  change  them 
after  the  third  year.  Let  the  tree  go  and  brace  it  later.  Previous 
to  the  fourth  year  the  change  can  usually  be  made  successfully 
if  one  of  the  scaffold  branches  can  be  given  the  lead  (Figs.  30, 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


27 


FIG.  27. — LOW  SPREADING  TREES  BEAR  EARLIER 

Openness  of  top  accompanies  the  spreading-  form.  This  gives  early- 
bearing.  McIntosh.  Same  tree  as  Fig  1. 

31).  In  any  case  do  not  let  the  scaffold  branches  assume  the 
lead  to  such  an  extent  that  they  over-grow  and  smother  out,  as 
it  were,  the  lower  laterals  (Fig.  29). 

As  to  the  treatment  of  trees  which  are  deformed  by  prevail- 
ing winds,  contrary  to  what  is  frequently  done,  the  tree  should 
really  be  cut  heaviest  on  the  side  away  from  the  wind  (Fig.  32). 
This  recommendation  is  based  on  the  principle  of  growth  that 
the  strongest  branches  should  be  cut  most  in  order  to  keep  the 
top  balanced  (Fig.  9).  Heavy  cutting  on  the  windward  side 
would  further  unbalance  the  tree. 

Do  Less  Pruning  After  the  Fourth  Year 

It  is  pretty  generally  believed  that  there  should  be  “as  little 
pruning  as  possible”  during  the  four  to  six  year  period.  Heavy 
pruning  at  this  time  maintains  the  tree  in  a vegetative  condition 
and  as  a consequence  tends  to  retard  fruiting.  The  need  for 
doing  little  pruning  does  not,  however,  prevent  the  removal  of 
extra  and  crossing  branches.  The  trees  should  still  be  watched  to 
keep  the  branches  balanced  (Fig.  33). 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


FIG.  28. — WELL  FORMED  HEADS  MAY  BECOME  UNBALANCED 

The  branches  of  this  tree  are  spaced  better  than  in  Fig-.  1.  Yet  two 
branches  (A,  B)  have  been  permitted  to  outgrow  the  others  and  unbal-  • 
ance  the  top.  Note  the  upright  position  assumed  by  the  branches  A and  '\ 
B.  McIntosh. 

Very  often  the  trees  do  not  begin  to  bear  even  after  they  are' 
five  or  six  years  old  and  are  large  enough  to  fruit  well.  It  ap- ' 
pears  that  in  many  cases  where  the  trees  are  growing  rapidly  * 
this  delay  is  directly  related  to  the  density  of  the  top.  Light 
conditions  are  too  poor  for  blossom  buds  to  form.  This  has  been 
found  to  be  the  case  quite  certainly  with  McIntosh,  in  some  sec- 
tions (Fig.  27).  How  can  pruning  help  this  condition  when  the  j 
usual  result  of  cutting  young  trees  is  an  increase  in  number  of 
branches  and  especially  density  of  foliage?  Certainly  a non- 
fruiting tree  can  not  usually  be  kept  more  open  than  its  habit  j 
permits  for  it  fills  up  with  suckers  after  being  “opened  up.”  This  j 
over-density  of  top  can  be  avoided  by  thinning  out  the  top  in  the 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


29 


FIG.  29. — A TALL  NARROW  TRANSPARENT  IS  SLOW  TO  BEAR. 

Note  the  strong-  leader.  Some  terminal  fruits  have  been  borne  (A). 
The  top  is,  however,  too  dense  for  spur  blossom  buds  to  form.  See  how 
weak  the  lower  branches  are.  Compare  with  the  younger  tree  of  Fig.  24. 

early  summer  after  the  new  terminal  growths  are  several  inches 
long.  No  tipping  is  done.  Excess  branches  are  cut  out.  Very 
little  suckering  will  result  so  the  top  will  remain  relatively  open 
during  the  month  of  June,  while  blossom  buds  are  usually  being 
differentiated.  This  pruning  is  not  a part  of  a rather  fixed  prun- 
ing program  but  is,  instead,  a special  practice  applicable  only  to 
the  condition  described  (Fig.  29).  It  is  mentioned  because  of 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


The  Modified  Leader  Tree 


31 


FIG.  32.— WIND-BENT  TREES  CAN  BE  BALANCED  UP 

Cut  heavily  on  the  side  away  from  the  wind  (A).  Leave  the  branches 
longer  on  the  windward  side  (B).  In  this  case  the  leadership  has1 
changed  from  branch  “A”  to  “B”.  McIntosh. 


its  frequent  need.  The  common  practice  in  such  cases  is  to  wait 
“until  the  tree  spreads  under  a load  of  fruit.”  This  is  all  right 
except  that  waiting  is  unprofitable  and  the  load  of  fruit  is  too 
long  in  coming.  Frequently  trees  as  in  Figure  29  will  produce 
terminal  blossom  buds  and  bear  some  apples  but  a real  crop  is 
not  secured  until  spur  blossom  buds  are  formed.  Good  light  con- 
ditions throughout  the  top  are  needed  for  these  to  form  abund- 
antly. 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  354 


FIG.  33. — LITTLE  CAN  BE  DONE  TO  BALANCE  OLDER  TREES 


Heavy  cutting-  as  near  “A”  is  hardly  advisable  although  this  would 
be  necessary  to  give  the  lower  branches  a chance.  A tall  tree  with  few 
lateral  branches  (C).  Note  the  very  long  terminal  growths  (B).  Com- 
pare with  Fig.  24.  Transparent. 


After  the  trees  have  reached  an  age  of  five  to  six  years  the 
pruning  for  form  is  usually  completed  and  subsequent  pruning 
is  for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  the  trees  in  maximum  fruit- 
ing. This  latter  pruning  is  also  based  upon  the  principle  of 
keeping  the  top  in  balance  but  is  of  a somewhat  different  type. 


June,  1923 


DIGEST 


The  striped  cucumber  beetle  is  a constant  crop  hazard  and  damages 
cucurbit  crops  to  the  extent  of  $3,000,000  to  $5,000,000  annually  although 
the  loss  to  a single  grower  is  seldom  seriously  felt  because  of  the  usual 
small  plantings.  Page  3. 

Nicotine  dusts  have  been  found  most  effective  in  killing  the  beetle 
outright  and  making  unnecessary  the  protection  of  vines  from  beetle 
attack  throughout  a large  part  of  the  season.  Page  4. 

Nicotine  dusts  containing  copper  sulfate  or  gypsum  mixed  with  the 
lime  carriers  do  not  lose  strength  rapidly  and  have  been  found  effective 
against  the  beetle  under  all  conditions.  Page  4. 

Dusts  containing  10  per  cent  nicotine  sulfate  are  preferred,  but  as  it 
is  impossible  to  purchase  this  strength,  the  5 per  cent  dusts  will  do 
much  to  alleviate  damage.  Page  5. 

Nicotine  dust  containing  8 per  cent  sulfate  and  25  per  cent  copper 
sulfate  is  believed  to  be  the  most  stable  and  therefore  the  most  reliable 
dust  to  use  against  this  insect.  Such  a dust  does  not  appear  to  be  on  the 
market  at  present.  Page  5. 

Nicotine  dusts  with  active  carriers,  such  as  hydrated  lime  and  un- 
slaked lime,  lose  strength  rapidly  and  control  the  beetle  only  under  the 
most  favorable  conditions.  Page  6. 

Cucurbits  should  be  dusted  early  as  soon  as  they  are  up  and  beetles 
commence  to  attack  them.  Early  dusting  kills  beetles,  saves  time,  ex- 
pense, and  the  crop.  Page  8. 

Dusting  should  be  done  cooperatively  by  all  growers  of  the  neighbor- 
hood because  beetles  can  fly  as  far  as  two  miles.  Three  applications  of 

dust  during  a ten  day  period  will  usually  be  enough  to  secure  control  if 

your  neighbors  do  likewise.  Page  8. 

Dusting  should  be  done  properly,  using  a hand  duster  and  applying 

enough  dust  to  thoroughly  cover  the  plants,  beetles,  and  cracks  in  the 
ground.  Dust  should  be  applied  rapidly  to  prevent  any  beetles  flying 
away;  and  to  accomplish  this,  a canvas  cone  is  helpful.  Page  8. 

Fourteen  pounds  of  dust  per  acre  costing  $2.25  (for  5 per  cent  dust) 
will  be  required  when  plants  are  small.  Dust  stronger  in  nicotine  will 
cost  from  one-third  to  one-half  more.  Page  10. 

Wind  reduces  effectiveness  of  nicotine  dusts.  Dusts  are  most  effec- 
tive when  no  wind  is  blowing  and  the  temperature  is  65°  F.  or  higher, 
but  dusting  should  not  be  put  off  long  on  account  of  weather  condi- 
tions. Page  10. 


Nicotine  Dust  Kills  Cucumber  Beetles 

John  E.  Dudley,  Jr*.,  H.  F.  Wilson  and  W.  D.  Mecum 

THE  STRIPED  cucumber  beetle  is  a constant  crop  haz- 
ard. It  causes  damage  estimated  at  from  $3,000,000  to 
$5,000,000  annually  to  the  cucurbit  crop  (cucumber, 
melon,  squash)  of  the  United  States.  This  insect  not  only  in- 
f jures  the  plants  by  its  feeding,  but  also  transmits  the  wilt 
and  mosaic  diseases.  Although  the  loss  to  individual  grow- 
ers is  seldom  seriously  felt  because  the  plantings  are  small,  yet 
the  total  annual  loss  is  great. 

Most  Insecticides  of  Little  Value 

Many  insecticides  used  in  the  past  were  found  to  be  power- 
less against  the  cucumber  beetle.  Nicotine  dust,  a new  form 
of  insecticide,  has  proved  decidedly  successful  in  the  control 
of  the  beetle  during  two  years  of  trial. 

Over  60  different  insecti- 
cides were  thoroughly  tested 
at  this  station  during  the 
past  seven  years.  A few  of 
them  were  of  some  value  in 
repelling  the  beetle  yet 
none  were  worth  recom- 
mending as  a satisfactory 
control.  Even  the  stomach 
poisons  ordinarily  used 
against  chewing  insects  were 
not  effective  in  killing  this 
pest  although  they  showed 
some  repellent  effect,  be- 
cause the  beetle  is  more  or 
less  repelled  by  any  foreign 
substance  on  the  leaves. 
Therefore,  so  long  as  the 
foliage  was  kept  quite  well 

This  beetle  is  a dangerous  enemy  of  cu-  Covered  with  dusts  OT 
curbits  and  great  losses  occur  annually 

from  its  ravages.  sprays,  the  plants  remained 

fairly  free  of  beetles,  but  to  keep  them  constantly 
covered  (Fig.  2)  proved  a costly  undertaking,  for  as  soon  as 

* John  E.  Dudley,  Jr.,  Entomologist  is  in  charge  of  a federal  field  station 
at  Madison,  Wisconsin  where  this  work  was  carried  on  cooperatively  with  H.  F.  Wil- 
son of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station.  W.  D.  Mecum,  of  the  federal 
force,  is  responsible  for  the  experimental  work  with  carriers  for  nicotine  dusts. 


Fig.  1.— THE  STRIPED  CUCUMBER 
BEETLE 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  355 


rain  or  wind  removed  the  material  or  new  growth  appeared 
the  beetle  flew  right  back  from  nearby  gardens.  Beetles  are 
nearly  always  on  the  move  and  trying  to  keep  them  away 
from  a patch  of  cucurbits  is  almost  a hopeless  task. 


Fig.  2.— CUCUMBER  VINES  HEAVILY  DUSTED  TO  REPEL  BEETLE 

The  vines  covered  with  dust  or  spray  are  protected  but  the  new  growth  in  the 
foreground  is  open  to  attack. 

Nicotine  Dust  Best 

Tests  over  a period  of  two  years  have  clearly  shown  that 
nicotine  dust,  is  a decided  success  in  the  control  of  the  striped 


Nicotine  Dust  Kills  Cucumber  Beetles 


5 


cucumber  beetle  when  properly  applied.  During  the  grow- 
ing seasons  of  1921  and  1922  various  forms  of  nicotine  dusts 
were  given  severe  tests  under  field  conditions  to  find  what 
combinations  would  stand  up  best  in  general  use.  Nicotine 
sulphate  was  combined  with  gypsum,  sulfur,  and  several 
forms  of  lime,  and  all  the  combinations  were  more  or  less 
effective  in  killing  the  beetle.  In  addition  to  these  a new 
material  was  developed  at  this  station  in  1921  which  promises 
to  be  more  effective  than  the  simple  mixture  of  nicotine  and 
lime  against  the  beetle,  as  well  as  against  several  other  in- 
sects. This  material  was  made  of  nicotine  sulfate,  1 part, 
monohydrated  copper  sulfate,  5 parts,  and  hydrated  lime,  14 
parts. 

In  testing  the  various  materials  each  one  was  used  frequent- 
ly against  hundreds  of  beetles,  confined  in  large  cages,  and 
on  plants  in  the  open.  The  different  results  obtained  for  the 
same  strength  of  material  in  different  tests  are  due  to  vari- 
ations in  the  weather,  amount  of  dust  applied,  size  of  plants, 
and  freshness  of  the  material. 

Nicotine- Lime  5 per  cent — With  nicotine-lime  containing 
5 per  cent  of  nicotine  sulfate  the  percentage  of  beetles  killed 
varied  from  about  10  in  one  test  to  96  in  another.  The  aver- 
age percentage  was  60  to  85.  This  material  appeared  to  be 
rather  unstable,  and  killed  many  beetles  in  some  tests  and  only 
a few  in  others.  As  its  success  in  killing  depended  upon  its 
absolute  freshness  and  the  most  favorable  weather  for  its 
application,  this  dust  is  not  as  satisfactory  for  general  use  as 
some  others. 

Nicotine-Lime  10  per  cent — Nicotine-lime  containing  10 
per  cent  nicotine  sulfate  carried  twice  the  amount  of  nicotine 
and  cost  a half  more  than  the  previous  dust  but  the  percentage 
of  killing  obtained  with  it  was  much  more  consistent,  running 
from  83  to  98  with  an  average  of  90.  While  this  dust  loses 
strength  just  as  rapidly  as  the  5 per  cent  dust  and  is  affected 
the  same  by  the  weather,  yet  it  contains  enough  nicotine  to 
kill  a large  percentage  of  the  beetles  even  when  it  is  not 
strictly  fresh  and  when  used  in  unfavorable  weather.  There- 
fore, except  for  its  greater  cost,  it  is  preferable  for  general 
use  to  the  5 per  cent  dust. 

Nicotine-Copper-Lime  5 per  cent — This  new  combination, 
nicotine-copper  sulfate-lime  containing  5 per  cent  nicotine 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  355 


sulfate,  appeared  much  more  stable  and  killed  more  consist- 
ently than  the  5 per  cent  nicotine-lime.  The  percentage  of 
beetles  killed  varied  under  different  conditions  from  63  in  one 
test  to  100  in  several  tests,  and  averaged  85  to  90.  Pulverized 
copper  sulfate  in  this  dust  rendered  the  nicotine  less  volatile 
and  therefore  greatly  reduced  the  rapidity  of  its  escape  from 
the  dust.  Whether  its  greater  effectiveness  against  the  cu- 
cumber beetle  was  due  to  a reduction  in  the  loss  of  nicotine, 
or  to  a slower  rate  at  which  nicotine  was  given  off  after  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  insect’s  body,  is  not  known  at  this 
time,  but  it  is  probably  a combination  of  the  two. 

Nicotine-Copper- Lime  10  per  cent — Nicotine-copper  sulfate- 
lime  containing  10  per  cent  nicotine  sulfate  was  used  in  only 
one  series  of  tests  and  proved  completely  efficient  as  was  ex- 
pected. Ten  per  cent  of  nicotine  was  found  to  be  more  than 
necessary  when  copper  sulfate  was  present. 

Nicotine  More  Effective  With  Certain  Carriers 

In  a series  of  tests  to  determine  the  best  carriers  (fillers) 
for  the  nicotine,  six  different  substances  were  used;  hydrated 
lime  (calcium  hydrate),  air  slaked  lime  (calcium  carbonate), 
unslaked  lime  (calcium  oxide),  gypsum  (calcium  sulfate), 
sulfur,  and  copper  sulfate  with  hydrated  lime.  Mixtures  con- 
taining hydrated  lime  or  unslaked  lime,  both  of  which  re- 
acted with  the  nicotine  sulfate  liberating  nicotine,  did  not  kill 
as  high  a percentage  of  beetles  as  did  mixtures  containing 
gypsum  or  copper  sulfate.  Mixtures  containing  air  slaked 
lime  or  sulfur  were  about  half  way  between.  When  a small 
amount  of  unslaked  lime  was  added  to  the  hydrated  lime,  the 
loss  of  nicotine  was  greater  and  the  killing  effect  less  than 
when  the  unslaked  lime  was  left  out. 

When  any  form  of  lime  was  used  as  a carrier  the  result- 
ing dust  was  light  and  dry.  With  gypsum  however,  there 
was  a tendency  for  the  dust  to  absorb  moisture  which  made 
it  heavy,  therefore  a combination  of  gypsum  and  hydrated 
lime  appears  to  be  superior  to  gypsum  alone. 

Against  certain  insects  which  are  easily  killed  by  nicotine 
fumes,  such  as  the  aphides  or  plant  lice,  a dust  in  which  the 
nicotine  is  liberated  quickly  appears  to  be  most  effective. 
Against  the  cucumber  beetle  and  certain  other  insects,  how- 
ever, the  best  results  have  been  secured  by  using  a dust  in 
which  the  nicotine  is  rather  stable. 


Nicotine  Dust  Kills  Cucumber  Beetles  7 

Nicotine  Dust  Loses  Strength  Rapidly 

All  dusts  containing  nicotine  should  be  kept  in  tight,  metal 
cans  all  the  time  and  the  can  should  always  be  covered  ex- 
cept when  dust  is  being  removed.  As  these  things  are  not  al- 
ways done  a test  was  made  to  determine  the  effect  upon  the 
nicotine  when  dusts  were  exposed  in  shallow  dishes  for  dif- 
ferent periods  of  time. 

Dusts  containing  hydrated  and  unslaked  lime  which,  when 
fresh,  killed  100  per  cent  of  the  beetles  treated,  after  being 


Fig.  3.  -BELLOWS  TYPE  HAND  DUSTER 

This  duster  throws  an  intermittent  stream  of  dust  and  is  excellent  for  dusting 
plants  grown  in  hills. 

exposed  for  three  or  more  days  killed  only  40  to  70  per  cent 
of  them.  This  loss  of  nicotine  was  greatly  increased  when 
dusts  were  exposed  in  a damp  place. 

When  dusts  containing  sulfur,  with  2 per  cent  nicotine  sul- 
fate, were  exposed  to  the  air  for  24  hours,  the  percentage  of 
beetles  killed  dropped  from  60  to  30. 

When  dusts  containing  copper  sulfate  were  exposed  to  the 
air  the  loss  of  nicotine  was  very  much  less.  After  six  days’ 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  355 


exposure  the  killing  effect  dropped  from  100  per  cent  to 
only  90  per  cent.  Even  this  loss  of  nicotine  is  appreciable 
and  could  be  prevented. 

Dust  Cucurbits  Early 

The  time  to  kill  the  cucumber  beetle  easily,  quickly  and  in 
large  numbers  is  when  it  first  attacks  the  small  plants.  Beetles 
congregate  in  large  numbers  on  the  squash,  melon,  and  cu- 
cumber plants  and  feed  ravenously  on  the  first  thick  leaves  or 
cotyledons.  The  beetles  are  in  a small  area,  are  usually  quite 
sluggish,  and  a few  good  puffs  of  dust  will  kill  95  per  cent  or 
more  of  them.  These  first  beetles  produce  the  thousands  to 
follow  and  if  95  per  cent  of  them  can  be  killed,  there  is  little 
danger  from  the  progeny  of  the  other  5 per  cent.  When  vines 
are  beginning  to  run  there  is  much  more  area  to  be  dusted, 
the  beetles  are  more  active  on  account  of  the  warmer  weather 
and  the  number  killed  will  be  scarcely  more  than  60  per  cent 
to  70  per  cent. 

There  is  a period  of  from  7 to  10  days  in  which  the  beetles 
can  be  profitably  and  easily  controlled.  After  this  period  it 
takes  constant  effort  and  considerable  expense  to  protect  the 
vines  from  beetles. 

Dust  Cooperatively 

It  would  be  better  if  growers  in  the  same  vicinity  would 
dust  at  the  same  time  to  secure  uniformly  good  results,  for 
beetles  soon  find  their  way  from  the  half-eaten,  untreated 
patches  to  the  clean  ones.  Dusting  is  not  done  just  to  pro- 
tect the  vines,  as  is  spraying  for  the  codling  moth,  but  to 
kill  the  beetles  in  order  that  they  may  not  cause  later  trouble. 
If  every  cucurbit  grower  who  is  less  than  one  mile  from  his 
neighboring  growers  will  faithfully  dust  for  the  beetles  at  the 
right  time,  there  should  be  little  further  trouble  that  year 
from  beetles  or  from  the  wilt.  Beetles  may  fly  as  far  as  two 
miles  but  the  majority  seldom  go  over  three-fourths  of  a mile. 

Dust  Properly 

In  order  to  be  sure  of  killing  the  beetles  under  all  condi- 
tions, a nicotine  dust  containing  at  least  5 per  cent  of  nicotine 
sulfate  (2  per  cent  of  pure  nicotine)  and  preferably  10  per 
cent  (4  per  cent  of  pure  nicotine)  should  be  used.  According 


Nicotine  Dust  Kills  Cucumber  Beetles 


9 


to  R.  E.  Campbell1  many  growers  prefer  a 10  per  cent  nicotine 
dust  as  they  are  much  surer  of  overcoming  the  beetles  before 
any  escape.  Dust  should  be  purchased  in  sealed  cans  direct 
from  a dealer  and  must  be  fresh,  that  is,  not  held  over  from  a 
previous  year.  A hand  duster  (Figs.  3 and  4)  is  necessary 
for  applying  the  material  properly  and  may  be  purchased  from 
any  of  several  firms  manufacturing  dusts  and  spray  machin- 
ery. If  a duster  is  not  available  the  material  may  be  shaken 
from  a cheesecloth  sack  directly  over  the  beetles,  but  this 


Fig.  4.  -FAN  TYPE  HAND  DUSTER 

This  type  of  duster  throws  a continuous  stream  of  dust  and  is  much  superior  to 
a sack  or  can.  Its  greater  effectiveness  soon  repays  the  cost. 

method  is  decidedly  inferior  to  a duster. 

Before  plants  have  started  to  run,  dusting  may  be  made 
more  effective  by  the  use  of  a canvas  cone  (see  cover  page) 
which  is  quickly  dropped  over  the  plants  to  prevent  the  escape 
of  any  beetles  and  also  to  keep  the  dust  from  blowing  away. 
This  cone  is  helpful  in  dusting  other  plants  such  as  cabbage, 
cauliflower,  and  small  tomatoes.  The  plants  should  be  ap- 
proached carefully  so  that  no  beetles  will  fly  away;  and  heavy 
puffs  of  dust  should  be  blown  directly  on  them. 

1 Campbell,  R.  E. — Nicotine  Dust  for  Control  of  Truck-Crop  Insects.  U.  S.  Dept. 
Agr.  Bui.  1282,  p.  21,  Sept.  1922. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  355 


W.  H.  White2  states,  “As  the  insects  are  very  active  and 
take  flight  at  the  slightest  disturbance,  an  apparatus  which 
will  throw  a good  volume  of  dust  with  force is  neces- 

sary.” Apply  enough  dust  to  each  hill  to  cover  all  the  beetles 
and  to  fill  cracks  in  the  ground  where  they  may  be  hiding,  for 
it  is  a great  deal  quicker  and  cheaper  to  dust  thoroughly  when 
plants  are  small  than  to  wait  until  there  is  a mass  of  foliage. 
Nicotine  dusts  are  most  effective  against  the  cucumber  beetle 
when  the  air  is  still  and  the  temperature  is  65°  F.  or  higher. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  important  to  attack  the  beetles  as  soon  as 
they  gather  on  small  plants  in  order  to  kill  them  off  and  save 
the  seedlings. 

Usually  three  applications  of  dust  at  two  day  intervals  are 
sufficient  to  rid  the  plants  of  beetles  provided  nearby  patches 
are  similarly  treated.  The  usual  amount  of  dust  to  use  when 
plants  are  small  is  from  12  to  16  pounds  per  acre.  At  the 
present  price3  of  5 per  cent  nicotine-lime  dust  ($16.00  per 
hundred),  14  pounds  would  cost  about  $2.25  per  acre  per  appli- 
cation. Dust  containing  more  than  5 per  cent  of  nicotine  sul- 
fate does  not  seem  to  be  on  the  market  at  present.  While 
dusts  containing  copper  sulfate,  gypsum,  or  some  other  inert 
carrier  are  more  successful  against  the  cucumber  beetle  than 
the  active  dusts ; they  also  do  not  appear  to  be  manufactured 
at  present.  One  dust  containing  copper  sulfate,  lead  arsenate, 
lime,  and  nicotine  sulfate  5 per  cent  is  quoted  by  one  firm  at 
$20.00  a hundred. 

The  ordinary  nicotine-lime  dust  containing  5 per  cent  nico- 
tine sulfate  is  very  effective  against  the  melon  aphis  (or  louse) 
which  occurs  in  such  vast  numbers  during  July  and  August  on 
melons  and  cucumbers. 

- White,  W.  H. — Nicotine  Dust  for  Control  of  the  Striped  Cucumber  Beetle.  U.  S 
• Dept.  Agr.,  Cir.  224,  p.  2,  June,  1922. 

3 April,  1923. 


EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF 


The  President  of  the  Universitv 
H.  L.  Russell,  Dean  and  Director 
F.  B.  Morrison,  Asst.  Dir.  Exp.  Sta- 
tion 


W.  A.  Henry,  Emeritus  Agriculture 

S.  M.  Babcock,  Emeritus  Agr.  Chem- 

istry   

A.  S.  Alexander,  Veterinary  Science 
F.  A.  Aust,  Horticulture 

B.  A.  Beach,  Veterinary  Science 
R.  A.  Brink,  Genetics 

L.  J.  Cole,  In  charge  of  Genetics 

E.  J.  Delwiche,  Agronomy  (Ashland) 
J.  G.  Dickson,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  W.  Duffee,  Agr.  Engineering 
J.  M.  Fargo,  Animal  Husbandry 

E.  H.  Farrington,  In  charge  of  Dairy 
Husbandry 

C.  L.  Fluke,  Economic  Er  tomology 

E.  B.  Fred,  Agr.  Bacteriology 

W.  D.  Pros'!,  Agr.  Bac„e  i d^gy 
J.  G.  Fuller,  Animal  Husbandry 
W.  J.  Geib,  Soils 
E.  M.  Gilbert,  Plant  Pathology 
L.  F.  Graber,  Agronomy 

E.  J.  Graul,  Soils 

F.  B.  Hadley,  In  charge  of  Veterin- 

ary Science 

J.  G.  Halpin,  In  charge  of  Poultry 
Husbandry 

E.  B.  Hart,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Chem- 
istry 

E.  G.  Hastings,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Bacteriology 

C.  S.  Hean,  Librarian 

B.  H.  Hibbard,  In  charge  of  Agr. 
Economics 

A.  W.  Hopkins,  Editor,  in  charge  of 

Agr.  Journalism 

R.  S.  Hulce,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  C.  Humphrey,  In  charge  of  Animal 

Husbandry 

J.  A.  James,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Educa- 
tion 

J.  Johnson,  Horticulture 

E.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Agr.  Engi- 

neering 

L.  R.  Jones,  In  charge  of  Plant  Path- 
ology 

G.  W.  Keitt,  Plant  Pathology 

F.  Kleinheinz,  Animal  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Kolb,  Agr.  Economics 

B.  D.  Leith,  Agronomy 

Mable  C.  Little,  Inst.  Administra- 
tion 

T.  Macklin,  Agr.  Economics 

Abby  L.  Marlatt,  In  charge  of  Home 
Economics 

P.  E.  McNall,  Agr.  Economics 
J.  G.  Milward,  Horticulture 
J.  G.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Horticul- 
ture 

R.  A.  Moore,  In  charge  of  Agronomy 

F.  B.  Morrison,  Animal  Husbandry 

G.  B.  Mortimer,  Agronomy 

F.  L.  Musbach,  Soils  (Marshfield) 

W.  H.  Peterson,  Agr.  Chemistry 

D.  H.  Reid,  Pdultry  Husbandry 
Griffith  Richards,  Soils 

R.  H.  Roberts,  Horticulture 
J.  L.  Sammis,  Dairy  Husbandry 

E.  S.  Savage,  Animal  Husbandry 

H.  H.  Sommer,  Dairy  Husbandry 
H.  Steenbock,  Agr.  Chemistry 
H.  W.  Stewart,  Soils 

A.  L.  Stone,  Agronomy 

W.  A.  Sumner,  Agr.  Journalism 


J.  A.  James,  Asst.  Dean 

K.  L.  Hatch,  Asst.  Dir.  Agr.  Exten- 

sion Service 


J.  H.  Swenehart,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  E Tottingham,  Agr.  Chemistry 
E.  Truog,  Soils 

R.  E.  Vaughan,  Plant  Pathology 

H.  F.  Wilson  In  charge  of  Economic 
Entomology 

A.  R.  Whitson,  In  charge  of  Soils 
A.  H.  Wright,  Agronomy 
W.  H.  Wright,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
O.  R.  Zeasman,  Agr.  Engineering 
and  Soils 


A.  R.  Albert,  Soils 
H.  W.  Albertz,  Agronomy 
Freda  M.  Bachmann,  Agr.  Bacteri- 
ology 

E.  A.  Baird,  Plant  Pathology 
W.  H.  Ebling,  Assistant  to  the  Dean 
N.  S.  Fish,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  C.  Frazier,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
A.  A.  Granovsky,  Economic  Ento- 
mology 

A.  J.  Haas,  Executive  Secretary 
R.  T.  Harris,  Dairy  Tests 
Elsie  Hess,  Home  Economics 
E.  D.  Holden,  Agronomy 
C.  A.  Hoppert,  Agr.  Chemistry 
L.  K.  Jones,  Plant  Pathology 
Grace  Langdon,  Agr.  Journalism 
Samuel  Lepkovsky,  Agr.  Chemistry 
V.  G.  Milum,  Economic  Entomology 
E.  M.  Nelson,  Agr.  Chemistry 
G.  T.  Nightingale,  Horticulture 
A.  J.  Riker,  Plant  Pathology 
Marianna  T.  Sell,  Agr.  Chemistry 
L.  C.  Thomsen,  Dairy  Husbandry 
C.  E.  Walsh,  Agr.  Engineering 


J.  A.  Anderson,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
R.  M.  Bethke,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Archie  Black,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Dorothy  Bradbury,  Horticulture 
Lloyd  Burkey,  Agr.  Bacteiiology 
Conrad  Elveljem,  Agr.  Chemistry 
R.  E.  Frost,  Agr.  Journalism 
O.  H.  Gerhardt,  Agr.  Chemistry 
Gerald  Heebink,  Animal  Husbandry 
H.  S.  Irwin,  Agr.  Economics 
W.  C.  Jensen,  Agr.  Economics 
O.  N.  Johnson,  Poultry  Husbandry 
J.  H.  Jones,  Agr.  Chemistry 

C.  C.  Lindegren,  Plant  Pathology 
Edgar  Martin,  Animal  Husbandry 

A.  J.  Moyer,  Genetics 
N.  T.  Nelson,  Agronomy 
O J.  Noer,  Soils 

G.  A.  Palmer,  Agr.  Engineering 
W.  H.  Pierre,  Soils 
E.  Rankin,  Agr.  Chemistry 
T.  E.  Rawlins,  Horticulture 
E.  G.  Schmidt,  Agr.  Chemistry 
W.  P.  Smith,  Agr.  Bacteriology 
M.  E.  Smith,  Inst.  Administration 

D.  G.  Steele,  Genetics 
Henry  Stevens,  Genetics 
Frances  W.  Streets,  Plant  Path- 
ology 

R.  B.  Streets,  Plant  Pathology 
Ferne  E.  Taylor,  Inst.  Administra- 
tion 

B.  L.  Warwick,  Veterinary  Science 
V.  R.  Wurtz  Agr.  Economics 

J.  J.  Yorke,  Genetics 


Bulletin  356 


August,  1923 


* V* 

<7 A 


v.w 


— 1 

. 

::>:g 

.f  r»  * . % *****  .«*v*  * Jf'M  h *.• 

%*»*■•  S*fm*«*il*4S.mS  rff V nji  «,*# 
%%»#«*%  v jf*%  %4 fx^M  #*% 


|t*4T  J*?  « % % * *- » * * **  ^ ^ * V *'%$<#  «<*-*  «*#  «*£  #&*W  <fc*5#*-»  * * ’ * 9 * ’*»  ’**  *£&»£  1%^  * 9 

R..***  * -*  *^’^'* »’* »V  » *« V*«f ♦ V< .*>*.*  Jfm**/iiJ?*!‘ * * r » » ’ », » »uf  j ?>«*/ * » * ♦ » « » . * •,)•! 

Bfe*  S*  ?“?  #»#  * * /*  * v*  n %m  t ***-:. * ,;*t  •v\*.*,v  * * *v*«?'*V’«  *“*vi  *v  v; « ” »*»*  S ~®  C w * * * * » * # w?  *v  *„•*.•,  *Z1**  Si  I 
r*r»« * * * * *f  .?f  S ?.**■.*«* . “25 **  2*1  *.*;*.■£*.*?  ^ **  * * * ***^*'^  * »*.  %■*•**** 

*1  * *?■»/  %>  £ *1  * * * •«  %**%*^.  *$•**'$*%:  *L  * * * M *»**■■&*%  * * **&&*»■  *►.&*-«  # * #•**.•&«*  * v * #*-  %%?&  4h  %*  * ''  + *■**& %* 

p «S:<: 

»>*»»>*<<*«*>  vy  V3 

***»*♦»  .-.  .»*AV  »-  ■,/«Vt»y,-  •AW.-ty,  .vt^vty  V?.  ■ * a.  ..Vi.-  « ■ . .*  * * -Iv  • • '411** 


AC;  R I Cl  ’ LT  l K \ LEXPK  R I M ENT  STATION 
tJNIVEKSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


MADISON 


3:-:-:s;£-:-:-rca:<-rv-:o:-; 

»*«  WAMi1*,  %%‘i 

^s:::cik^!:*:*:*s^os:.;. 

**  * * 


vilSi* 

vviy#* 

‘tWtr. 
<*>■#>  *■ *«st 

.'//A 


cexciku: 


♦ * «k# » ^ 

,#'5»t't^*%< 

>««»,»  » »<*  -i 


Com 

Breeding 


Why? 

1.  Why  do  red  ears  of  corn  appear  in  yellow  or  white 

varieties  when  no  red  seed  is  ever  planted? 

Pages  18-20. 

2.  Why  are  white  kernels  constantly  found  in  yellow 

varieties  even  when  they  are  discarded  every 
year  before  planting?  Page  22. 

3.  Can  the  white,  off-type  kernels  be  eliminated 

easily  in  any  way?  Page  23. 

4.  What  does  the  appearance  of  white  or  albino  corn 

seedlings  mean?  Pages  27-29. 

5.  Can  one  select  for  early  maturity?  Pa#ge  32 

6.  Does  inbreeding  (or  close  selection  to  type)  de- 

crease yield  and  how  can  it  be  avoided? 

Pages  32-34. 

7.  Do  show  characters  of  a seed  ear  have  anything 

to  do  with  yield? 

Pages  35-36. 


Corn  Breeding 

E.  W.  Lindstrom 

CORN  BREEDING  is  a source  of  both  pride  and  profit  to 
many  enterprising  farmers. 

The  local  breeder  of  corn  is  always  needed  despite  the  well 
developed  federal  and  state  experiment  stations  and  reputable 
seed  companies  that  are  constantly  breeding  corn.  This  crop 
demands  constant  breeding  to  adapt  it  to  different  parts  of 
the  state  and  especially  to  keep  the  variety  pure  Since  all 
this  cannot  be  done  by  the  state  experiment  station,  some 
local  breeder  must  develop  reliable  seed  corn  for  his  neigh- 
borhood. 

Selecting  the  best  ears  in  the  field  is  a simple  method  and 
is  economically  done  although  there  are  many  complicated 
systems.1 

Such  questions  as  those  asked  on  the  opposite  page  are 
very  common  to  any  One  growing  seed  corn. 

If  the  answers  to  the  questions  do  nothing  else,  they  should 
at  least  indicate  what  not  to  do  under  certain  circumstances, 
which  would  often  mean  a saving  of  time  and  money. 

Some  corn  breeders  whose  breeding  stock  produced  a high 
proportion  of  white  seedlings  have  treated  their  seed,  others 
have  used  excess  of  fertilizers,  and  still  others  have  spent 
hours  hoeing  out  white  seedlings  or  have  worried  about  dis- 
eases and  insects  in  their  soil.  None  of  these  treatments,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  affect  in  any  way  the  appearance  of  the  ordi- 
nary white  seedlings  and  only  when  the  cause  is  found  can 
the  situation  be  handled  wisely. 

A study  of  the  heredity  of  the  corn  plant  often  answers 
many  questions  about  corn.  Breeding  is  based  on  a knowl- 
edge of  the  inheritance  of  characters  and  qualities.  This  in 
itself  is  a fascinating  subject  and  has  considerable  importance 
from  the  commercial  standpoint.  The  corn  breeder,  the 
county  agent,  and  the  agricultural  teacher  must  know  some- 


^he  ear-to-row  method,  the  ear-remnant  method,  or  the  method  of  using  hybrid 
seed  are  probably  impractical  to  the  average  corn  breeder  at  this  time.  Information 
and  help  in  any  of  these  methods  can  be  had  from  the  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  at  Madison. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


thing  of  the  way  in  which  characters  are  transmitted  or  in- 
herited in  order  to  deal  with  plant  breeding  intelligently. 

The  corn  plant  is  well  adapted  to  a study  in  heredity.  First, 
there  are  large  numbers  of  different  types  of  corn  such  as 
dent,  flint,  sweet,  pop,  flour,  red,  white,  yellow,  purple, 
podded,  and  a score  of  other  types ; and  second,  corn  is  easily 
cross-bred.  The  crossing  of  corn,  which  is  its  natural  method 
of  pollination,  is  so  important  in  breeding  work  that  it  should 
be  well  understood. 

How  Com  is  Pollinated 

Corn  is  naturally  cross-pollinated.  It  differs  in  this  respect 
from  wheat,  oats,  barley,  peas,  beans,  and  soybeans,  all  of 
which  are  naturally  self-pollinated.  The  wind  blows  the  corn 
pollen  about,  sometimes  as  far  as  half  a mile,  scattering  the 
pollen  so  that  it  falls  on  plants  other  than  the  one  producing 
it.  % 

In  corn  the  male  element,  the  pollen,  is  produced  in  the 
tassels  while  the  female  element,  the  eggs  or  ovules  are 
borne  on  the  young  cob.  Each  normal  healthy  corn  plant 
produces  over  2,000,000  pollen  grains  and  about  500-1000 
ovules. 

To  produce  a normal  ear  of  corn,  at  least  one  pollen  grain 
must  fall  on  each  silk,  grow  down  this  long  thread-like  affair 
and  finally  fertilize  the  ovule  or  egg  at  its  base.  This  soon 
produces  the  young  embryo  plant  seen  in  the  corn  grain,  as 
well  as  the  starchy  food  material  surrounding  the  young 
plant,  each  fertilized  ovule  producing  a single  kernel.  If  any 
of  the  silks  fail  to  receive  pollen,  or  if  for  any  other  reason 
the  ovules  fail  to  develop,  there  is  a corresponding  deficiency 
of  kernels.  This  condition  is  commonly  seen  at  the  extreme 
tip  of  the  ear. 

Because  of  the  distance  between*  the  tassel  and  the  silks  on 
a corn  plant  (from  2 to  4 feet)  and  because  the  pollen  is  very 
light  in  weight,  there  is  much  chance  that  the  plant’s  own 
pollen  will  be  blown  aside  and  that  the  silks  will  be  pollinated 
by  pollen  from  another  plant.  This  is  what  is  meant  by  cross- 
pollination. Sometimes  the  pollen  matures  at  slightly  dif- 
ferent times  from  the  silks,  a fact  which  also  aids  cross- 
pollination. 


Corn  Breeding 


5 


Cross-pollination  makes  corn  breeding  difficult.  The  mother 
plant  can  be  controlled  by  saving  its  seed  but  the  male  con- 
tribution is  always  uncertain.  Experience  shows  that  the 
male  plant  has  as  much  effect  on  the  progeny  as  the  female, 
and  accordingly  it  cannot  be  neglected. 

Pollination  can  be  artificially  controlled  by  bagging  the 
plants.  This  is,  however,  impracticable  as  an  ordinary  corn 
breeding  method. 

Structure  of  Corn  Grain 

The  make-up  of  the  corn  grain  is  another  matter  that 
should  be  understood  in  discussing  the  heredity  of  corn.  As 
seen  under  the  microscope,  the  kernel  of  corn  has  the  follow- 
ing constitution,  shown  in  the  diagram. 

Beginning  at  the  outside,  there  are  several  layers  of  thin 
cells  called  the  seed-coat  or  pericarp.  Inside  this  is  a single 


FIG.  1— DIAGRAM  OF  A CORN  GRAIN 

A cross-section  sketch  showing  the  relative  location  of  the  different  parts  of  the 

kernel. 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


distinct  series  of  cells  called  the  aleurone  layer.  See  Fig.  1. 
Next  come  the  larger  and  looser  starch  cells  of  the  endosperm 
proper.  These  cells  surround  the  young  corn  plant  (embryo) 
and  contain  the  food  materials  for  the  germinating  seedling 
until  its  own  roots  and  leaves  can  function. 

Each  of  these  three  kinds  of  cells  may  carry  distinctive 
colors.  In  addition,  the  endosperm  cells  may  contain  different 
kinds  of  starch  (or  dextrin),  making  the  kernel  a dent,  flint, 
pop,  flour,  or  sweet  corn. 

Colors  of  the  Grain 

Seed  coat  color.  As  a rule  two  general  colors,  red  and 
white,  occur  in  the  seed-coat.2  Such  varieties  as  Cardinal 
King  Dent,  King  Phillip  Flint,  and  Northwestern  Dent,  have 
red  seed  coats.  The  white  or  colorless  seed  coat  is  found  in 
Golden  Glow  Dent,  Murdock  Dent,  Clark’s  Dent,  Silver  King 
Dent,  Crosby  Sweet,  Golden  Bantam  Sweet,  Black  Mexican 
Sweet,  Country  Gentleman  Sweet,  Yellow  Flint,  White  Flint, 
Rice  Pop,  and  many  others. 

All  ears  on  any  individual  plant  are  entirely  of  the  same 
color,  either  red  or  white.  Very  rarely  bud  sports  occur,  in 
which  case  red  and  white  seed  coat  colors  may  be  found  on 
the  same  plant. 

The  seed  coat  of  the  corn  grain  belongs  to  the  mother  plant, 
while  the  endosperm  (starchy  food  materials),  including  the 
aleurone  layer,  belongs  to  the  young  embryo  plant  contained 
therein.  The  seed  coat  is  produced  by  the  mother  plant  as 
can  easily  be  seen  by  placing  a bag  over  an  ear  before  the 
silks  come  out.  If  this  is  done  neither  the  endosperm  nor 
embryo  develop  within  the  thin  seed  coat  which  is  already 
present.  If  fertilized  by  pollen,  however,  the  embryo  plant, 
the  endosperm  and  the  aleurone  layer  develop  within  this 
seed  coat.  It  is  very  important  to  realize  that  the  seed  coat 
belongs  to  one  generation  (parent),  and  the  endosperm  and 
embryo  plant  to  the  next  generation  (progeny). 

Aleurone  color.  Commercially,  aleurone  color  in  corn  does 
not  play  a very  important  part.  But  sometimes  it  does  cause 
a contamination  of  good  seed  corn  as  every  farmer  knows 
who  has  seen  ears  speckled  with  blue  grains.  The  only  im- 

2Occasionally  others  are  seen,  such  as  calico  (striped  red  and 
white),  brown,  or,. lighter  shades  of  red,  but  these  are  not  of  great  commercial  im- 
portance. The  red  tint  of  smut-nosed  flint  is  carried  in  the  seed  coat  and  is  de- 
veloped by  the  gradual  entrance  of  light  at  the  upper  end  of  the  ear. 


Corn  Breeding 


/ 


portant  varieties  which  have  aleurone  color  are  the  Black 
Mexican  Sweet  Corn,  Squaw  Corn  and  the  Blue  Pop  Corn. 
The  native  Indian  corns  also  contain  much  aleurone  color. 

There  are  three  general  colors  carried  in  the  aleurone  layer 
of  cells  which  lies  immediately  below  the  seed  coat  and  forms 
the  outer  layer  of  the  endosperm.  These  are  purple  (or 
bluish-black),  red,  and  colorless.  There  are  no  commercial 
varieties  with  pure  red  aleurone  color.  The  common  white 
or  yellow  dent  and  flint  corns  have  the  colorless  aleurone,  as 
do  the  red  seed-coated  varieties.  It  is  possible,  however,  to 
produce  by  cross-breeding  an  ear  with  a red  seed  coat  over- 
lying  a purple  aleurone  color,  making  a dark  red  combination. 
In  other  words,  the  seed  coat  and  aleurone  colors  are  inde- 
pendent of  each  other ; one  or  both  may  be  present  in  the 
same  grain. 

Endosperm  color.  The  endosperm  proper  lying  within  the 
aleurone  layer  carries  its  own  series  of  colors.  They  range 
from  a dark  orange-yellow  to  white,  with  all  gradations  of 
yellow  color  intervening.  The  Golden  Bantam  sweet  corn 
contains  one  of  the  darker  shades  of  yellow,  while  the  Yellow 
Flint,  Golden  Glow,  Murdock  or  Reid’s  Yellow  Dent  varieties 
are  just  a trifle  lighter  in  shade.  The  endosperm  color  of 
Silver  King,  Boone  County  White,  Silver  Mine,  White  Flint, 
or  Cardinal  King  is  white  or  colorless. 

The  yellow  series  of  endosperm  colors  is  independent  of 
both  seed-coat  and  aleurone  color.  That  is,  we  may  have 
either  yellow  or  white  endosperm  overlaid  by  either  red  or 
white  seed  coat  or  by  either  purple,  red  or  colorless  aleurone. 
A red  variety  like  Cardinal  King  may  have  both  yellow  and 
white  kernels.  As  a matter  of  fact,  Cardinal  King  has  a large 
majority  of  white  kernels. 

Cob  Color 

The  cob ’like  the  seed  coat  is  a part  of  the  mother  plant. 
There  are  two  general  colors  of  the  cob,  red  and  white.3 
Varieties  such  as  Golden  Glow,  Reid’s  Yellow  Dent,  Learning, 
Murdock,  Clark,  and  Cardinal  King  have  red  cobs.  White- 
cobbed  varieties  are  Silver  King,  Silver  Mine,  Boone  County 
White,  Evergreen  Sweet,  Crosby  Sweet,  Golden  Bantam 
Sweet,  and  Country  Gentleman  Sweet. 

3Other  colors  such  as  brown,  purple,  or  red-striped  (of  calico  corn)  are 
sometimes  found,  but  they  are  not  very  important  commercially. 


TABLE  1. — COLORS  OF  CORN  VARIETIES 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


w 


c/3 

<o 

w . 
>o 


2 

pi  A 

euo 

c/3_i 

2° 

Pu 

£ 

W 


£ **  « 

o o o o .t;  .tJ 

r3  J3  M 

v t>  <u  <u  > > 

Jh  >i  >5  in  > > 


£ £ 


>«  i*  >H 


W 

og 

§o 

Wu 

.J 

< 


u u u u u 


P4  « 


T5  TJ  T3  .t: 

<U  l>  J-  U r- 

« « > Pi 


££££££££££££ 


OP^ 

o o 

go 

WtJ 

w 

C/3 


u 

Q 

Q 

5 

Q 

e 

.S 

s 

G 

_o 

E 

£ 

c/3 

u 

V 

0) 

V 

bo 

bo 

G 

G 

Wi 

.2* 

E 

E 

4> 

S 

c3 

& 

c/3 

73 

C 

M 

M 

$ 

2: 

2 

e>* 

£ 

j2 

!a 

(O 

O 

£ 

G 

ca 

« 

•8 

g 

a; 

Silver 

Cardins 

.a 

in 

o 

£ 

bo 

G 

M 

>H 

*bo 

G 

o 

£ 

Smut 

G 

V 

•g 

o 

O 

o 

Ih 

o 

o 

K 

£ 

<n 

g §* 

s * 

■R  s 


U a 5 1 


Corn  Breeding 


9 


A summary  of  the  different  colors  of  a number  of  corn 
varieties  is  arranged  in  Table  I. 


Different  Kindis  of  Endosperm 

Besides  color,  the  endosperm  of  the  corn  grain  carries  other 
qualities  such  as  the  dent,  flint,  pop,  flour,  or  sweet  charac- 
teristics. These  qualities  are  caused  by  the  distribution  and 
the  nature  of  the  starch  contained  in  the  endosperm  of  the 
grain. 

Dent  Corn.  This  is  the  characteristic  type  of  grain  de- 
veloped in  commercial  varieties  grown  in  the  corn  belt.  There 
are  all  degrees  of  denting  of  the  kernel,  running  from  the 
deep,  rough  dent  of  the  Riley’s  Favorite  and  Clark  Yellow 
Dent  varieties  to  the  shallow,  dimpled  dent  of  the  Early 
Yellow  Dent  (Wis.  No.  8)  or  Northwestern  Dent  varieties. 
The  rough  type  seems  better  adapted  to  the  southern  areas 
of  the  United  States,  while  the  smooth  or  shallow  dent  is 
most  often  seen  in  the  northern  limits,  where  earliness  of 
maturity  is  necessary. 

The  dent  in  the  corn  kernel  is  conditioned  by  the  arrange- 
ment or  location  of  two  kinds  of  starch,  the  soft  (dull)  and 
the  hard  (shiny).  The  soft  starch  in  dent  corns  is  ordi- 
narily located  around  the  small  embryo  and  extends  from 
there  until  it  covers  the  top  of  the  seed.  The  hard,  shiny 
starch  is  formed  only  at  the  sides  of  the  grain.  As  the  kernel 
dries  on  maturing,  the  soft  starchy  area  shrinks  much  more 
than  the  hard  and  causes  the  denting  of  the  kernel  at  the  top. 
The  hard  starch  at  the  sides  prevents  any  denting  or  shrinking 
there. 

Flint  Corn.  Flint  varieties  such  as  Longfellow,  King 
Phillip,  Smut-nose,  and  White  Flint,  have  the  two  kinds  of 
starch,  hard  and  soft,  but  they  are  distributed  differently  than 
in  the  dent  corns.  The  soft  starch  practically  surrounds  the 
embryo.  It  is  covered  entirely  by  the  hard,  shiny  starch. 
When  the  flint  kernel  dries,  it  shrinks  evenly  at  all  points, 
making  a uniformly  hard,  smooth  grain. 

Flour  Corn.  In  the  flour  corns  there  is  practically  no  hard 
starch,  only  the  soft  starch  surrounding  the  embryo.  This 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


shrinks  uniformly  on  drying  giving  a smooth  kernel,  which  is 
soft  and  somewhat  dull  in  appearance. 

Pop  Corn.  The  endosperm  of  the  kernel  in  pop  varieties  is 
practically  all  hard  starch.  This  dries  to  form  a small  but 
unusually  hard  and  smooth  kernel. 

Sweet  Corn.  Sweet  or  sugar  corn  when  dry  has  a charac- 
teristic wrinkled  appearance  of  the  kernels.  This  is  true  of  all 
the  varieties  such  as  Golden  Bantam,  Evergreen,  Crosby, 
Hickox,  Country  Gentleman,  or  Black  Mexican.  It  is  said 
that  sweet  corn  has  lost  the  ability  to  mature  starch  normally. 

There  are  several  types  of  sweet  corn  based  on  kernel  char- 
acters. One  is  typified  by  the  Evergreen  variety,  in  which 
the  dried,  wrinkled  grains  show  a conspicuous  dent  at  the  top 
of  the  kernel.  This  is  nothing  but  a dent  corn  which  has  lost 
the  ability  to  form  starch  normally.  Another  type  is  found  in 
varieties  like  the  Golden  Bantam  or  Crosby,  which  have  no 
conspicuous  dent  in  the  kernels.  The  grain  is  uniformly 
wrinkled  and  not  prominently  dented.  Such  varieties  are 
nothing  but  latent  flint  corns.  These  statements  are  easily 
verified  by  making  crosses  of  the  different  sweet  corn  types 
with  both  flint  and  dent  varieties. 

Defective  and  abortive  endosperm.  Within  recent  years, 
the  plant  breeder  has  found  that  many  of  our  best  com- 
mercial varieties  of  corn,  especially  when  inbred,  show  a cer- 
tain percentage  of  defective  or  abortive  grains.  Usually 
these  are  not  caused  by  poor . conditions  of  growth  but  are 
hereditary.  In  general  there  are  two  sorts  of  abnormal 
grains.  (Fig.  2).  In  one  the  food  materials  (endosperm) 
have  completely  aborted  leaving  only  a thin,  papery  hull 
(seed-coat)  instead  of  a full  grain.  Such  grains  will  not 
germinate.  In  the  other  sort  the  grain  is  defective  in  the 
amount  of  endosperm  produced,  thereby  reducing  the  per- 
centage of  germination  or  producing  weak  seedlings.  In 
either  case  the  appearance  of  the  ear  is  impaired  by  these 
abnormal  grains. 

Seeds  of  both  these  types  have  been  found  in  practically 
all  commercial  types  of  corn,  whether  dent,  flint,  or  sweet, 
corn.  Once  in  a variety  it  is  very  difficult  to  eliminate  them, 
and  they  will  persist  in  spite  of  all  ordinary  precautions. 


Corn  Breeding 


11 


FIG.  2— DEFECTIVE  KERNELS 

Two  hand-pollinated  ears  showing  a sprinkling  of  defective  grains.  Such  abnormal 
grains  are  hereditary,  and  are  found  in  most  varieties  of  corn,  especially  when  inbred 
closely. 


General  Characters  of  the  Seed  Ear 


Taking  the  ear  as  a whole,  there  are  numerous  and  different 
characteristics  which  are  worthy  of  attention. 

Number  of  rows.  There  is  a wide  range  of  variation  in  the 
number  of  rows  of  our  commercial  varieties  of  corn.  They 
range  from  the  eight-rowed  condition,  characteristic  of  most 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


of  the  flints,  Black  Mexican  Sweet  and  Golden  Bantam  Sweet 
corn,  to  the  18-20-22-24,  or  26-rowed  condition  of  the  larger 
dent  and  sweet  varieties. 

Within  the  varieties  themselves  there  is  considerable  vari- 
ation, especially  in  the  dent  varieties.  For  example  in  vari- 
eties like  Golden  Glow,  Silver  King,  Cardinal  King,  Murdock’s 
Yellow  Dent,  Early  Evergreen  or  Stowell’s  Evergreen,  we 
sometimes  get  the  complete  range  from  8 to  26  rows  in  an 
ordinary  field  of  any  size.  The  average  is  usually  about  16 
to  18  rows,  there  being  very  few  of  the  extreme  conditions. 

Among  the  flints  (Yellow  Flint,  White  Flint,  King  Phillip) 
and  the  sweet  varieties  like  Golden  Bantam  or  Black  Mexi- 
can there  is  much  less  variability.  The  great  majority  are 
8-rowed,  only  occasionally  do  we  get  10-  or  12-rowed  ears. 

There  are  also  varieties  like  the  Crosby  sweet  corn  and 
some  of  the  popcorns  that  have  a general  average  of  12 
rows.  The  variability  here  is  not  so  great  as  in  the  dent 
corns  nor  so  limited  as  in  the  flints.  Variation  to  8,  10,  14  or 
16  rows  sometimes  occur. 

Another  class  in  regard  to  number  of  rows,  is  found  in 
the  irregularly  rowed  condition  which  is  typical  of  the 
Country  Gentleman  sweet  corn  (Fig.  3).  Why  does  this 


FIG.  3— VARIETIES  OF  SWEET  CORN 

Showing  the  irregularly  rowed  condition  of  the  Country  Gentlemen  variety  (center 
ear)  in  contrast  with  the  even  rows  of  other  varieties.  Varieties  from  left  to  right— 
Evergreen,  Hickox,  Country  Gentlemen,  Crosby,  Golden  Bantam. 


Corn  Breeding 


13 


variety  have  irregular  rows,  and  why  do  other  varieties  or- 
dinarily have  an  even  number  of  rows? 

To  explain  this  it  is  necessary  to  know  that  the  corn  ear 
botanically  is  thought  to  be  a compressed  and  fused  group  of 
branches  each  bearing  a series  of  paired  spikelets  along  its 
full  length.  In  each  spikelet  there  are  two  flowers.  In  the 
even-rowed  types,  one  of  the  two  flowers  of  each  spikelet 
degenerates  leaving  one  to  grow  and  form  the  grain  thereby 
giving  an  even  number  of  rows  along  the  ear.  In  types  like 
the  Country  Gentleman  both  flowers  of  each  paired  spikelet 


FIG.  4 — HERITADLE  DEFECTS  IN  TORN  EARS 

The  Ramosa  or  branched-ear  type  is  recessive  while  the  pod  type  is  dominant  to 
the  normal  type. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


are  said  to  grow  and  accordingly  become  crowded  irregularly 
on  the  ear. 

Pod  Corn.  One  of  the  off-types  of  ear  found  occasionally 
in  field  corn  is  one  with  the  separate  kernels  entirely  covered 
with  chaff  or  glumes  (Fig.  4).  This  is  called  pod-corn  and 
is  supposed  to  represent  an  ancestral  character  of  corn.  Ex- 
cept for  the  ear  and  the  tassel,  which  is  heavier  and  coarser 
than  normal,  a podded  type  of  corn  looks  like  an  ordinary 
corn  plant.  This  type  is  commercially  worthless. 

Branched-ear  or  Ramosa-ear.  This  is  another  abnormal 
type  of  ear  found  rarely  in  commercial  fields.  Instead  of  a 
single  cob,  this  type  has  distinct  branches  in  the  ear,  each 
bearing  normal  seeds  as  shown  in  the  figure  (Fig.  4).  The 
tassel  of  a ramosa  plant  is  quite  distinct  in  the  field  and  the 
type  can  be  easily  rogued  before  the  pollen  is  shed.  The 
side  branches  along  the  main  branch  of  the  tassel  grow  all 
the  way  up  this  central  spike  in  a form  resembling  that  of  a 
spruce  tree,  leaving  no  unbranched,  terminal,  central  spike 
as  is  the  case  in  normal  corn. 

This  type  should  not  be  confused  with  a certain  abnormal 
ear  that  shows  two  or  more  short  branches  on  the  ear. 

Fancy  Points.  In  judging  corn  at  shows  there  are  certain 
general  characters  of  the  ear  that  are  given  considerable  at- 
tention. Among  these  are  soundness,  maturity,  trueness  to 
an  ideal  type,  size  of  ear,  uniformity  of  ears,  uniformity  of 
kernels,  type  of  kernels  (shape,  depth  and  space  between), 
shelling  percentage,  color  of  cob,  color  of  kernels,  straight- 
ness of  rows,  shape  of  ear,  and  character  of  butts  and  tips. 
These  various  characteristics  may  be  divided  into  two  groups, 
one  including  useful  breeding  characteristics,  the  other  in- 
cluding certain  fancy  points  or  show  characters. 

From  a breeding  standpoint,  the  following  are  often  classed 
as  useful ; soundness,  maturity,  size  of  ear,  shelling  percent- 
age, and  perhaps  type  of  kernel.  Most  of  the  other  common 
show  characters  such  as  uniformity  of  ears,  trueness  to  an 
ideal  type,  uniformity  of  kernels,  color  of  cob,  color  of  ker- 
nels, straightness  of  rows,  shape  of  ear  and  character  of  butts 
and  tips  are  sometimes  called  fancy  points.  Their  relation  to 
yield  will  be  discussed  in  a later  section. 


Corn  Breeding 


15 


Heredity  of  Grain  and  Ear  Characters 

To  show  how  the  characteristics  of  the  ear  of  a corn  plant 
behave  in  heredity  a typical  case  may  be  taken  and  followed 
through.  The  system  of  heredity  thus  explained  will  apply  in 
general. 

Inheritance  of  seed-coat  color.  What  happens  when  white 
corn  is  crossed  with  red  corn,  either  by  accident  or  experi- 
mentally? To  test  this,  two  crosses  can  be  made  using  for 
example  a pure  strain  of  Silver  King  and  one  of  Cardinal 
King,  which  has  a red  seed-coat,  as  follows : 

a.  Pure  Silver  King  X pollen  of  Cardinal  King. 

b.  Pure  Cardinal  King  X pollen  of  Silver  King. 

If  these  crosses  are  made  properly  in  the  summer  by  bagging 
the  plants,  harvest  time  will  show  that  the  crossed  ear  of  a 
will  be  just  as  white  as  the  ordinary  ear  of  Silver  King  and 
that  of  b just  as  red  as  the  normal  Cardinal  King.  In  other 
words,  the  cross-pollination  has  not  changed  the  color  of  the 
seed-coat  in  the  year  the  cross  is  made.  This  is  not  strange, 
for  the  red  or  white  seed-coat  (pericarp)  color  was  pro- 
duced before  pollination.  It  is  mother  tissue  just  as  the 
stalks  and  leaves  are. 

However,  if  seeds  from  each  of  these  cross-pollinated  ears 
are  planted  separately  the  following  year,  all  the  progeny 
(hybrids)  at  harvest  time  will  have  red  ears  no  different  in 
appearance  from  the  original  Cardinal  King.  Thus  a white 
variety  pollinated  by  pollen  from  a red  variety  gives  red 
hybrids  and  red  crossed  with  pollen  from  a white  variety  also 
gives  red  hybrids.  The  reciprocal  crosses  give  the  same  re- 
sults, which  shows  that  both  parents  contribute  to  the  progeny 
equally.  This  is  a general  rule  in  the  system  of  heredity.  Red 
color  is  dominant  in  inheritance  to  white  in  this  case. 

Are  these  red  hybrid  ears  produced  by  cross-pollination 
like  ordinary  Cardinal  King  ears?  They  look  the  same,  but 
will  they  breed  similarly?  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  when 
pure  Cardinal  King  is  self-pollinated  or  even  crossed  by  white 
corn,  the  immediate  offspring  are  all  red.  This  will  not  be  true 
of  the  red  hybrid  ears. 

The  red  hybrid  plants  produced  by  crossing  red  and  white 
corn  can  be  tested  in  two  ways,  (1)  by  self-pollinating  them, 
and  (2)  by  crossing  them  with  white  corn. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


When  self-pollinated  (or  inbred)  and  the  seed  grown  in  the 
following  year,  a definite  result  from  the  hybrid  red  plants  is 
noted.  The  plants  coming  from  such  self-pollinated  red  hy- 
brid seed  show  at  harvest  time  that  there  are  two  kinds  of 
plants.  One  bears  red  ears  and  the  other  white  ears.  If  a 
hundred  or  more  plants  are  counted  there  will  be  on  the 
average  about  75  percent  red-  and  25  percent  white-eared 
plants. 

However,  if  some  of  these  same  red  hybrid  plants  instead  of 
being  self-pollinated  are  crossed  with  white  corn  (hybrid  red 
crossed  with  pure  white  pollen,  or  even  a pure  white  variety 
crossed  with  hybrid  red  pollen)  and  the  seed  grown,  a differ- 
ent result  is  found.  The  progeny  from  either  of  these  crosses 
shows  about  50  percent  red-  and  50  percent  white-eared 
plants. 

Both  results  can  be  explained  by  the  fact  that  the  hybrid 
red  plants  are  producing  on  the  average  50  percent  red-  and 
50  percent  white-carrying  eggs  (ovules)  as  well  as  50  percent 
red-  and  50  percent  white-producing  pollen  grains. 

The  result  of  self-pollinating  the  red  hybrid  ears  is  ex- 
plained in  Table  II. 

TABLE  II.— SELF-POLLINATED  HYBRID  EARS  OF  THE  CROSS 
RED  X WHITE  (RR  X WW) 


Eggs  of  any 
hybrid  plant 

Pollen  of  any 
hybrid  plant 

Progeny 

25%  R 

X 

25%  R 

_ 

25%  RR 

—Pure  Red 

25%  R 

X 

25%  W 

— 

25%  RW 

— Hybrid  Red 

25%  W 

X 

25%  R 

' 

25%  RW 

— Hybrid  Red 

25%  W 

X 

25%  W 

= 

25%  WW 

—Pure  White 

In  Table  II  the  explanation  for  the  75  percent  red  and  25 
percent  white  progeny  from  hybrid  red  ears  lies  in  the  equal 
chance  of  red-  or  white-carrying  eggs  being  pollinated  by 
either  red-  or  white-producing  pollen.  In  the  long  run  there 
is  an  equal  chance  of  any  of  the  four  combinations,  R X 
rX  w,  w XR,w  X w.  - If  sufficiently  large  numbers  are 
grown  this  is  most  certainly  found  to  be  true. 

Since  red  color  in  the  seed  coat  is  dominant  to  white,  the 
three  of  these  combinations  carrying  r (red)  will  show  up  as 
red  (RR,  RW,  WR,)  while  the  fourth  (ww)  will  be  pure 
white  exactly  like  the  original  parent.  It  contains  no  trace  of 
the  red  parent  or  red  hybrid  ancestor.  If  kept  from  being 


Corn  Breeding 


17 


crossed  by  red  varieties,  it  will  breed  true  for  white  color 
from  then  on. 

The  test  of  the  hybrid  red  ears  made  by  crossing-  them  with 
a white  corn  is  shown  in  the  next  table. 

TABLE  III. — HYBRID  RED  PLANTS  CROSSED  BY  PURE  WHITE  CORN 


Hybrid  red 

Pure  white  variety 

Progeny 

produces 

produces 

50%  R eggs 

X 

50%  W pollen  = 

50%  RW  —Red 

50%  W eggs 

X 

50%  W pollen  = 

50%  WW  -White 

Pure  white  variety 

Hybrid  red 

Progeny 

produces 

produces 

50%  W eggs 

X 

50%  R pollen  = 

50%  WR  -Red 

50%  W eggs 

X 

50%  W pollen  = 

50%  WW  —White 

Thus  in  either  case  results  are  identical.  About  half  of  the 
progeny  have  red  and  the  other  half  have  white  ears.  This 
proves  that  the  hybrid  red  plants  are  different  from  ordinary 
red  plants  although  they  may  look  exactly  like  them.  These 
two  crosses  again  prove  that  the  male  side  carries  and  trans- 
mits hereditary  characters  exactly  like  the  female  side.  Hence 
the  pollen  of  corn  in  breeding  work  cannot  be  neglected,  for 
besides  color  it  may  transmit  other  characters  like  high  yield, 
vigor,  and  earliness. 

In  general  there  are  two  kinds  of  the  dominant  type  (red  in 
this  case)  in  heredity.  One  is  pure  like  the  pure  variety  and 
produces  only  one  kind  of  eggs  or  pollen.  The  other  is  hybrid 
in  nature  and  produces  on  the  average  half  of  one  kind  (red  in 
this  case)  and  half  of  the  other  kind  of  eggs  or  pollen. 

In  case  of  the  recessive  character  (white  in  this  case)  there 
can  be  only  one  sort  of  plant.  Accordingly  when  dealing 
with  recessive  characters,  like  white  seed-coat,  one  can  be 
sure  that  both  the  eggs  and  the  pollen  grains  of  a single  plant 
are  all  white-producing  (or  recessive). 

This  in  general  is  the  system  that  underlies  the  trans- 
mission of  hundreds  of  characters  in  the  corn  plant.  It  is 
based  on  the  following  facts : 

1.  That  both  parents  contribute  equally  to  the  offspring. 

2.  That  certain  characters  go  in  pairs,  one  of  the  pair 
commonly  being  dominant  (not  always  completely  so)  and 
the  other  recessive. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


3.  That  the  hybrid  between  two  characters  of  a pair  con- 
tains the  recessive  although  it  may  be  hidden  from  view. 

4.  That  the  hybrid  produces  two  kinds  of  germ  cells  (eggs 
or  pollen)  in  equal  numbers,  one  half  containing  the  dominant 
and  the  other  half  the  recessive  factor. 

5.  That  when  pollination  takes  place  there  is  an  equal 
chance  of  either  kind  of  pollen  grain  pollinating  either  kind 
of  egg. 

These  breeding  facts  can  be  illustrated  in  another  manner  as 

follows : 


Parents  Red  Variety 

RR 

Eggs  all  R 


First  Hybrid  Generation 

Eggs  50%  R 
50%  W 


All  RW 


White  Variety 
WW 

Pollen  all  W 


Hybrid  Red 

Pollen  50%  R 
50%  W 


Second  Hybrid  Generation  (Produced  by  self-pollinated  red-hybrids) 
1 R R — 25%  pure  red  (like  pure  red  variety) 

1 R W—  ) 

1 Wr > 50%  hybrid  red  (like  first  hybrid  generation) 

1 WW — 25%  pure  white  (like  pure  white  variety) 

(These  results  are  pictured  in  Fig.  5.) 


By  the  use  of  this  system  of  heredity  definite  results  can 
be  predicted  and  many  puzzling  questions  explained.  It  is  a 
system  that  works  not  only  in  plants  but  in  animals  as  well. 
This  system  is  known  as  Mendel’s  law  of  heredity.  It  is  to 
be  emphasized  that  all  inheritance  is  not  as  simple  as  the 
case  discussed ; nevertheless  this  system  underlies  the  more 
complex  problems  of  breeding. 

Cause  of  Red  Ears  Cropping  Out  in  White  Varieties 

The  question  why  red  ears  continually  appear  in  white  or 
yellow  (colorless  or  white  seed-coat)  varieties  when  none  are 
ever  planted  can  now  be  answered. 

The  most  probable  reason  for  red  color  appearing  in  white 
corn  is  that  at  some  time  in  the  past,  pollen  from  a neighbor- 
ing field  with  a red  variety  (or  even  a single  red  plant  in  the 
field)  has  accidentally  been  blown  over  by  wind  and  has  fallen 
oil  the  silks  of  the  white  variety.  When  this  contaminated  ear 
is  harvested  it  is  exactly  as  white  as  any  other  ear  and  may  be 
.used  for  seed. 


Corn  Breeding 


19 


FIG.  5— THE  GENERAL  LAW  OF  HEREDITY 

Crossing  red  and  white  corn  demonstrates  Mendel’s  law  of  heredity.  The  simple 
law  illustrated  here  applies  in  the  breeding  of  animals  as  well  as  in  the  heredity  of 
the  human  race. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


The  following  season  however,  any  contaminated  grains  will 
produce  red-eared  plants  exactly  like  our  hybrid  red  plants. 
These  will  not  be  noticed  until  harvest  time  when  they  will,  of 
course,  be  discarded.  But  meanwhile  during  that  summer  the 
pollen  from  this  red  plant  has  been  blowing  over  the  field; 
and  since  50  percent  of  it  is  red-producing,  a considerable 
number  of  white  kernels  of  the  pure  white  variety  will  again 
be  contaminated. 

Hence  even  though  red  ears  are  never  planted,  their  pollen 
will  continually  spread  the  red  color  throughout  the  white 
variety.  Selection  will  not  always  eliminate  this  off-type 
completely,  no  matter  how  long  it  is  practised.  Selection  will 
gradually  decrease  the  amount  of  red  ears  to  some  extent  of 
course.  The  only  practical  method  of  dealing  with  the  situa- 
tion, in  case  the  proportion  of  red  ears  becomes  serious,  is  to 
procure  a fresh  lot  of  seed.  It  is  true  that  by  proper  hand 
pollination  and  bagging  seed  ears  of  the  white  variety,  the 
red  color  can  be  eliminated  in  one  year.  But  such  a process 
takes  much  attention  and  care  and  what  is  more  serious  in- 
troduces a certain  amount  of  close  inbreeding  which  may 
prove  a handicap. 

Inheritance  of  Cob  Color 

The  red  and  white  cobs  of  certain  corn  varieties  follow  the 
same  system  of  heredity  as  red  and  white  seed  coat.  Red  cob 
is  completely  dominant  over  white  cob. 

Inheritance  of  Aleurone  Color 

Blue  (or  red)  color  in  the  aleurone  layer  of  cells  in  the 
corn  grain  like  that  in  Black  Mexican  Sweet  Corn  is  com- 
monly dominant  over  colorless  aleurone.4  It  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  aleurone  color  belongs  to  the  seed  showing  it  and 
not  to  the  mother  plant  bearing  the  ear.  Hence  if  a field  of 
yellow  or  white  corn  is  growing  near  a field  of  Black  Mexi- 
can (or  Blue  Pop)  for  example,  it  is  very  likely  that  in  the 
fall  when  the  yellow  or  white  corn  is  harvested,  there  will  be 
a sprinkling  of  purple  grains  on  some  of  the  ears.  This 

4Rare  cases  are  known  where  color  is  recessive  to  colorless  (an  inhibiting  factor 
oaf  aleurone  color  is  present). 


First  Hybrid 

Generation 


Second  Hybrid 
Generation 

■ 


FIG.  6-HEREDITY  OF  A LEU  RONE  COLOR 
Crosses  of  purple  and  white  varieties  ordinarily  show  purple  in  the  hybrids.  In 
the  second  hybrid  generation  the  white  color  reappears  in  approximately  twenty-five 
per  cent  of  the  kernels. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


means  that  those  grains  have  been  pollinated  by  pollen  from 
the  purple  variety  and  are  really  hybrids. 

Since  purple  color  is  dominant  to  colorless,  any  off-type 
grains  in  a white  or  yellow  variety  will  show  the  contamina- 
tion of  color  immediately  and  can  be  discarded.  One  can 
be  reasonably  certain  that  very  few  of  the  yellow  or  white 
grains  in  the  field  are  crossed.  For  this  reason,  a breeder  is 
not  greatly  troubled  by  a contamination  of  aleurone  color. 

The  inheritance  of  aleurone  color  in  itself  is  not  a simple 
thing.  It  is  true  that  in  some  cases  when  a pure  purple  variety 
is  crossed  by  a pure  white  variety,  the  hybrid  seed  is  purple 
and  from  these  purple  seeds  we  do  get  in  the  progeny  about 
75  percent  of  the  grains  on  the  ear  that  are  purple  and  25 
percent  that  are  colorless  (Fig  6).  But  usually  the  cross 
shows  more  complexity.8 

Inheritance  of  Endosperm  Color 

Yellow  and  white  endosperm  color  follow  the  same  simple 
system  of  inheritance  that  seed-coat  color  does  with  one  ex- 
ception. Yellow  is  dominant  over  white,  but  incompletely  so. 
For  example  if  the  white  Silver  King  variety  is  pollinated  by 
the  yellow  Golden  Glow,  the  hybrid  seeds  when  harvested  in 
the  fall,  are  a pale  yellow.  If  Golden  Glow  is  pollinated  by 
Silver  King,  the  hybrid  seeds  are  somewhat  darker  yellow 
but  not  as  dark  as  those  of  the  pure  Golden  Glow. 

If  the  hybrid  yellow  seeds  from  either  cross  are  planted, 
and  the  plants  self-pollinated,  the  ears  borne  thereon  will  be 
identical.  Both  will  show  a certain  proportion  of  white  grains 
and  there  will  be  various  shades  of  yellow  kernels  ranging 
from  a very  pale  yellow  to  a dark  yellow.  On  the  whole 
there  will  be  about  25  percent  white  grains  and  75  percent  of 
the  grains  will  have  some  tinge  of  yellow. 

If  instead  of  self-pollinating  the  hybrid  plants,  they  are 
crossed  with  a pure  white  variety,  the  resulting  ears  will 
have  approximately  half  their  grains  yellow  (variable)  and 
half  white.  This  proves  that  these  hybrids  are  producing  50 
percent  yellow-  and  50  percent  white-producing  eggs  (or 
pollen  grains)  as  was  true  in  the  preceding  case  in  respect  to 
seed  coat  color.8 

“Such  ratios  as  9 purple  to  7 colorless  or  27  purple  to  37  colorless  are  obtained 
which  indicate  that  two  or  three  factors  are  acting  in  the  production  of  color. 

"More  complicated  cases  of  endosperm  color  inheritance  are  known,  which  give 
15:1  ratios  of  yellow  and  white  kernels  in  the  second  hybrid  generation.  The  variation 
in  shade  of  all  yellow  color  is  caused  by  double-fertilization  (triple  fusion  in  the  en- 
dosperm). The  pale  yellow  cap  on  certain  dent  kernels  is  not  explained  in  a simple 
manner. 


Corn  Breeding 


23 


With  this  knowledge  the  problem  of  accounting  for  white 
kernels  in  a pure  yellow  variety  can  be  dealt  with — a problem 
of  every  day  occurence.  If  a pure  yellow  variety  (dent  or 
flint)  is  contaminated  by  being  accidentally  pollinated  with 
a white  type,  the  hybrid  seeds  are  yellow,  although  in  this 
case  they  are  a shade  lighter.  This  usually  is  not  of  great 
enough  difference  to  prevent  their  being  used  as  seed. 

If  they  are  included  in  the  seed  crop,  the  plants  growing 
from  them  will  have  their  pollen  scattering  the  white  color 
over  the  crop  since  they  will  be  hybrid  of  yellow  and  white. 
And  thus  the  contamination  is  spread  throughout  the  variety 
and  will  be  repeated  each  year.  Whenever  a white-producing 
egg  (borne  on  a hybrid  yellow  plant)  is  pollinated  by  a white 
producing  pollen  grain,  a pure  white  kernel  results.  The 
proportion  of  white  kernels  will  be  proportional  to  the  num- 
ber of  hybrid  plants  in  the  field. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  eradicate  white  grains  from  a yellow 
variety.  Careful  seed  selection  of  the  seed  ears,  eliminating 
all  but  the  dark  kernels,  will  decrease  their  proportion  notice- 
ably, and  will  serve  for  all  practical  purposes.  The  presence 
of  a few  white  grains  does  not  destroy  the  type  of  the  corn, 
although  they  may  impair  the  value  for  show  purposes. 

Inheritance  of  Sugariness  (Sweet  Corn) 

When  sweet  corn  is  crossed  with  dent,  flint,  flour,  or  pop 
corns,  cases  of  simple  inheritance  result.  The  wrinkled  grain 
of  the  sweet  corns  is  recessive  to  the  hard  or  smooth  kernel 
of  the  other  types.  Not  only  that  but  the  effect  of  the  cross 
is  seen  the  same  year,  as  was  the  case  with  endosperm  color. 
This  is  an  everyday  occurrence  to  anyone  who  has  grown 
sweet  corn  for  seed.  There  are  nearly  always  a few  starchy 
kernels  on  the  ear.  These  come  from  stray  pollen  grains 
blown  over  from  the  field  corn.  It  is  very  easy  to  remove  such 
contamination  by  simply  discarding  these  starchy  kernels.  If 
only  wrinkled  kernels  are  planted  the  grower  can  be  certain 
that  all  of  his  corn  will  be  sweet  corn.  This  is  true  because 
sweet  corn  is  the  recessive  character  in  inheritance. 

If  the  hard  or  starchy  kernels  showing  on  sweet  corn  that 
has  been  grown  near  field  corn  are  planted  and  the  hybrid 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


FIG.  7— CROSS-BRED  EARS  OF  DENT  AND  SWEET  CORN 

The  hand-pollinated  ear  to  the  right  represents  the  second  hybrid  generation,  hav- 
ing 7 per  cent  starchy  and  25  per  cent  sweet  (wrinkled)  grains.  Ear  on  left  is  a first 
generation  hybrid  pollinated  by  sweet  corn,  giving  50  per  cent  starchy  and  50  per 
cent  sugary  kernels. 


plants  self-pollinated,  there  is  another  demonstration  of  the 
simple  law  of  heredity.  Each  ear  on  such  plants  will  con- 


Corn  Breeding 


25 


tain  both  smooth  (starchy)  and  wrinkled  (sugary)  seeds. 
There  will  be  about  75  percent  of  the  dominant  type  (smooth 
and  starchy)  and  25  percent  of  the  recessive  (wrinkled  or 
sweet)  on  the  ear  (Fig.  7.)  All  the  wrinkled  kernels  will 
be  pure  sweet  corn  if  separated  and  planted  apart  in  succeed- 
ing years.  This  will  not  be  true  of  the  smooth  kernels.  Some 
of  these  (about  one-third)  will  produce  nothing  but  smooth 
ears  if  self-pollinated,  while  the  others  (about  two-thirds)  will 
repeat  the  75  :25  proportion  of  smooth  to  wrinkled  kernels  on 
the  ear. 

Inheritance  of  Dent,  Flint,  Flour,  and  Pop  Characters 

All  of  these  types  when  crossed  with  one  or  other  show  a 
very  complex  condition  of  heredity.  For  example  the  hybrid 
between  dent  X flint  shows  very  few  if  any  visible  effects  of 
the  cross  the  year  the  cross  is  made.  The  next  year  the  plants 
are  strictly  intermediate,  the  kernels  on  the  ears  being  all 
practically  alike  in  showing  a dimpled  instead  of  a dented  tip. 
If  these  are  self  pollinated  and  the  seed  planted,  there  arises 
in  the  next  generation,  a variety  of  plants  with  all  degrees 
of  denting,  some  with  the  deep  dent  of  the  original  variety, 
others  of  a perfectly  smooth  flint  type,  but  most  of  them  in- 
termediate in  denting.  The  same  is  true  in  general  of  dent  X 
pop  and  flint  X pop  crosses.  When  flour  corn  is  crossed  by 
dent,  flint  or  pop  there  is  still  another  type  of  inheritance 
which  cannot  be  dealt  with  here.7 

Inheritance  of  Defective  or  Abortive  Endosperm 

This  is  one  of  the  new  characters  that  the  plant  breeder  has 
discovered  lately  by  means  of  his  pedigreed  work.  It  is  found 
in  practically  all  types  of  corn  and  is  one  cause  for  poor  ears. 
It  is  an  hereditary  thing  and  if  once  it  gets  into  a variety  it  is 
very  difficult  to  eliminate  even  if  care  is  taken  in  sorting  the 
seed. 

Defective  or  abortive  grains  are  recessive  in  inheritance. 
For  this  reason  they  are  not  numerous  in  ordinary  corn,  be- 
cause the  cross  pollination  usually  brings  in  the  normal  or 


7This  case  is  dependent  on  triple  fusion  in  the  endosperm  together  with  the  fact 
that  a double  dose  of  either  flour  or  of  hard  starch  is  dominant  to  a single  dose. 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


ZG 

dominant  character.  Hence  they  may  be  in  a corn  variety 
and  be  overlooked  until  that  variety  is  inbred  closely,  when 
they  will  crop  out  in  sufficient  numbers  to  destroy  the  looks 
of  the  ear.  When  this  happens  it  is  time  to  get  a new  stock 
of  seed  from  some  reliable  source. 

The  continued  contamination  of  abnormal  grains  is  brought 
about  by  planting  hybrid  seeds  which  look  exactly  like  nor- 
mal ones.  The  plants  from  such  seeds  produce  normal-ap- 
pearing plants  that  spread  50  percent  of  the  defective-carry- 
ing pollen  to  other  plants. 

Inheritance  of  Number  of  Rows 

It  has  been  noted  that  with  the  exception  of  the  Country 
Gentleman  variety,  the  corn  ear  normally  shows  an  even 
number  of  rows.  When  an  8-rowed  type  is  crossed  by  a 16- 
rowed  type  the  result  is  not  a case  of  simple  inheritance. 

There  is  no  complete  dominance  of  the  rows  of  either  type. 
The  hybrid  plants  will  show  ears  with  an  intermediate  condi- 
tion. The  great  majority  will  be  12-rowed,  with  some  10- 
and  14-rowed.  If  any  of  these  are  self-pollinated  and  grown 
another  year,  a variable  lot  of  plants  with  respect  to  number 
of  rows  will  be  procured.  If  large  numbers  are  grown,  plants 
with  8,  10,  12,  14,  16,  or  perhaps  even  18,  20  and  22  rows  will 
be  found.  The  majority  will  be  12-rowed,  there  being  less  of 
the  10  and  14-rowed  ears  and  still  less  of  the  8,  16,  18,  20,  or 
22  rowed  ears. 

The  explanation  for  this  is  rather  complex  and  cannot  be 
treated  here.  The  inheritance  of  row  number  is  not  due  to 
any  one  heritable  factor  but  probably  to  a great  number,  each 
of  which  follows  the  same  simple  system  of  heredity. 

This  complexity  explains  in  some  measure  the  lack  of  uni- 
formity in  the  best  of  our  varieties  in  the  matter  of  number 
of  rows  on  the  ear.  Even  in  the  most  carefully  bred  varieties, 
especially  in  the  dents,  there  is  always  a great  variation  in  this 
respect,  and  we  cannot  hope  to  produce  a uniform  variety  by 
ordinary  methods  of  breeding.  As  is  explained  later  it  is  per- 
haps not  advisable  to  breed  for  such  strict  uniformity. 


Corn  Breeding 


Inheritance  of  Pod  Corn 

The  striking  thing  about  the  inheritance  of  pod  corn  is 
that  it  is  one  of  the  rare  abnormal  types  in  corn  (of  which 
there  are  scores)  that  is  dominant  to  the  normal  sort  of  ear. 
If  ordinary  corn  is  pollinated  by  pod  corn,  and  the  seed  (which 
will  be  perfectly  normal)  planted,  all  the  hybrid  plants  will 
have  the  podded-kernels. 

When  these  are  self-pollinated  and  the  seed  grown  the  fol- 
lowing year,  there  will  be  approximately  7 5 percent  podded 
plants  and  25  percent  normal  plants.  The  latter  if  self-pol- 
linated will  breed  true  for  the  normal  condition  and  will  never 
throw  any  podded  plants  if  their  pollination  is  guarded. 

Inheritance  of  Ramosa  or  Branched  Ear 

The  real  branched-ear  type  is  inherited  in  a simple  manner, 
being  recessive  to  the  normal  ear.  If  it  appears  in  a commer- 
cial field  it  is  difficult  to  eliminate  since  certain  normal-ap- 
pearing plants  always  carry  this  character  and  spread  it 
around  through  their  pollen,  50  percent  of  which  is  ramosa- 
producing  pollen. 


Corn  Seedlings 

The  appearance  of  white  or  yellow  seedlings  is  one  of  the 
commonest  sights  in  the  corn  field  after  planting  time.  They 
occur  in  nearly  every  large  field,  sometimes  only  one  or  two ; 
but  sometimes  as  many  as  10  percent  of  the  seedlings  are 
white  or  yellow.  They  are  found  in  the  best  bred  varieties. 
For  example,  a first  prize  (Iowa)  Reid’s  Yellow  Dent  selection 
in  1917  showed  in  a 50  acre  field  about  1 white  seedling  to 
every  2,000  green  ones  by  actual  count. 

They  occur  in  every^type  of  corn  and  have  been  found  in 
dent,  flint,  pop  and  sweet  varieties  in  varying  amounts  from 
.0001  percent  under  field  conditions  to  44  percent  in  inbred 
varieties.  (See  Table  4) 

The  writer  has  by  means  of  inbreeding  isolated  fully  300 
strains  of  dent,  flint,  pop,  and  sweet  varieties  which  produced 
about  25  percent  white,  greenish-white  or  yellow  seedlings. 
Some  of  these  are  shown  in  Fig.  8. 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


TABLE  IV.— ACTUAL  FIELD  COUNTS  OF 

WHITE 

SEEDLINGS8 

Variety 

Percentage  of  white 

Year 

Acres 

seedlings 

1917 

Country  Gentleman 

J4 

12.0  % 

1918 

Reid’s  Yellow  Dent 

4 

1.0  % 

1918 

Reid’s  Yellow  Dent 

35 

1919 

Reid’s  Yellow  Dent 

45 

.09% 

1919 

Reid’s  Yellow  Dent 

210 

.06% 

1919 

Dent  Corn 

35 

1.60% 

1919 

Dent  Corn 

400 

.05% 

1920 

Reid’s  Yellow  Dent 

780 

.07% 

1920 

Evergreen  Sweet 

2 

1.00% 

FIG.  8— ALBINO  CORN  SEEDLINGS 

Greenhouse  plantings  from  inbred  corn  showing  large  percentage  of  white  or  al- 
bino seedlings.  These  are  not  due  to  poor  soil  or  insect  injury  but  to  definite  hered- 
itary factors. 

Guesses  as  to  the  cause  of  white  seedlings  include  such 
things  as  sick-soil,  cut  worms,  wire-worms,  plant  diseases 
(chlorosis),  poor  seed  and  many  others.  As  a matter  of  fact, 
probably  none  of  these  causes  is  concerned.  It  is  true  that 


8Data  furnished  by  Dr.  W.  H.  Davis  from  a study  made  in  Iowa. 


Corn  Breeding 


29 


wet  soil  will  often  cause  a yellowing  of  the  seedlings,  but  this 
should  not  be  confused  with  ordinary  white  seedlings  which 
appear  directly  alongside  normal,  green  ones  in  the  best 
of  soil. 

That  neither  soil  conditions,  insect  injury  nor  diseases  are 
the  cause  of  these  abnormal  seedlings  has  been  abundantly 
proven.  They  have  been  produced  at  will  in  the  soils  of 
Nebraska,  New  York,  and  Wisconsin  both  in  the  field  and  in 
the  greenhouse ; in  natural  as  well  as  in  sterilized  soil.  By 
means  of  pedigree  cultures,  the  white  seedlings  can  be  pro- 
duced at  will,  and  the  proportion  of  them  predicted  with  con- 
siderable accuracy. 

All  this  means  that  the  causes  for  such  abnormal  seedlings 
are  carried  in  the  seed  as  a part  of  the  plant.  They  are  hered- 
itary, exactly  like  white  rabbits  or  albino  persons. 

White  (or  yellow)  seedlings  are  recessive  to  normal  green 
ones  just  as  sweet  corn  is  recessive  to  starch  (flint  or  dent) 
corn.  Despite  the  fact  that  they  die  off  in  the  seedling  stage 
as  a rule  and  do  not  even  shed  pollen  they  are  not  eliminated. 
Certain  green  plants  (hybrids)  are  tainted  with  this  white 
“blood/’  These  are  constantly  forming  50  percent  of  their 
pollen  and  50  percent  of  their  eggs  with  white-producing 
factors.  Such  green  plants  look  no  different  from  ordinary 
green  plants  and  their  ears  are  just  as  likely  as  not  to  be 
selected  for  seed.  In  this  way  the  contamination  keeps  on 
from  year  to  year. 

Unless  the  white  seedlings  are  very  numerous  (over  8 per- 
cent) it  is  useless  to  worry  about  them.  They  die  off  and 
merely  leave  a little  more  space  for  the  normal  plants  which 
can  then  produce  a trifle  better  ears.  If  they  become  too 
numerous  it  is  advisable  to  discard  the  seed  and  secure  a fresh 
lot. 

Dwarf  Plants 

r Another  striking  abnormality  which  sometimes  crops  out 
when  corn  is  closely  inbred  is  the  dwarf  type  (Fig.  9).  When 
mature  the  dwarf  plant  is  approximately  one  and  a half  feet 
tall.  It  produces  pollen  and  small  ears  regularly.  The  re- 
duction in  growth  of  a dwarf  plant  is  mainly  conditioned  by 


FIG.  9— NORMAL  AND  DWARF  STATURE  IN  CORN 

Two  mature  corn  plants  illustrating  hereditary  dwarfness.  The  dwarf  plant  pro- 
duces good  pollen  and  small  ears.  There  are  rtlany  different  types  of  dwarfness  like 
this. 


Corn  Breeding 


31 


s 

\ 

the  shortness  of  the  internodes,  since  it  has  practically  as 
many  nodes  and  leaves  as  a normal  plant. 

Dwarfness  in  corn  is  recessive  in  inheritance.  The  hybrid 
plant  between  dwarf  and  tall  is  just  as  tall  as  any  normal 
plant.  When  self-pollinated  such  a hybrid  will  produce,  in 
the  next  year,  an  average  of  three  tails  to  one  dwarf. 

Striped  Plants 

Occasionally  a corn  plant  with  white,  yellow,  or  light  green 
stripes  in  the  leaves  is  seen  in  a corn  field.  Most  of  these  are 
hereditary.  They  are  recessive  in  inheritance  exactly  like 
the  dwarf  type.  The  same  is  true  of  a peculiarly  yellow  or 
“Golden”  type  of  plant.  None  of  these  abnormal  types  of 
plants  occur  often  enough  in  commercial  corn  to  cause  any 
real  damage. 


Barren  Stalks 

In  every  corn  field,  no  matter  how  good  the  variety  nor  how 
well  handled,  there  will  be  found  barren  stalks  and  plants 
bearing  only  nubbins.  In  some  fields  as  many  as  25  percent 
of  the  plants  are  unproductive.  It  is  a fact  that  these  things 
are  for  the  most  part  hereditary.  True,  some  of  the  nubbins 
are  caused  by  poor  conditions  of  pollination  and  certain 
growth  factors,  but  they  form  only  a small  part  of  the  un- 
productive plants.  It  is  also  true  that  too  thickly  planted 
corn  produces  poorly  developed  ears.  Despite  these  condi- 
tions a considerable  percentage  of  unproductive  plants  are 
caused  by  poor  heredity. 

That  they  are  hereditary  is  easily  proved  in  our  inbreeding 
work  with  corn.  Some  inbred  rows  will  be  absolutely  free  of 
barren  stalks  while  others  growing  alongside  have  a very 
high  proportion  of  them. 

Selection  of  good  ears  borne  on  good  plants  in  the  field 

Sis  the  only  practical  method  of  gradually  decreasing  the  per- 
centage of  barren  stalks.  Since  they  sometimes  produce  a 
small  amount  of  pollen,  it  is  very  difficult  to  rogue  them  out 
completely. 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


Earliness 

It  is  possible  to  select  for  an  earlier  strain  of  corn  in  the 
average  variety  because  ordinary  varieties  of  corn  are  vari- 
able enough  to  afford  a basis  for  selection  of  earliness  (or 
lateness)  of  maturity.  Such  selections  should  be  made  in  the 
field  just  before  harvest  time  when  the  husks  are  beginning 
to  turn  brown. 

There  is  only  one  danger  in  this  selection  and  that  is  a very 
serious  one.  Avoid  selecting  prematurely  early  ears,  espe- 
cially those  that  are  borne  on  prematurely  dead  stalks.  The 
chances  are  that  such  stalks  are  abnormal  or  diseased.  It 
is  very  easy  to  mistake  such  plants  for  early-maturing  ones. 
Never  select  ears,  no  matter  how  good,  from  leaning  or 
broken  stalks,  nor  ears  with  slightly  rotted  shanks.  These 
are  all  likely  to  be  diseased.  Choose  the  ears  that  show  early 
maturity  from  vigorous,  erect  stalks.  In  combining  earliness 
with  yield  (size  of  ear)  be  careful  not  to  choose  a plant  which 
is  vigorous  because  it  has  had  no  competition,  being  the  only 
plant  in  the  hill.  The  chances  of  this  good  yield  being  trans- 
mitted to  the  progeny  are  very  small. 

There  is  a danger  in  selecting  for  too  early  a type.  Such  a 
type  may  not  take  advantage  of  the  full  growing  season.x 
One  should  aim  to  select  corn  that  will  mature  shortly  before 
the  average  first  killing  frost  in  the  fall. 

Inbreeding 

Inbreeding  or  very  close  breeding  to  type  in  corn  has  not 
proven  to  be  a good  thing.  This  can  be  proved  by  self-pol- 
linating (the  closest  form  of  inbreeding)  any  of  the  best 
plants  in  a good  variety.  The  progeny  will,  in  nine  cases  out 
of  ten,  be  inferior  in  height,  vigor  and  yield  (Fig.  10.)  This 
is  equally  true  of  sugar  beets,  cabbage  or  cotton.  It  is  not 
true  of  wheat,  oats,  peas,  beans,  or  barley,  or  any  other  of  our 
naturally  self-pollinated  crops. 

The  writer  has  inbred  or  self-pollinated  over  ten-thousand 
corn  plants  in  his  experience.  Among  these  have  been  includ- 
ed the  best  varieties  of  dent,  flint  and  sweet  corn.  In  prac- 
tically every  instance  the  progenies  have  been  noticeably 
weaker ; in  none  have  they  been  consistently  much  better  than 
the  parent.  Such  inbreeding  has  produced  in  the  progeny  all 


FIG  10.— EFFECTS  OF  INBREEDING  IN  CORN 
Two  rows  of  corn.  The  one  on  the  left  has  been  inbred  for  three  years;  the 
other  is  a cross  of  two  relatively  poor  inbred  strains.  Inbreeding  is  used  to  eliminate 
defective  characters.  The  inbred  strains  are  then  outcrossed  to  restore  vigor. 

sorts  of  abnormal  and  weak  types,  including  albino  seedlings, 
barren  stalks,  dwarf  plants,  striped  plants,  twisted  stalks, 
crinkly  leaves,  defective  kernels,  light  yellow-green  plants, 
branched  ears  and  scores  of  other  defects.  These  have  come 
from  our  best  varieties  of  corn.  The  variety  and  proportion 
of  poor  corn  plants  that  crop  out  when  inbreeding  is  prac- 
tised even  in  the  best  varieties  is  surprising. 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


The  reason  these  defective  types  do  not  show  up  in  any 
noticeable  proportion  in  ordinary  corn  is  because  these  char- 
acters are  recessive  in  inheritance.  The  normally  cross-fer- 
tilized corn  plant  prevents  many  of  such  recessives  from  get- 
ting together  in  one  plant  or  in  one  kernel.  The  normal  type, 
being  dominant,  masks  the  effect  of  the  recessive,  poor  types. 

If  close  selection  to  a narrow  type  is  practised  we  tend  to 
approach  the  practice  of  inbreeding  to  some  extent.  The 
closer  the  selection  the  nearer  to  inbreeding.  Consequently  to 
avoid  it,  it  is  necessary  to  sacrifice  a little  on  uniformity  to 
get  yield  and  vigor  in  return.  The  corn  breeder  must  re- 
alize this  sooner  or  later  for  it  is  based  on  experimental  fact 
and  years  of  experience. 

Hybrid  Vigor 

One  of  the  most  striking  facts  of  corn  breeding  is  that  hy- 
brids or  crosses  between  two  types  or  varieties  of  corn  are 
likely  to  give  a progeny  that  is  superior  to  the  better  of  the 
parents.  Not  all  crosses  of  types  or  varieties  give  such  in- 
creased vigor  and  yield  but  some  do.  Closely  related  selec- 
tions, strains-  or  varieties  give  less  increase  as  a rule,  than 
those  further  removed.  For  example  a cross  of  two  yellow 
dent  varieties  will  show  less  superiority  over  the  parents 
than  some  crosses  of  dent  by  flint.  This  means  that  relation- 
ship is  a factor. 

Unfortunately  this  increase  in  vigor  and  yield  does  not 
hold  up  in  the  next  year  or  later.  The  progeny  from  these 
vigorous  hybrids  splits  up  again  into  a very  non-uniform  lot 
of  plants  whose  average  yield  is  likely  to  be  15-20  percent 
lower  than  the  hybrid  lot. 

The  commercial  use  of  hybrid  vigor  is  a much  debated 
question.  If  the  right  combination  of  varieties  can  be  se- 
cured and  if  the  temptation  to  use  the  seed  from  the  vigorous 
hybrid  can  be  prevented,  there  is  some  possibility  of  its  com- 
mercial application.  Of  course,  the  crossed  seed  must  be 
provided  each  year,  a fact  which  requires  a certain  amount  of 
additional  labor. 

This  method  is  not  advocated  as  a general  procedure  by 
the  experiment  station,  and  probably  should  not  be  for  some 
time,  at  least  until  the  average  farmer  has  become  more 


Corn  Breeding 


35 


familiar  with  corn  breeding.  With  the  campaign  on  for  pure 
seed  it  is  probably  impossible  to  send  hybrid  seed  out  over 
the  state,  and  expect  the  average  farmer  to  refrain  from 
planting  it  the  second  year.  If  he  does  this,  his  own  crop  and 
his  neighbors’  are  likely  to  be  ruined  by  the  resulting  cross- 
pollination. This  method  is  safe  only  in  the  hands  of  the 
specialized  corn  breeder — one  who  can  impress  on  his  buyers 
the  all-important  fact  that  such  cross-bred  corn  seed  must 
be  procured  anew  each  year. 

Show  Characters 

Corn  growers  know  that  the  prize-winning  ears  in  a corn 
show  do  not  always  produce  the  best  yields.  It  is  also  true 
that  the  progeny  from  such  prize  ears  do  not  always  repeat 
closely  the  ear  type  of  the  prize  mother  ear.  Can  it  then  be 
said  that  show  characters  are  of  little  actual  use  in  corn  breed- 
ing? 

The  best  and  only  real  test  of  the  yielding  power  of  an  ear 
of  corn  is  the  test  of  its  progeny.  This  method  is  not  practi- 
cable for  the  average  farmer  since  it  means  too  much  extra 
work.  Is  there  any  way  in  which  the  yield  of  corn  can  be 
predicted  by  looking  at  the  seed  ear? 

Scientific  corn  breeders  have  tested  the  correlations  be- 
tween yield  and  such  show  characters  as  length  of  ear,  width 
of  ear,  shape  of  ear,  shelling  percentage,  number  of  rows,  filled 
tips,  rounded  butts  and  a good  many  others.  They  have  found 
practically  no  relation  between  yield  and  those  characters.  For 
example  such  tests  showed  that  tapering  ears  yielded  as  well 
as  cylindrical  ears  and  that  ears  with  poorly  filled  tips  yielded 
as  much  as  those  with  filled  tips.  Accordingly  these  char- 
acters should  be  classed  as  fancy  points  since  they  have  no 
direct  relation  to  yield. 

Nevertheless  the  seed  ear  does  give  the  breeder  a general 
idea  of  what  the  progeny  will  be  like  especially  in  relation  to 
adaptibility  to  the  locality.  The  maturity  of  the  ear  indicates 
the  adaptibility  of  the  variety  to  the  conditions  under  which 
it  was  grown.  A sound,  well-dried,  hard  ear  means  that  the 
variety  will  stand  up  under  the  average  conditions  of  the 
particular  locality.  The  color  of  the  kernels  will  indicate 
whether  or  not  the  variety  is  reasonably  pure.  A slight  mix- 


36 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


ture  of  yellow  and  white  kernels  is  not  a serious  draw-back 
from  the  standpoint  of  yield.  It  does  mean,  however,  that  the 
mixture  will  continue  to  become  worse  each  year  if  left  alone, 
and  the  general  type  of  the  variety  may  gradually  become  bro- 
ken if  proper  selection  is  not  practised. 

The  size  of  the  seed  ear  is  fairly  important,  although  size 
of  ear  does  not  reproduce  itself  very  exactly.  It  is  better  to 
be  on  the  safe  side  however  and  plant  only  from  the  medium 
sized  or  larger  ears.  The  depth  of  kernel  is  important  since 
it  is  a factor  in  shelling  percentage.  Here  again  it  pays  to 
play  safe  and  plant  only  seed  ears  that  have  a reasonably  deep 
kernel,  especially  if  they  mature  well  in  the  locality.  Shape 
of  ear,  filled  tips  or  well  rounded  butts  and  other  fancy  points, 
are  minor  factors  and  are  to  be  taken  less  into  consideration. 

All  told  it  will  probably  pay  to  select  seed  ears  that  com- 
mon sense  shows  to  be  good  for  the  purpose  desired.  “Like 
begets  like”  to  a certain  extent  and  this  principle  holds  true 
in  a general  way. 

Methods  of  Corn  Breeding 

While  the  method  of  ordinary  selection  is  advocated  for  the 
general  farmer  and  grower  of  corn  seed,  there  are  several 
other  systems  of  corn  breeding  that  are  somewhat  more  com- 
plicated. 

The  ear-to-row  method  is  based  on  the  idea  that  the  best 
test  of  yield  is  the  test  of  the  progeny  of  an  ear.  Ordinarily 
a large  number  of  selected  ears  are  tested.  The  more  ears 
the  greater  chance  there  will  be  of  getting  the  best.  The 
seeds  from  each  ear  are  planted  in  a separate  row  and  the 
rows  duplicated  or  triplicated  in  different  parts  of  the  field  if 
possible.  At  harvest  time  each  row  is  husked  separately  and 
the  weight  and  other  characters  of  the  harvested  corn  re- 
corded. The  ears  from  a few  of  the  best  rows  are  usually 
chosen  to  plant  a seed  plot  the  following  year. 

This  method  does  not  take  into  consideration  the  male 
parent,  the  sire  of  the  ears.  The  mother  ear  may  have  been 
a good  ear,  but  its  seed  may  have  been  planted  near 
a row  from  a poor  ear.  Thus  the  good  quality  coming  from 
the  mother  ear  may  be  partially  destroyed  by  the  pollen  from 
the  poor  sire. 


Corn  Breeding 


37 


To  avoid  this  possibility  the  ear-remnant  system  of  breed- 
ing was  planned.  According  to  this  method,  a large  number 
of  selected  ears  are  chosen.  About  one-half  of  the  seed  of 
each  ear  is  planted  in  one  or  two  separate  rows.  The  ears 
and  rows  are  so  marked  that  one  can  trace  the  progeny-row 
of  each  ear  back  to  the  mother  ear.  Yields  are  taken  of  each 
row. 

Instead  of  using  the  seed  from  the  best  rows  of  this  ear-to- 
row  test,  the  remnants  of  the  mother  ears  producing  these 
best  rows  are  sorted  out  and  used  to  plant  the  seed  plot  the 
following  season.  In  this  way  the  best  yielding  ears  are 
selected  and  the  possibility  of  their  being  crossed  with  poor 
ears  is  avoided. 

Still  another  method  of  improving  the  yield  of  corn  is  to 
take  advantage  of  the  fact  that  hybrid  seed  between  some 
varieties  is  likely  to  give  an  increased  vigor  and  yield.  It 
has  been  proven  experimentally  that  when  certain  varieties 
are  crossed,  the  first-generation  hybrids  give  an  increased 
yield  over  the  better  parent.  Not  all  variety  crosses  give  a 
sufficient  increase  to  justify  crossing  them.  This  has  to  be 
tested  experimentally. 

To  get  a large  amount  of  crossed  seed  it  is  necessary  to 
grow  the  two  chosen  varieties  in  a small  isolated  seed  plot 
(probably  about  J4  to  three  acres,  depending  upon  the  amount 
of  seed  wanted.)  One  variety  is  detasseled  before  any  of  the 
silks  in  the  plot  come  out.  The  other  variety,  which  is  used 
as  the  sire  or  pollen  parent,  is  left  alone.  For  practical  pur- 
poses this  sire  need  be  planted  only  in  every  third  or  even  in 
every  fifth  row.  The  wind  blows  enough  pollen  to  the  in- 
tervening mother  rows  to  produce  a good  set  of  seed. 

In  the  fall,  only  the  seed  from  the  detasseled  rows  is  har- 
vested for  seed  corn.  This  should  be  carefully  dried  and 
stored.  It  is  then  ready  for  planting  in  the  following  spring. 
During  that  season  the  crop  will  undoubtedly  show  a high 
degree  of  uniformity  and  a good  yield. 

But  if  seed  is  saved  from  this  field  there  will  be  a serious 
drop  in  yield  and  uniformity  the  next  year.  To  use  the  idea 
of  the  increase  in  yield  of  hybrid  seeds,  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  produce  this  seed  anew  each  year ; or  better  to  pro- 
duce enough  seed  one  year  for  two  years’  planting. 


38 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  356 


At  the  present  time  it  does  not  seem  advisable  to  advocate 
this  method  of  corn  breeding  for  the  general  farmer.  Suffi- 
cient tests  of  the  best  varieties  to  cross  have  not  yet  been 
made  in  Wisconsin. 

The  latest  attempt  to  improve  corn  is  also  too  new  to  ad- 
vocate for  the  general  farmer.  This  consists  of  inbreeding 
strains  of  corn  (by  hand-pollination)  for  several  years.  This 
inbreeding  isolates  the  poor  types  and  they  can  be  eliminated. 

After  several  years  of  inbreeding,  followed  by  proper  selec- 
tion, most  of  the  off-types  are  eliminated.  Then  the  best  in- 
bred  strains  are  crossed  to  produce  greater  vigor  and  yield 
since  both  of  these  qualities  are  lost  to  some  extent  by  in- 
breeding.  It  will  require  a large  amount  of  careful  work  to 
follow  up  such  a system  and  its  practicability  is  still  a ques- 
tion. 

However,  for  the  average  corn  breeder  who  does  not  wish 
to  experiment,  the  most  practicable  method  of  maintaining 
quality  and  possibly  of  effecting  some  improvement  is  the 
one  of  ordinary  selection.  Selection  of  good  seed  ears  in  the 
crib  is  less  effective  than  field  selection.  The  breeder  must 
get  out  into  his  seed  field  just  before  harvest  when  the  ear 
husks  are  beginning  to  show  brown.  A large  number  of  the 
best  looking  ears  borne  on  the  best  plants  are  harvested  and 
then  husked  and  dried.  In  the  field  selection,  those  plants 
that  are  lodged,  prematurely  brown,  poorly  colored,  with  poor 
tassels,  with  smut  or  with  any  other  disease  or  abnormality 
should  be  avoided.  After  husking  the  ears  any  poor  ones 
can  be  discarded.  It  is  possible  to  save  corn  seed  for  two 
years  (even  three  years  if  properly  stored).  Accordingly  it 
is  wise  to  select  enough  seed  for  several  years.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  if  frost  is  likely  to  destroy  the  seed  crop  in  any 
one  year. 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  CORN  by  modern  genetic 
methods  is  too  complicated  to  be  practicable  for 
the  general  farmer,  but  must  be  left  to  the  special 
plant  breeder  or  trained  seed  grower. 

In  the  future  the  specialist  will  probably  be  depend- 
ed upon  very  largely  if  not  exclusively  for  the  pro- 
duction of  new  varieties  and  possibly  for  the  growing 
in  large  quantities  of  definitely  cross-bred  seed  for 
commercial  use.  The  general  corn  grower  will  contin- 
ue to  use  the  ordinary  methods  of  selection  to  main- 
tain the  purity  and  quality  of  his  grain  if  he  is  rais- 
ing his  own  seed ; or  the  time  may  come  when  he 
will  find  it  more  profitable  commercially,  on  account 
of  increased  yields,  to  use  cross-bred  seed  which  he 
would  purchase  each  year  from  special  seed  growers. 


May,  1923 


tate  Department  (Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  357) 
Bulletin  55 


STATE  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 

Division  of  Insect  and  Plant  Disease  Control 
Madison,  Wisconsin 

AND 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION  OF  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 


Madison 

Cooperating 


The  cities  and  villages  of  Wisconsin  have  been  surveyed  for  bar- 
berry and  practically  all  bushes  have  been  pulled  out.  Resurveys  are 
necessary  because  suckers  start  readily  from  the  broken  roots.  Further- 
more, the  surveys  have  shown  that  the  barberry  is  much  more  widely 
distributed  than  was  first  thought,  and  in  several  instances  it  has 
escaped  into  pastures  and  woodlots  and  has  multiplied  into  the  millions. 
While  complete  eradication,  at  the  present  rate  of  progress,  will  require 
a number  of  years,  it  is  thoroughly  worth  while. 

Intensive  farm-to-farm  surveys  are  being  conducted  in  the  southern 
half  of  the  state  at  the  present  time.  This  work  is  correlated  with 
similar  work  in  northern  Illinois,  Iowa  and  Minnesota  so  as  to  make  as 
large  an  area  as  possible  that  is  “barberry-clean.”  Many  hedges  and 
individual  barberry  bushes  have  been  located  in  this  way  that  other- 
wise would  have  escaped  attention  and  continued  to  be  a menace  to 
the  grain-growing  interests. 

At  the  end  of  1922,  there  had  been  found  in  Wisconsin  3,354,155 
dangerous  barberry  bushes  of  which  2,788,936  had  been  removed.  More 
than  half  of  all  the  barberries  found  in  the  13  states  working  under  the 
eradication  plan  have  been  located  in  Wisconsin,  showing  that  this 
State  is  a large  center  of  infection  and  indicating  the  necessity  of  con- 
tinued close  cooperation  between  farmer,  townsman,  and  inspectors  to 
make  the  campaign  the  success  that  its  importance  merits. 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  State  Department 
of  Agriculture  and  the  College  of  Agriculture  are  cooperating  in  the 
barberry  eradication,  the  federal  government  having  supplied  the 
major  portion  of  funds  to  defray  field  expenses.  Five  publications  on 
barberry  eradication  have  been  issued  by  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture;  namely,  Farmers’  Bulletin,  1058,  entitled  “De- 
stroy the  Common  Barberry;”  Department  Circular  188,  entitled  “Prog- 
ress of  Barberry  Eradication;”  Separate  from  Yearbook  No.  796,  en- 
titled “The  Black  Stem  Rust  and  the  Barberry;”  Department  Cir- 
cular 269  entitled  “Barberry  Eradication  Prevents  Black  Rust  in  West- 
ern Europe;”  and  Department  Circular  268  entitled  “Kill  the  Common 
Barberry  With  Chemicals.”  These  may  be  had  free  on  request  from 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  or  Commissioner  of 
Agriculture,  State  Capitol,  Madison,  Wis. 

4-  . 

r 


Fighting  Black  Stem  Rust  of  Grains 
By  Eradicating  the  Barberry 

By 

NOEL  F.  THOMPSON  AND  JAMES  G.  DICKSON* 

The  black  stem  rust  of  wheat,  rye,  oats  and  barley  is  being  controlled 
in  Wisconsin  by  eradicating  the  common  barberry  ( Berberis  vulgaris 
L.).  Information  gained  since  1918  has  shown  that  the  early  stem  rust 
outbreaks  each  year  are  due  to  a general  spread  of  rust  from  the 
barberry  to  these  grains  early  in  the  spring.  The  spores  blown  in  from 
other  more  distant  areas  do  not  develop  rust  on  these  grains  until 
after  the  danger  of  damage  from  rust  has  passed.  In  other  words,  the 
barberry  in  Wisconsin  has  been  found  to  be  the  source  of  early  stem 
rust  outbreaks  on  wheat,  rye,  oats  and  barley. 

Commendable  progress  has  been  made  in  destroying  the  dangerous, 
common  barberry  in  Wisconsin,  but  many  bushes  still  remain.  The 
surveys  made  since  1918  have  shown  that  the  barberry  was  much  more 
widely  distributed  in  Wisconsin  than  was  at  first  thought  possible.  In 
many  localities  the  shrub  has  escaped  from  cultivation  and  is  growing 
wild  in  pastures  and  woodlots.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  that  if  effec- 
tive control  of  stem  rust  is  to  be  obtained,  the  campaign  for  barberry 
eradication  must  be  continued  until  the  escaped  as  well  as  cultivated 
bushes  are  destroyed. 

Heavy  Losses  Caused  by  Black  Stem  Rust 

Black  stem  rust  of  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley  causes  heavy  losses 
of  these  crops  each  year.  It  is  a disease  produced  by  a minute  plant 
called  a fungus.  This  fungus  grows  within  the  grain  plants  in  a man- 
ner somewhat  similar  to  the  way  the  grain  plants  grow  in  the  soil. 
Growing  in  this  way,  the  fungus  takes  its  food  and  moisture  from  the 
grain  plant  on  which  it  is  growing,  thus  robbing  the  plant  of  the  food 
which  should  normally  go  to  the  head  to  form  plump,  heavy  kernels. 
In  addition,  the  rust  fungus  growing  in  the  plant  breaks  the  outer 
layers  of  the  stems  and  leaves  and  allows  a large  amount  of  water  to 
escape.  (Fig.  1.)  Badly  rusted  plants,  as  is  well  known,  produce 
greatly  shrunken  or  shrivelled  grain  of  light  weight  and  poor  quality. 
(Fig.  2.) 

While  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  losses  caused  in  this  way  by 
black  stem  rust,  yet  the  annual  reduction  in  yield  from  this  cause  is  • 

♦The  authors  represent  the  Office  of  Cereal  Investigations,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  and  the  College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Wisconsin 
respectively.  This  bulletin  was  written  in  collaboration  with  S.  B.  Fracker, 
State  Entomologist,  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  R.  E.  Vaughan,  Ex- 
tension Pathologist  of  the  College  of  Agriculture. 


4 


Bulletin  55 


very  great  and  in  years  when  severe  and  widespread  rust  epidemics 
occur  the  entire  crop  is  damaged.  In  the  United  States,  the  reduction 
in  yield  of  wheat  alone  varies  from  800,000  bushels  as  estimated  for 
1918  to  180,000,000  bushels  as  estimated  for  1916.  The  estimated 


Fig.  1.— THE  STEM  RUST  SPLITS  THE  SURFACE  OF  THE  STEM  AND 

LEAVES 


The  stem  rust  appears  on  the  leaves  and  stems  of  barley,  oats,  wheat,  rye 
and  some  grasses. 


(*.  xt : ■ . ;• \,  jA - ■ ■ vr.Wv* . 


Fighting  Black  Stem  Rust 


5 


average  loss  of  wheat  for  the  five  years  from  1916  to  1920,  inclusive,  is 
about  64,000,000  bushels  each  year. 

While  Wisconsin  is  not  one  of  the  chief  wheat-producing  states,  the 
total  production  of  small  grains  places  Wisconsin  high  in  the  list  of 
grain-producing  states.  For  example,  in  1922  Wisconsin  produced  102,- 
000,000  bushels  of  oats,  14,000,000  bushels  of  barley,  7,000,000  bushels 
of  rye  and  3,000,000  bushels  of  wheat,  a total  of  126,000,000  bushels  of 
small  grains.  As  the  losses  from  stem  rust  on  all  of  these  cereals  is 
high  in  Wisconsin,  the  state  is  vitally  interested  in  the  control  of 
stem  rust. 


Fig.  2.— THE  STEM  RUST  CAUSES  SMALL  HEADS  AND  BADLY 
SHRIVELED  GRAIN 

The  wheat  heads  shown  at  A were  collected  near  a barberry  bush  where 
the  rust  was  very  heavy.  The  heads  are  small,  the  straw  is  poor,  and  the 
grain  is  light  and  shriveled.  The  head  shown  at  B was  from  a portion  of 
the  field  free  from  rust.  The  heads  are  large,  the  straw  is  clean,  and  the 
grain  plump  and  heavy. 


Black  Stem  Rust  Has  Strange  Life  Story 

The  development  of  black  stem  rust  makes  a very  interesting  story. 
The  rust  usually  makes  its  appearance  on  the  grain  about  the  last  of 
May  in  Wisconsin,  as  a brick-red  pustule  or  spot  on  the  stem  or  leaf. 
(Fig.  1.)  A close  examination  of  this  red  pustule  shows  it  to  be  filled 
with  a fine  powder — the  spores  or  “seeds”  of  the  tiny  rust  plant.  If 
these  spores  are  shaken  or  blown  by  the  wind  to  other  similar  grains 


6 


Bulletin  55 


and  are  given  sufficient  moisture  and  warmth  they  grow  and  develop 
rust  on  those  plants  also.  The  growth  of  the  rust  plant  is  so  rapid 
that  it  takes  only  a week  or  ten  days  from  the  time  the  spores  fall  on 
one  of  the  grains  until  new  spores  are  produced,  as  evidenced  by  the 


Fig.  3.— THE  STEM  RUST  FORMS  CLUSTER  CUPS  ON  THE  LEAVES  OF 
THE  COMMON  BARBERRY 

The  cluster  cups  of  the  spring  stage  of  stem  rust  appear  on  the  under 
surface  of  the  common  barberry  leaves  and  spread  spores  to  the  surrounding 
grains  and  grasses.  The  large  cluster  cup  on  the  right  is  magnified  in  Fig.  6. 

production  of  the  red  pustules.  This  process  may  be  repeated  over  and 
over  again  as  long  as  the  grains  on  which  the  rust  plant  grows  remain 
green  and  the  weather  is  favorable.  Enormous  numbers  of  these 
spores  are  produced.  The  red  dust  seen  occasionally  during  the 


Fighting  Black  Stem  Rust 


7 


harvesting  of  the  grain  is  composed  entirely  of  these  spores  of  the 
rust  fungus,  and  each  spore  is  capable  of  spreading  the  disease. 

When  the  grain  begins  to  ripen,  a change  takes  place  in  the  rust. 
Red  spores  are  produced  no  longer,  but  in-  their  place  heavy  black 
spores  are  formed.  (Fig.  1.)  These  black  spores  differ  from  the  red 
spores  in  both  color  and  habit,  for  they  cannot  produce  rust  on  other 
grains  but  serve  to  carry  the  rust  plant  over  the  winter.  They  readily 
live  through  conditions  of  cold  and  wet  which  the  red  spores  cannot 
withstand.  It  is  only  under  the  most  favorable  conditions  that  any  of 
the  red  spores  are  able  to  survive  the  winters  in  Wisconsin.  Indeed, 
there  are  records  of  only  two  such  cases.  So  if  the  rust  plant  is  to 
survive  the  winter  it  must  depend  on  the  black  spores.  These  germi- 
nate in  the  spring  on  the  stubble  or  old  straw  and  produce  tiny  color- 


Fig.  4.— cluster  cup  of  the  stem  rust  on  barberry  highly 

MAGNIFIED 

Each  little  cup  contains  spores  enough  to  sow  stem  rust  on  an  acre  of  grain. 
There  are  spores  enough  on  the  whole  cluster  cup  to  spread  rust  over  a 40- 
acre  field. 

less  spores  which  are  blown  about  by  the  wind.  If  these  fall  on  grow- 
ing grain,  they  are  unable  to  produce  rust  and  soon  die.  They  also  die 
if  they  fall  on  the  soil,  but  if  they  light  on  a common  barberry  and 
gain  entrance  to  its  young  growing  parts,  they  live  and  produce  thrifty 
little  rust  plants. 

Millions  of  the  black  rust  spores  live  over  the  winter  and  each  pro- 
duces several  of  the  tiny  colorless  spores  in  the  spring,  but  all  of  them 
die  except  the  few  which  happen  to  fall  on  a common  barberry  and 
penetrate  it.  On  the  barberry  leaves  yellow  patches  are  formed  by  the 
rust  (Fig.  3)  and  from  these  patches,  (Fig.  4 and  5)  yellow  spores 
spread  the  rust  back  again  to  the  grain,  producing  the  red  rust  pustules 
on  the  stems  and  leaves.  This  completes  the  life  story  of  the  black 
stem  rust. 


8 


Bulletin  55 


BLACK  STEM  RUST  SPREADS 

FROM  THE  COMMON  BARBERRY  TO  CRAINS  AND  GRASSES 

PART  OF  SECTION  IB,  TIN,  RISE.  ROCK  C<X,  MS. 

, JUNE  2S.  1921 


BARLEY 


WHEAT 


# «?T_J 


CORN 

PvQTVitwVmj 

VfsntT/YMvTI 

HEAVY 


WM 

TRACE 


Fig.  5.— SPREAD  OF  RUST  FROM  THE  BARBERRY 

Map  showing  the  spread  of  black  stem  rust  from  common  barberry  bushes 
growing  wild  in  a pasture  and  wood  lot  on  Section  16,  Township  1 N,  Range 
13  E,  Rock  County,  Wisconsin,  in  1921.  The  density  of  shading  shows  the 
severity  of  the  rust  infection  on  rye  and  barley.  Notice  that  the  wheat  was 
not  rusted  indicating  that  only  the  rye-barley  strain  of  rust  was  present 


Fighting  Black  Stem  Rust 


9 


Thus  do  we  see  that  there  are  three  different  forms  in  which  we 
may  find  the  black  stem  rust.  During  the  early  part  of  the  summer 
we  have  the  red  form  on  the  grain.  This  spreads  the  rust  from  one 
grain  plant  to  the  next.  As  the  grain  ripens  the  black  form  develops 
and  this  is  able  to  live  through  the  winter  on  the  stubble  and  straw 
and  to  infect  the  barberry  in  the  spring,  producing  the  third  or  yellow 
form  of  the  rust.  From  the  barberry  the  rust  returns  to  the  grain  only 
in  the  spring. 

Different  Strains  of  Stem  Rust 

The  black  stem  rust  of  all  the  grains  is  caused  by  the  same  species  of 
rust  fungus,  which  is  named  Puccinia  graminis.  There  are,  however, 
several  so-called  specialized  strains  of  the  fungus  each  capable  of  at- 
tacking only  a limited  number  of  grains  and  grasses.  For  example,  the 
stem  rust  strain  of  rye,  barley,  quack  grass,  and  certain  other  grasses 
cannot  attack  wheat  or  oats.  (Fig.  5 and  7.)  The  stem  rust  strain  on 
wheat  attacks  wheat,  barley,  squirrel-tail  grass,  and  certain  other 
grasses,  but  cannot  attack  rye  or  oats.  Similarly,  the  stem  rust  strain 
on  oats  attacks  oats  and  certain  grasses  but  cannot  attack  rye,  wheat, 
or  barley.  Barley  is  the  only  grain  that  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of 
more  than  one  of  these  stem  rust  strains,  for  both  the  rye  and  wheat 
strains  may  attack  barley.  On  the  other  hand,  barley  is  the  only  grain 
which  does  not  have  a stem  rust  strain  specialized  chiefly  on  itself. 

All  of  these  various  specialized  strains  of  black  stem  rust  can  infect 
the  common  barberry  in  the  spring  by  means  of  their  black  spores. 
And  then  in  turn,  each  strain  can  spread  from  the  barberry  back  to  the 
same  grain  or  grains  and  grasses  to  which  it  is  specialized.  That  is, 
the  specialization  remains  the  same,  even  after  infecting  the  barberry; 
so  that  if  the  rust  on  the  barberry  came  from  black  spores  produced  on 
oats  it  could  return  to  oats  but  could  not  cause  rust  on  wheat  or  rye. 
This  explains  many  cases  where  rust  has  attacked  a field  of  one  kind 
of  grain  and  not  neighboring  fields  of  other  cereals. 

There  Are  Two  Types  of  Rust  on  Grains 

In  addition  to  black  stem  rust,  or  “black  rust”  as  it  is  frequently 
called,  there  also  are  leaf  rusts  which  occur  on  the  various  grains. 
These  leaf  rusts  are  often  confused  with  black  stem  rust.  They  are, 
however,  entirely  different  and  are  caused  by  other  species  of  rust 
fungi.  These  leaf  rust  fungi  do  not  attack  the  barberry  nor  do  they 
usually  cause  serious  losses  of  grains  in  Wisconsin. 

Leaf  rusts  usually  can  be  distinguished  from  black  stem  rust  by 
their  position  on  the  grain  plant  and  by  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
spots  they  produce.  The  leaf  rusts  occur  only  on  the  leaves  and  leaf 
sheaths  of  the  grain,  and  the  spots  produced  are  quite  small  and  usually 
round.  Early  in  the  season  these  spots  are  filled  with  an  orange-yellow, 
powdery  substance,  but  later  in  the  summer  they  may  appear  grayish- 
black.  The  black  stem  rust,  on  the  other  hand,  develops  on  both  the 
leaves  and  the  stem  of  the  grain.  The  spots  are  long  and  filled  with 


10 


Bulletin  55 


a brick  red  powder  or,  later  in  the  summer,  with  a black  powder.  The 
skin  of  the  grain  plant  breaks  and  curls  back  from  the  rust  spot.  This 
is  the  rust  which  causes  the  most  severe  damage  to  the  grain  and  also 
attacks  the  common  barberry. 

Relation  of  the  Common  Barberry  to  Stem  Rust  in  Wisconsin 

The  life  story  of  the  black  stem  rust  as  just  outlined  in  the  previous 
paragraphs  varies  considerably  in  different  sections  of  the  United 


The  stem  rust  on  the  leaves  of  winter  rye  (left)  causes  long  lesions  and 
splits  the  surface  of  the  leaves.  The  leaf  rust  (right)  causes  small  round 
lesions  and  does  not  split  the  leaf  surface. 


States.  In  Wisconsin  and  throughout  the  central  and  north-central  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States,  the  red  rust  spores  or  summer  spores  are 
killed  during  the  winter  and  early  spring  by  the  cold  weather  and  by 
freezing  and  thawing,  thus  the  rust  lives  over  chiefly  in  the  black  rust 
stage  and  must  go  through  the  barberry  to  again  rust  the  grains. 


Fighting  Black  Stem  Rust 


11 


Thousands  of  samples  of  rust  collected  in  the  field  in  Wisconsin  and 
in  the  adjoining  states  have  been  tested  for  germination  during  the 
winter  and  spring  each  year  from  1918  to  1922.  While  these  red  rust 
spores  germinate  and  are  capable  of  producing  rust  on  the  grains  until 
late  in  the  winter,  they  generally  die  during  late  winter,  and  early 
spring,  or  become  too  weak  to  rust  the  grain  plants.  The  average  of 
the  germination  tests,  given  in  Table  I,  shows  the  limited  amount  of 
germination  that  occurs  as  spring  and  the  new  growing  season  ap- 
proach. Though  apparently  each  year  some  of  the  red  rust  spores 
lived  over  winter  in  a few  locations,  no  new  rust  developed  at  any  of 
these  stations  during  the  following  spring.  Quantities  of  the  red  rust 
spores  were  taken  in  from  out-of-doors  during  the  late  winter  and 
sown  on  the  same  grains  growing  in  the  greenhouse  but  produced  no 
rust.  Therefore,  while  some  of  these  spores  germinated,  they  were 
evidently  too  weak  to  produce  rust  on  the  new  spring  plants. 

TABLE  I. THE  AVERAGE  PERCENTAGE  GERMINATION  OF  THE  RED  RUST  SPORES  OF 

THE  BLACK  STEM  RUST. 


Plant  on 


Average  percentage  germination  of  red  rust 
spores  for  each  month 


occurred 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

Wheat 

24.2 

12.8 

2.0 

0.0 

0.1 

0.0 

0.0 

Rye  _ ___  __  . 

32.9 

1.7 

1.7 

0.0 

0.2 

0.0 

0.1 

Oats  — _ _ 

30.2 

9.3 

1.9 

0.6 

0.1 

1.1 

0.1 

Average 

29.1 

7.9 

1.9 

0.2 

0.1 

0.4 

0.1 

While  a few  of  the  red  rust  spores  in  protected  places  live  through 
the  winter  especially  during  very  mild  seasons,  the  majority  of  these 
spores  die  fairly  early  in  the  winter,  October  and  November.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  red  rust  spores  being  killed  by  the  winter  exposures,  the 
rust  plant  in  the  wheat  leaves  dies  as  the  wheat  leaves  attacked  by 
stem  rust  rot  very  easily  under  the  snow  during  the  winter  months. 

In  only  two  instances  in  Wisconsin  has  rust  been  found  which  had 
spread  the  following  spring  from  the  red  rust  stage  living  over  winter. 
The  spread  of  rust  from  these  plants  has  been  very  slow  and  decidedly 
limited.  For  example,  a field  of  winter  wheat  on  the  university  farm 
was  heavily  rusted  with  the  red  rust  stage  of  black  stem  rust  late  in  the 
fall  of  1919.  Of  the  thousands  of  wheat  plants  heavily  rusted  during 
the  fall,  only  one  plant  was  found  in  a sheltered  place  in  the  field  in 
the  spring  of  1920  on  which  the  red  rust  had  lived  over  winter.  This 
plant  was  found  early  in  April  while  the  barberry  leaves  were  yet  in 
the  bud.  The  plant  was  marked  and  all  adjoining  plants  carefully 
watched  for  the  spread  of  rust.  The  last  week  in  April  new  rust  was 
found  on  the  newer  leaves  of  this  plant  and  on  three  plants  in  contact 
with  this  plant.  On  May  30,  when  the  rust  was  spreading  in  large 
quantities  from  the  common  barberry  to  the  adjoining  grain  fields,  no 


12 


Bulletin  55 


new  rust  had  developed  on  these  plants.  At  heading  time,  the  rust  had 
spread  from  this  one  plant  to  the  lower  leaves  of  some  of  the  plants 
four  to  eight  drill  rows  away  and  at  harvest  the  rust  had  spread  scat- 
teringly  over  one  edge  of  a late  planting  of  Marquis  wheat  but  too  late 
to  do  any  damage  to  either  the  winter  or  spring  wheat. 

The  red  rust  which  over-winters  is  always  close  to  the  ground  on  the 
fall  leaves  and  is  protected  by  the  growth  above  it.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  rust  which  develops  on  the  barberry  is  out  where  the  wind 
catches  the  light  spores  and  spreads  them  long  distances  to  the  grains 
and  grasses.  Thus  the  spread  of  rust  in  the  first  case  is  near  the  ground 
and  limited  while  in  the  latter  case  the  rust  spores  from  the  barberry 
are  carried  long  distances  by  the  wind  and  settle  down  on  the  tops 
of  the  growing  grains. 

The  rust  develops  on  the  barberry  in  Wisconsin  in  early  May  and 
begins  spreading  rust  to  the  grains  and  grasses  soon  after  the  middle 
of  May.  The  following  table  gives  the  dates  at  which  the  barberry 
has  rusted,  the  dates  rust  spread  to  grains  and  grasses,  and  the  general 
stage  of  development  of  winter  and  spring  grains  at  the  date  of  rusting. 


TABLE  II. THE  STAGE  OF  DEVELOPMENT  OF  GRAINS  AND  THE  DATE  OF  SPREAD 

OF  RUST  FROM  THE  BARBERRY. 


Season 

Date 

barberry 

rusted 

Date 

rust  found 
on  grain 

Stage  of  development  of  grain 

Winter 

Spring 

1918 

May  11 
May  18 
May  23 
May  1 
Apr.  29 

June  6 
June  10 
June  12 
May  30 
June  2 

Shooting 

Heading 

Heading 

Shooting 

Heading 

Tillering 

Tillering 

Tillering 

Tillering 

Seedlings 

1919_  _ 

1920  

1921  , 

1922  

It  is  evident  from  the  above  table  that  in  Wisconsin  the  barberry  is 
the  important  factor  in  the  early  and  general  spread  of  stem  rust  to 
the  grains.  This  season  for  example  the  barberry  was  rusted  and 
ready  to  spread  rust  to  the  grains  almost  before  the  spring  grains  were 
out  of  the  ground  or  the  winter  grains  had  started  growing.  The  bar- 
berry was  ready  to  spread  rust  on  May  5 before  rust  had  been  reported 
even  in  the  extreme  southern  wheat  sections. 

The  barberry  spreads  the  rust  over  the  adjoining  grain  fields  and 
wild  grasses  producing  an  early  rust  infection  which  then  spreads  from 
plant  to  plant  in  the  field  causing  total  losses  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
bushes  and  heavy  losses  over  an  area  of  several  miles  from  the  bush. 

Figure  6 is  a map  showing  the  early  spring  spread  of  rust  from  the 
barberry  to  winter  rye  and  spring  barley.  The  rust  spread  from  the 
barberry  out  over  the  fields  causing  a heavy  rust  attack  near  the  bar- 
berries and  a light  spread  over  the  surrounding  fields  just  previous  to 
the  heading  of  the  winter  rye.  The  rust  two  weeks  later  had  spread 
from  plant  to  plant  and  at  the  time  the  rye  was  in  the  soft  dough  stage 


Fighting  Black  Stem  Rust 


13 


was  bad  over  the  entire  field.  At  this  time  a light  sprinkling  of  rust 
was  found  generally  throughout  the  entire  county.  Likewise  the  rust 
on  the  barley  had  spread  from  field  to  field  causing  damage  to  this  crop. 
The  barberry,  then,  spread  the  rust  to  the  winter  rye  in  May  and 
ruined  the  crop  in  the  field  adjacent  to  the  bushes;  it  then  spread 
from  field  to  field  over  a considerable  area  but  fortunately  weather 
conditions  were  not  favorable  for  a rust  epidemic  or  this  would  have 


BLACK  STEM  RUST  SPREADS 

FROM  THE  COMMON  BARBERRY  TO  GRAINS  AND  GRASSES. 


MARSHALL,  WISCONSIN . 


Fig.  7. — SPREAD  OF  RUST  FROM  THE  BARBERRY 
Barberries  were  scattered  by  birds  and  cattle  from  the  hedge  shown  near 
the  center  of  the  map  to  nearby  woodlots  and  fence  rows.  The  map  illustrates 
how  the  rust  had  spread  from  these  escaped  barberries  to  the  grain  by  July 
1,  1922.  Notice  that  the  wheat  was  not  rusted  indicating  that  only  the  oat 
strain  of  the  rust  was  present. 

been  one  of  the  centers  from  which  rust  spreads  like  wildfire  over  the 
northern  states  early  enough  to  catch  the  grain  while  filling  and  de- 
stroy the  grain  crop.  Such  general  epidemics  occurred  in  1916,  local 
ones  occurred  in  19T9,  and  if  weather  conditions  are  favorable,  there 
are  still  barberries  enough  in  the  state  to  cause  an  epidemic  this  season 
for  the  rust  is  waiting  for  the  spring  grains  to  come  up. 


14 


Bulletin  55 


A clear  cut  example  of  the  influence  of  the  barberry  on  the  develop- 
ment of  stem  rust  was  found  in  LaPorte  county,  Indiana.  Only  one 
barberry  planting  has  been  reported  in  the  county  and  the  farmers  in 
this  section  had  been  troubled  year  after  year  with  stem  rust.  The 
rust  was  even  so  severe  in  the  vicinity  of  the  barberry  planting  that 
wheat  growing  had  been  abandoned.  The  county  agent  working  with 
the  farmers  cleaned  the  barberry  bushes  out  of  this  pasture  and  killed 
all  of  the  sprouts.  The  following  spring  they  planted  wheat  in  the 
fields  adjoining  the  pasture  and  watched  closely  for  stem  rust.  The 
fields  all  developed  a full  crop  with  no  trace  of  stem  rust,  whereas  in 
the  previous  seasons  the  yields  were  reduced  by  over  one-half.  Wheat 
has  been  grown  on  these  fields  since  and  no  stem  rust  has  developed. 
Wisconsin,  this  season,  will  have  regions  entirely  free  from  the  bar- 
berry which  will  give  the  same  results. 

In  the  two  instances  where  the  rust  has  been  found  overwintering 
on  the  grains  and  grasses,  the  spread  of  rust  has  not  occurred  until  in 
July,  which  is  too  late  to  greatly  damage  even  the  late  spring  grains. 
The  spread  of  rust  from  the  barberry,  on  the  other  hand,  has  for  the 
past  three  years  occurred  before  June  first,  early  enough  to  ruin  both 
winter  and  spring  grains  if  weather  conditions  are  favorable  for  a rust 
epidemic.  The  eradication  of  the  barberry  in  Wisconsin,  therefore, 
will  check  the  general  spread  of  rust  to  the  grains  and  retard  all  spread 
until  the  grain  crops  are  safe  from  rust.  For  the  grain  growers  all 
know  that  a rust  epidemic  before  or  while  the  kernels  are  filling  means 
a heavy  loss,  whereas  the  same  rust  epidemic  coming  ten  days  later 
means  little  or  no  loss. 

The  stem  rust  in  Wisconsin  overwinters  in  the  black  rust  stage  and 
then  rusting  the  barberry  in  the  early  spring  spreads  to  the  grains  and 
grasses.  Occasionally  however  the  rust  overwinters  in  the  red  rust 
stage  on  the  grains  and  grasses  and  in  addition  it  may  spread  into  the 
northern  states  from  the  gulf  states  where  the  red  rust  spores  over- 
winter without  great  difficulty.  While  the  rust  spores  are  carried  long 
distances  by  strong  northerly  winds,  especially  in  the  great  plains 
region,  the  detailed  survey  the  past  two  seasons  has  shown  conclusively 
that  rust  in  the  northern  great  plains  region  and  especially  in  Wiscon- 
sin from  such  a source  does  not  reach  the  grain  crops  early  enough  to 
cause  heavy  losses.  For  example,  in  the  spring  of  1921,  the  barberry 
in  Wisconsin  was  spreading  quantities  of  stem  rust  to  the  adjoining 
grain  fields  June  1.  At  this  date  no  rust  occurred  in  the  south,  north 
of  the  southern  boundary  of  Kansas.  The  general  light  spread  of  stem 
rust  which  might  have  been  attributed  to  the  spread  of  rust  from  the 
south  did  not  occur  until  late  in  June.  Again  in  1922  the  barberry  was 
spreading  rust  May  fifth,  almost  before  the  spring  grains  were  out  of 
the  soil  and  no  stem  rust  had  been  found  north  of  northern  Texas. 

While  the  rust  undoubtedly  does  overwinter  in  the  red  rust  stage  in 
protected  places  and  under  favorable  seasonal  conditions  in  Wisconsin; 
and  while  it  undoubtedly  spreads  into  the  northern  states  from  the 
south  as  the  season  advances,  the  rust  in  Wisconsin  from  both  of  these 
sources  reaches  the  winter  and  spring  grains  too  late  to  cause  an  epi- 


Fighting  Black  Stem  Rust 


15 


Fig.  8. 

THE  DANGEROUS  BARBERRY  THE  HARMLESS  BARBERRY 

The  tall  barberry  (left)  helps  to  spread  stem  rust,  is  dangerous  and  should 
be  destroyed.  The  low  Japanese  barberry  (right)  is  harmless  and  may  be 

grown. 

demic  and  serious  loss  even  under  very  favorable  weather  conditions. 
The  spread  of  rust  from  the  barberry  on  the  other  hand  occurs  early  in 
the  spring  each  year  and  results  in  a general  development  of  stem 
rust,  always  damaging  the  grains  near  the  barberries,  and  occasionally 
spreading  in  epidemic  form  over  the  entire  state  and  northwest. 

Different  Kinds  of  Barberries 

There  are  many  species  of  barberry.  Some  are  native  in  certain 
sections  of  the  United  States  but  fortunately  only  a few  of  these 
species  become  rusted,  and  there  are  no  native  barberries  in  Wisconsin 
or  the  adjoining  states  which  carry  the  black  stem  rust.  Not  all  even 
of  the  introduced  barberries  carry  this  rust,  so  it  is  necessary  to  dis- 
tinguish between  those  that  do  and  those  that  do  not.  The  varieties 
that  have  been  most  commonly  planted  are  the  common  green  bar- 
berry (j Berberis  vulgaris),  the  common  purple  barberry  (Berberis  vul- 
garis purpurea),  and  the  Japanese  barberry  (Berberis  thunbergii). 
(Fig.  8.)  Of  these  three,  the  first  two  are  equally  dangerous  as  spread- 
ers of  stem  rust  of  all  the  cereals  and  they  should  be  destroyed.  The 


Pig.  9.— THE  COMMON  BARBERRY  AND  THE  JAPANESE  BARBERRY, 
SHOWING  THE  DIFFERENCES 

Leaves : Fairly  large,  with  saw-tooth  edges.  Leaves : Rather  small,  with 
Spines  : Long,  and  usually  in  groups  of  three.  smooth  edges. 

Berries : In  clusters  like  currants.  Spines : Fairly  short  and 

usually  single. 

Berries : One  or  two  together. 

Japanese  barberry,  on  the  other  hand,  does  not  rust  and  is  entirely 
harmless.  This  is  fortunate,  as  it  is  a beautiful  shrub  and  is  largely 
used  in  ornamental  plantings. 

These  plants  are  easily  distinguished,  as  is  indicated  in  Fig.  9.  The 
green  and  purple  varieties  are  almost  identical  except  that  one  has 
green  leaves  and  the  other  has  reddish-purple  leaves.  As  these  plants 
are  not  native  to  our  state  they  are  not  ordinarily  found  growing  wild 
in  the  woods  but  should  be  looked  for  among  the  shrubs  planted  around 
houses  and  on  lawns.  In  a number  of  places,  however,  the  common 
barberry  has  escaped  from  cultivation  in  Wisconsin  and  has  spread 
extensively  in  pastures  and  woodlots.  If  this  spread  were  not  being 
checked  by  the  Barberry  Eradication  Campaign,  it  might  soon  have 
been  as  impossible  to  eradicate'  the  barberry  from  the  state  as  it  would 
be  to  eradicate  the  Canada  thistle. 


Fighting  Black  Stem  Rust 


17 


Some  other  varieties  of  barberry  as  well  as  some  varieties  of  ma- 
honia  also  carry  the  black  stem  rust  but,  as  very  few  of  these  have 
been  planted  in  Wisconsin,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  describe  them. 
The  barberry  law  covers  all  such  plants  and  in  case  any  question 
arises  as  to  the  nature  of  any  particular  plant  it  would  be  well  to  send 
a specimen  to  Madison  to  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  or  the 
State  Department  of  Agriculture  for  identification. 

History  of  the  Barberry 

Barberry  a Native  of  Asia 

The  common  barberry  is  neither  native  to  Wisconsin  nor  to  the 
United  States,  but  is  believed  to  have  come  originally  from  western 
Asia,  where  it  is  still  found  growing  wild  in  the  Himalaya  mountains. 
One  of  the  earliest  records  of  this  plant  is  in  the  Babylonian  writings 
of  about  650  B.  C.,  where  it  is  mentioned  as  being  of  medicinal  value. 
Like  many  other  Asiatic  medicinal  plants,  it  was  carried  by  man  where- 
ever  civilization  advanced  and  possibly  was  introduced  into  Europe  in 
this  way.  Even  during  the  eighteenth  century,  it  was  very  highly 
prized  by  the  doctors  of  Europe  and  the  alleged  virtues  of  the  various 
portions  of  the  plant  are  described  in  detail.  When  we  recall  that  the 
medical  men  of  that  day  had  to  raise  their  own  plants  and  make  their 
own  drugs  to  a very  large  extent  we  can  understand  why  the  barberry 
came  to  be  planted  in  every  village  and  town. 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  in  the  early  part 
of  the  nineteenth,  the  common  barberry  came  into  favor  as  a hedge  to 
separate  fields.  Its  rank,  rapid  growth  and  its  long  sharp  thorns  made 
it  excellent  for  this  purpose.  As  the  bushes  became  abundant  and 
large  crops  of  berries  were  produced,  the  juice  of  the  fruit  found  a 
ready  use  as  a beverage  and  also  in  the  making  of  jellies  and  preserves. 
So,  in  many  places,  we  find  the  bushes  planted  in  gardens  as  are  cur- 
rants and  gooseberries. 

Introduced  Into  the  United  States  by  Early  Settlers 

The  common  barberry  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  first  plants 
brought  to  America  by  the  early  New  England  settlers  and  there  are 
accounts  of  the  use  of  barberry  jelly  as  a medicine  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  By  1700  it  had  become  firmly  established 
in  the  New  England  states,  and,  since  that  time,  wherever  the  New 
Englanders  have  moved  they  have  taken  the  barberry  with  them.  As 
many  of  the  early  settlers  of  Wisconsin  were  from  New  England,  it  is 
not  surprising  that  their  log  cabins  became  the  centers  for  the  spread 
of  the  barberry  in  this  state. 

The  Barberry  Was  Brought  to  Wisconsin  Many  Years  Ago 

One  of  the  earliest  plantings  of  which  we  have  record  was  on  the 
farm  of  John  Hilton,  who  patented  a half  section  of  land  near  the  city 
of  Madison  in  1836.  These  plants  thrived  and  became  wild,  spreading 


18 


Bulletin  55 


extensively  throughout  the  woods  south  of  Lake  Mendota.  Another 
record  is  of  barberries  near  Baraboo  planted  by  David  Wells,  who 
brought  them  from  Vermont  in  1856.  There  are  many  similar  records. 
Hence,  it  is  evident  that,  even  though  the  plant  is  not  a native  of  Wis- 
consin, it  has  been  in  this  state  for  almost  a century.  Not  all  the 


Fig.  10.— CITIES  AND  VILLAGES  OF  WISCONSIN  IN  WHICH  COMMON 
BARBERRY  BUSHES  HAVE  BEEN  FOUND 

Note  the  widespread  occurrence  of  this  bush. 


Fighting  Black  Stem  Rust 


19 


plants  came  from  New  England,  however,  for  we  find  that  S.  B. 
Lueders,  a botanist,  brought  bushes  from  Germany  in  1852  and  planted 
them  near  Sauk  City,  and  that  John  Meidam  brought  bushes  from 
Holland  in  1853  and  planted  them  near  Appleton.  Other  bushes  were 
brought  from  England  about  1850  and  planted  near  Manitowoc,  and 
still  others  came  from  Switzerland. 

At  the  present  time  it  is  very  difficult  to  trace  the  history  of  most 
of  the  early  plantings  in  this  state,  but  enough  has  been  given  to  show 
that  the  barberry  was  introduced  many  years  ago  and  that  where  the 
bushes  are  now  found  growing  wild  they  have  simply  escaped  from 
cultivation.  In  more  recent  years  the  nurseries  sold  thousands  of  both 
the  green  and  the  purple  common  barberries  in  Wisconsin  for  use  as 
ornamental  plants.  This  was  stopped  in  1918  when  the  Barberry 
Eradication  Campaign  was  started. 


ERADICATION  OF  THE  BARBERRY 
Early  Attempts  at  Eradication 

The  harmful  effect  of  the  barberry  on  grain  crops  is  not  a new  dis- 
covery and  the  eradication  of  this  bush  to  save  the  grain  has  been 
attempted  many  times.  About  1805,  what  has  been  called  the  “Bar- 
berry War”  broke  out  in  parts  of  Europe  and  particularly  in  Denmark. 
As  has  been  said,  it  was  about  this  time  that  the  bush  had  found  favor 
as  a hedge  to  separate  fields  but  the  farmers  soon  learned  that  where 
it  was  so  used  they  could  raise  an  abundance  of  straw  but  no  grain. 
That  this  bush  was  in  some  way  responsible  for  the  poor  crops  was 
soon  recognized  and  many  hedges  were  destroyed.  However,  as  many 
people  raised  the  plant  for  its  supposed  medicinal  value  and  others 
used  the  fruit  in  making  wine  and  jellies,  the  bushes  were  not  all  de- 
stroyed and  the  records  tell  of  groups  of  angry  farmers  who  armed 
themselves  and  made  raids  on  the  bushes  of  neighbors  who  had  re- 
fused to  destroy  their  barberries.  One  instance  is  told  of  a village 
judge  who  had  some  common  barberries  and  refused  to  permit  their 
destruction,  although  all  the  others  in  the  district  had  been  removed. 
For  many  years  the  farmers  were  unsuccessful  in  their  efforts  to 
eradicate  these  plants,  but  the  day  after  the  death  of  the  judge  in  1839 
they  armed  themselves  “with  spades  and  axes”  and  “before  evening 
came  the  bushes  were  spread  on  the  earth.”  They  were  then  burned 
“amidst  song  and  jubilee.” 

During  this  “war,”  laws  against  the  barberry  were  passed  in  parts 
of  Germany,  France,  and  Denmark,  and  laws  have  since  been  passed 
in  other  European  countries.  Today  there  are  laws  against  the  com- 
mon barberry  in  practically  all  European  countries  and  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  find  any  of  the  bushes  in  the  agricultural  sections  of  the 
continent. 

In  the  United  States,  laws  against  the  barberry  were  enacted  in 
Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  and  Massachusetts  between  1726  and  1766. 
In  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  these  laws  were  renewed  after  a 


20 


Bulletin  55 


period  of  years  so  the  results  must  have  been  satisfactory.  They  did 
not  exterminate  the  barberry,  however,  and  today  it  is  found  growing 
wild  very  extensively  throughout  New  England,  so  that  its  eradication 
would  be  extremely  difficult,  if  not  practically  impossible. 

Recent  Successful  Eradication 

The  first  successful  eradication  campaign  was  carried  on  in  Den- 
mark. In  1903,  a law  was  passed  requiring  the  destruction  of  all  harm- 
ful barberries  in  that  country,  and  by  1910  practically  all  bushes  had 
been  destroyed.  The  results  were  striking.  Previous  to  1903,  severe 
rust  epidemics  with  heavy  losses  had  been  common  but  since  the 
bushes  have  been  destroyed  there  has  not  been  a single  epidemic  and 
very  little  rust  has  been  found.  In  most  cases  such  rust  as  has  been 
found  has  been  traced  to  some  barberry  that  had  been  overlooked. 

The  Eradication  Campaign  in  the  United  States 
States  Pass  Laws  Against  Growing  the  Barberry 

American  scientists,  as  well  as  farmers,  had  long  recognized  the 
possibility  of  controlling  stem  rust  by  the  removal  of  the  barberry  but 
concerted  action  was  not  possible  until  the  increasing  frequency  and 
destructiveness  of  rust  epidemics  throughout  our  northern  wheat- 
growing states  made  some  action  imperative  if  wheat,  and  especially 
spring  wheat,  was  to  continue  to  be  grown.  In  1918,  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  in  cooperation  with  thirteen  of  the  northern 
wheat-growing  states,  extending  from  Ohio  and  Michigan  on  the  east  to 
Colorado,  Wyoming  and  Montana  on  the  west,  started  a campaign  to 
remove  all  harmful  barberries  from  this  territory.  Laws  soon  were 
passed  in  all  these  states  forbidding  the  propagation  of  common  bar- 
berries and  all  other  varieties  known  to  carry  rust. 

The  following  is  an  extract  from  the  Wisconsin  State  Law  and  is 
typical  of  the  laws  passed  in  all  the  states  interested  in  this  campaign: 

Section  96.38.  HARMFUL  BARBERRIES,  ERADICATION  OF.  (1) 
No  person  shall  receive,  ship,  accept  for  shipment,  transport,  sell,  offer 
for  sale,  give  away,  deliver,  plant  or  permit  to  exist  on  his  or  its 
premises  any  harmful  barberry,  or  any  plant  of  a species  that  shall 
be  designated  by  the  department  of  agriculture  in  published  regula- 
tions to  be  a host  or  carrier  of  a dangerous  plant  disease  or  insect 
pest. 

(2)  The  state  entomologist  may  destroy  any  such  plant  found 
growing  in  the  state.  If  the  owner  shall  refuse  or  neglect  to  eradicate 
such  plants  within  ten  days  after  receiving-  a written  notice  so  to 
do,  the  expense  of  such  eradication  shall  be  certified  to  the  town, 
city  or  village  clerk  and  assessed,  collected,  and  enforced  against 
the  premises  upon  which  such  expense  was  incurred  as  taxes  are 
assessed,  collected,  and  enforced,  and  shall  be  paid  into  the  treasury 
of  the  state. 


Fighting  Black  Stem  Rust 


21 


(3)  The  term  “harmful  barberry”  shall  be  interpreted  to  consist 
of  any  species  of  Berberis  or  Mahonia  susceptible  to  infection  by 
Puccinia  graminis,  commonly  called  black  stem  rust  of  grain,  but 
not  including  Japanese  barberry,  B.  thunbergii. 

98.48.  PENALTY  FOR  VIOLATIONS;  PROSECUTIONS.  Any  per- 
son violating  any  provision  of  sections  96.33  to  96.47,  inclusive,  or 
any  rule  or  regulation  promulgated  under  the  authority  of  said  sections, 
shall  be  fined  not  less  than  twenty-five  dollars  nor  more  than  five 
hundred  dollars  for  each  offense. 

Immense  Numbers  of  Barberries 

It  was  thought  at  first  that  very  few  barberries  would  be  found,  but 
four  years’  work  has  disproved  this  idea.  Comparatively  few  of  these 


Fig.  11.— MAP  SHOWING  RESULTS  OF  FARM-TO-FARM  SURVEY 

The  dots  indicate  the  location  of  farms  on  which  barberries  were  found  in 
the  26  southern  counties  where  the  survey  has  been  completed. 


22 


Bulletin  55 


bushes  were  found  in  Montana,  Wyoming  and  Colorado,  but  as  we 
progress  eastward  the  numbers  increase  rapidly,  and  the  magnitude  as 
well  as  the  seriousness  of  the  undertaking  becomes  apparent. 

At  present,  Wisconsin  leads  all  the  other  states  in  the  number  of 
bushes  found  and  consequently  in  the  magnitude  of  the  work  neces- 
sary to  free  herself  from  this  pest.  Not  only  are  the  common  bar- 
berries found  growing  in  the  planted  shrubbery  in  the  cities,  but  many 
a farm  boasts  a beautiful  bush  in  its  front  yard!  In  the  counties  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  state  which  have  already  been  surveyed  (Fig. 
11)  there  were  an  average  of  about  70  farms  per  county  having  bar- 
berries. Unfortunately  this  bush  thrives  in  our  climate  and  on  many 


Fig.  12. — A HEDGE  OF  COMMON  BARBERRIES  PLANTED  AROUND  AN 

ORCHARD 

The  hedge  of  common  barberries  spreads  rust  to  the  neighboring  grain 
fields  causing  immense  losses  each  year. 

farms  barberry  seeds,  scattered  by  birds  and  cattle,  have  taken  root 
spreading  the  plant  along  the  fences  and  into  the  pastures.  At  first 
the  farmers  thought  little  of  the  danger  to  their  fields.  Some  tried  to 
cut  out  the  bush  but  where  one  plant  was  cut  down  a dozen  grew  from 
the  broken  roots  and  it  soon  became  apparent  that,  as  a weed,  the 
barberry  was  as  hard,  if  not  harder  to  kill  than  the  Canada  thistle. 

This  was  a new  and  unexpected  development  and  one  which  has  in- 
creased the  seriousness  of  the  problem  many  fold.  It  is  evident  that, 
had  the  barberries  been  left  to  spread  but  a few  years  longer,  the  task 
of  eradicating  them  would  have  been  insurmountable  and  many  other- 


Fighting  Black  Stem  Rust 


23 


wise  valuable  and  productive  fields  would  have  been  over-run  and 
made  valueless  by  this  aggressive  weed,  as  has  already  occurred  in  the 
New  England  states.  What  effect  this  would  have  had  on  the  wheat 
and  other  small  grains  of  the  state  is  problematical. 

Barberry  Very  Difficult  to  Eradicate 

The  barberry  should  be  destroyed  immediately,  both  on  account  of 
the  danger  to  the  cereals  and  the  imminent  danger  of  its  becoming  a 
serious  and  widespread  weed  in  this  state.  But  this  is  not  as  easy  as 
one  might  wish  and  it  is  on  just  this  account  that  it  is  so  dangerous. 
It  is  a shallow-rooted  plant,  most  of  the  roots  lying  within  six  inches  of 


Fig.  13.— THE  PROPER  WAY  TO  REMOVE  BARBERRY  BUSHES 

Dig  deep  enough  to  get  all  of  the  roots  out  with  the  plant  to  prevent  sprout- 
ing. Heavy  canvas  gloves  protect  the  hands. 

the  surface  of  the  soil  but  spreading  to  a considerable  distance  in  all 
directions.  Even  with  careful  digging,  these  roots  are  seldom  removed 
entirely  but  are  broken  off,  leaving  portions  in  the  ground.  These 
portions  almost  invariably  sprout  and  produce  thrifty  young  plants 
which  soon  replace  not  only  the  one  that  was  removed  but  add  a large 
number  of  new  ones.  By  continued  watchfulness  and  repeated  digging, 
it  is  a fairly  simple  matter  to  remove  a few  bushes  from  around  a 
house,  but  where  there  are  thousands  of  bushes  scattered  over  pastures 
and  woodlots  and  along  fence  rows,  it  is  not  so  easy. 


24 


Bulletin  55 


The  old  bush  can  be  easily  removed  by  digging,  by  use  of  a team  or 
tractor  or  a stump-pulling  outfit,  or  by  blasting.  All  these  methods  are 
in  use,  the  one  chosen  depending  on  the  size  and  number  of  the  bushes, 
the  character  of  the  soil,  etc.,  but  with  the  greatest  care  some  roots  are 
always  left  in  the  soil  and  the  spot  must  be  revisited  a second  and  a 
third  time. 

Experiments  are  under  way  to  find  the  best  and  cheapest  method  of 
killing  the  barberries.  Numerous  chemicals  have  been  studied  and 
two  are  recommended  for  use.  These  are  salt  and  sodium  arsenite 
solution.  The  salt  is  used  dry.  About  ten  pounds  piled  in  the  center 


Fig.  14—  SPROUTS  OF  THE  COMMON  BARBERRY  IN  A WISCONSIN 

PASTURE 

The  bushes  were  cut  off  two  different  times  and  each  time  sent  up  a new 
lot  of  sprouts. 


of  an  average  size  bush  will  kill  it.  Sodium  arsenite  is  made  into  a 
dilute  solution  containing  the  equivalent  of  about  eight  pounds  of  white 
arsenic  (As203)  per  barrel  of  water.  Two  gallons  of  this  solution 
poured  around  the  base  of  a barberry  will  effectually  kill  an  average 
size  bush.  It  acts  best  when  the  ground  is  relatively  dry  and  the 
weather  warm.  More  detailed  directions  for  the  use  of  these  chemi- 
cals can  be  found  in  circular  268  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. 


Fighting  Black  Stem  Rust 


25 


Present  Status  of  the  Campaign  in  Wisconsin — Cities  and  Villages 
Freed  From  Barberries 

The  Barberry  Eradication  Campaign  has  been  under  way  in  Wiscon- 
sin since  April,  1918.  The  first  move  was  to  find  and  remove  all  dan- 
gerous bushes  from  the  cities,  parks  and  nurseries,  for  from  these  the 
bushes  are  carried  into  the  country.  The  accompanying  map  (Fig.  10) 
shows  the  villages  and  cities  where  barberries  were  found  and  re- 
moved. It  should  be  noticed  how  widely  the  bush  was  distributed 
throughout  the  state. 

The  number  of  bushes  found  and  the  number  of  properties  are  given 


Fig.  15.— THE  COMMON  BARBERRY  GROWING  WILD  IN  A PASTURE 

The  barberry  has  escaped  into  pastures  and  woodlots  ; where  once  estab- 
lished it  becomes  a serious  weed. 

Country  Districts  Still  Have  Many  Barberries 

When  the  cities  and  villages  were  fairly  free  of  barberries  attention 
was  directed  to  the  country  districts  and  at  present  the  survey  is  pro- 
ceeding county  by  county.  This  work  was  started  in  the  southeastern 
corner  of  the  state  and  is  progressing  westward  and  northward.  It  is 
necessary  to  visit  and  inspect  every  farm,  for  many  people  do  not 
know  the  bush  and  a few  are  selfishly  refusing  to  destroy  their  bar- 
berries until  ordered  to  do  so  by  an  inspector.  Consequently,  with  the 
limited  funds  available,  the  work  is  going  slowly,  but  it  is  progressing, 
and  when  a county  has  been  gone  over  in  this  manner  few  or  no  bar- 
berries remain. 


26 


Bulletin  55 


The  accompanying  map  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  state  (Fig.  11) 
shows  the  territory  that  has  been  covered  in  this  farm-to-farm  survey 
and  the  approximate  number  and  location  of  the  farms  on  which  bar- 
berries have  been  found.  More  exact  data  are  given  in  the  table  on 
page  27. 

Wild  Barberries  are  a Serious  Menace 

A third  phase  of  the  campaign  and  one  which  is  assuming  even 
greater  importance  is  that  of  barberries  which  have  escaped  from  culti- 
vation, a problem  which  has  previously  been  mentioned.  Such  wild 
bushes  already  have  been  found  in  over  82  areas  throughout  the  state 
and  as  the  campaign  progresses  many  more  undoubtedly  will  be  found. 
In  some  cases  there  were  but  one  or  two  bushes,  but  in  others  the 
bushes  had  already  spread  over  an  area  several  miles  in  extent  and 
the  farmers  were  beginning  to  realize  their  destructiveness  as  a weed 
entirely  apart  from  their  effect  on  the  grain.  The  aggressive  character 
of  this  “weed”  may  be  realized  by  the  experience  of  one  farmer  in 
Grant  county.  He  has  a wooded  pasture  of  about  300  acres  in  which 
the  barberries  had  secured  a firm  foothold.  When  visited  by  an  in- 
spector, this  farmer  said  he  had  been  digging  out  the  bushes  as  fast  as 
he  found  time  for  several  years  and  estimated  that  he  had  removed 
about  5,000.  It  was  evident,  though,  that  he  was  not  even  keeping  up 
with  the  spread  of  the  barberry.  In  1920,  a crew  of  men  was  employed 
and  about  35,000  large  plants,  besides  a very  large  number  of  small 
ones,  were  removed  from  this  pasture.  In  1922  another  crew  of  eight 
men  went  over  this  pasture,  carefully  digging  all  sprouts  and  removing 
many  small  bushes  which  had  been  missed  previously.  The  pasture  is 
still  far  from  being  free  of  barberries,  however,  as  many  small  plants 
still  remain  and  more  sprouts  will  develop.  There  may  also  be  many 
seeds  which  have  not  yet  germinated.  The  danger  may  be  better 
realized  when  it  is  added  that  the  original  hedge  from  which  all  these 
wild  bushes  came  was  planted  by  this  farmer  only  about  thirty  years 
ago! 

Present  Status  of  Barberry  Eradication  in  the  United  States 

There  are  thirteen  states  engaged  in  the  eradication  campaign.  Be- 
cause, in  most  of  these  states,  the  complete  eradication  of  the  common 
barberry  will  require  from  five  to  fifteen  years  at  the  present  rate  of 
progress,  the  work  has  been  planned  so  that  the  clean  area  in  one  state 
will  join  with  the  clean  areas  in  the  neighboring  states.  For  instance, 
North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  and  Nebraska  have  worked  on  their 
eastern  borders,  while  Minnesota  and  Iowa  have  worked  on  their  west- 
ern borders  thus  making  a continuous  strip  of  territory  from  Canada 
to  the  southern  edge  of  Nebraska  and  Iowa  free  from  barberries.  Like- 
wise, Wisconsin  started  on  the  south  and  Illinois  on  the  north.  In  1922 
Wisconsin  connected  with  a clean  area  on  the  northern  edge  of  Iowa 
and  the  southern  edge  of  Minnesota,  making  a continuous  strip  of 
territory  nearly  free  from  barberries  from  Lake  Michigan  to  South 
Dakota. 


Fighting  Black  Stem  Rust 


27 


The  plan  of  the  work  has  been  similar  in  the  different  states  though 
the  territory  covered  varies  considerably  in  extent  at  present.  The 
area  covered  in  the  farm-to-farm  survey  in  Wisconsin  is  small  when 
compared  to  the  areas  covered  by  some  of  the  other  states,  though  in 
actual  numbers  of  bushes  found  and  eradicated  she  is  first.  The  very 
fact  that  very  large  numbers  of  wild  barberries  have  been  found  in  this 
state  has  slowed  up  the  work  tremendously.  Some  of  the  other  states 
have  also  given  much  greater  financial  assistance  to  the  work  than  has 
Wisconsin.  The  Minnesota  legislature  up  to  1923,  for  instance,  has 
given  more  than  ten  times  the  financial  aid  to  this  work  that  the  Wis- 
consin authorities  have  been  able  to  give. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  properties  on  which  bar- 
berries were  found  in  each  of  the  thirteen  states,  as  well  as  the  num- 
ber of  bushes  found  and  removed. 


TABLE  III. SHOWING  THE  RESULTS  OBTAINED  IN  THE  BARBERRY  ERADICATION 

CAMPAIGN  FROM  APRIL  1,  1918,  TO  DECEMBER  31,  1922. 


State 

No.  of  properties 
from  which  bushes 
have  been  removed 

Total  number 
cf  barberry 
bushes  found 

Total  number 
of  barberry 
bushes  removed 

Colorado 

1,639 

24,001 

23,822 

Illinois 

9,085 

142,882 

129,786 

Indiana 

3,923 

96,284 

,94,004 

Iowa 

8,365 

764,096 

761,227 

Michigan . 

6,490 

265,109 

221,090 

Minnesota 

4,611 

778,997 

776,803 

Montana 

196 

9,027 

8,680 

Nebraska 

3,153 

88,862 

88,180 

North  Dakota 

731 

19,438 

19,438 

Ohio 

5,402 

230,088 

210,438 

South  Dakota  

739 

52,309 

47,302 

Wisconsin 

7,580 

3,354,155 

2,788,936 

Wyoming 

78 

4,140 

3,841 

Total 

51,992 

5,829,368 

5,173,547 

28 


Bulletin  55 


SUMMARY 

The  presence  of  the  dangerous  barberry  in  the  vicinity  of  grain  fields 
gives  the  black  stem  rust  a “running  start”  in  the  spring.  This  has 
been  observed  imany  times  since  the  barberry  eradication  campaign 
was  started  in  Wisconsin  in  1918. 

The  black  stem  rust  fungus  overwinters  on  grain  stubble  and  on 
many  grasses.  In  the  spring,  in  May  or  early  June,  when  the  barberry 
leaves  are  coming  out,  spores  are  carried  by  the  wind  from  the  stubble, 
and  rust  starts  on  the  barberry.  Within  a week  or  ten  days  it  de- 
velops on  grains  and  grasses  and  spreads  like  “wild  fire”  if  the  weather 
is  warm  and  moist.  Spores  from  stubble  will  not  infect  young  grain 
nor  will  those  from  barberry  spread  rust  to  barberry.  Therefore,  the 
removal  of  the  barberry  takes  out  an  important  link  in  the  chain  of 
development  and  so  slows  up  the  early  spring  start  of  the  rust  that 
most  grains  are  able  to  ripen  a crop  without  danger  from  a rust 
epidemic. 

The  barberry  is  a native  of  Asia  but  was  brought  to  Europe  at  an 
early  date  and  came  to  this  country  along  with  the  early  settlers.  It 
was  widely  planted  as  a quick-growing,  ornamental  shrub  whose  yellow 
roots  were  thought  to  have  medicinal  value. 

In  common  with  12  other  states  in  the  upper  Mississippi  valley 
region,  Wisconsin  has  passed  a law  condemning  the  dangerous  bar- 
berry. The  state  entomologist  or  his  deputies  are  empowered  to  in- 
spect any  property  they  think  necessary  and  to  order  removed  or  to 
remove  at  owner’s  expense  any  dangerous  barberry.  Fortunately  the 
Japanese  barberry  does  not  harbor  rust  and  need  not  be  removed. 


? u * t 


etin  358 


October,  1923 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN  IN  COOPERATION  WITH 
THE  WISCONSIN  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE 


Drainage  District  Farms 
In 

Central  Wisconsin 

E.  R.  Jones,  B.  G.  Packer 

THE  DRAINAGE  DISTRICTS  of  central  Wisconsin  date  back 
at  least  fifteen  years.  The  early  systems  of  drainage  were 
faulty  and  failed  to  provide  adequate  ditches.  Failure  to  care 
for  the  ditches  in  some  districts  made  poor  drainage  worse.  The  Little 
Yellow,  Cranberry  Creek  and  Portage  County  Drainage  Districts  have 
realized  that  their  early  ditches  were  too  shallow.  They  have  deepened 
them  to  an  average  of  eight  feet  and  have  put  in  some  new  ditches. 
This  has  meant  further  assessments  of  taxes  against  the  land  in  addi- 
tion to  the  original  assessment  for  drainage.  In  these  districts  there  is 
no  land  more  than  half  a mile  from  a ditch.  Some  of  the  other  dis- 
tricts are  contemplating  supplementary  construction. 

At  the  time  of  organization  much  of  the  land  was  controlled  by 
speculators  and  was  then  and  is  now  offered  as  trading  property.  There 
has  been  no  definite  plan  of  settlement  or  agricultural  policy.  Until 
lately  no  effort  was  made  by  the  districts  to  exhibit  samples  of  their 
crops  at  fairs  or  expositions. 

The  value  of  peat  has  been  questioned.  A great  deal  of  money  has 
been  spent  by  farmers  who  insist  that  it  did  not  produce  as  they  ex- 
pected it  would  from  its  appearance.  Some  have  brought  suits  to  break 
their  contracts  of  purchase.  Others  who  bought  too  much  land  and 
equipment  too  elaborate  for  a beginner  fell  down  because  they  could 
not  carry  the  investment  and  pay  the  extra  cost  of  supplementary  drain- 
age needed,  in  addition  to  the  regular  drainage  tax  of  the  district.  Still 
others  failed  to  give  the  marsh  land  a square  deal  because  of  shiftless 
farming  and  persistent  unwillingness  to  follow  suggestions. 

The  point  has  now  been  reached  where  the  question  naturally  arises 
whether  it  is  wise  or  economically  sound  to  organize  more  drainage  dis- 
tricts on  new  areas  in  these  counties.  The  answer  is  “yes”  where  there 
is  need  of  more  tillable  acres  on  the  surrounding  unland  farms  dipping 
down  into  the  marsh.  It  is  “yes”  where  a sound  and  decently  enforcible 
utilization  plan  is  made  a part  of  the  drainage  plan.  But  it  is  em- 
phatically “no”  in  all  other  cases.  Let  wise  utilization  catch  up  with  the 
outlet  drains  already  constructed. 

In  order  to  give  full,  frank  and  competent  information  on  the  suc- 
cesses and  failures  of  marsh  farming  to  all  settlers  on  the  marsh  and 
those  contemplating  peat-district  location  the  following  stories  of  suc- 
cess or  failure  have  been  told  by  the  farmers  themselves. 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin 


3 


As  Told  by  the  Farmers 

Table  1 is  the  result  of  interviews  with  87  representative  farmers. 
The  list  does  not  include  all  the  farmers  in  the  drainage  districts  visited 
but  an  effort  was  made  to  see  and  talk  with  every  farmer  in  the  por- 
tions of  the  districts  covered.1 


The  names  of  the  farmers  are  not  given  but  will  be  furnished  upon 
application.  The  farmer  was  encouraged  to  talk  freely  of  his  successes 
and  failures.  Part  of  what  he  had  to  say  was  jotted  down  while  walking 
through  the  field ; some  of  it  while  he  was  doing  his  chores ; and  much 
of  it  was  written  on  the  supper  table  after  the  dishes  were  out  of  the 
way.  These  farmers  want  more  neighbors,  but  do  not  want  them  to 

^The  statements  of  the  farmers  were  obtained  through  personal  visits  by 
the  authors  and  in  some  cases  in  company  with  a representative  of  the 
Bureau  of  Drainage  Investigations,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
S.  H.  McCrory,  Chief. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


Marshes,  Drainage  and  Farms 

The  nine  counties  starred  in  central  Wisconsin  contain 
505,394  acres  in  16  drainage  districts  in  which  854.9  miles  of 
outlet  ditches  are  operating.  These  districts  are  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  circuit  judge,  who  acts  through  three  commis- 
sioners. The  outlet  drains,  costing  about  $7  an  acre,  are  paid 
for  by  the  sale  of  bonds,  a portion  of  which  become  due  each 
year  for  20  years,  are  paid  by  a tax  on  the  lands  benefitted  and 
are  a first  lien  against  such  lands.  The  secretary  of  the  dis- 
tricts keeps  books  that  show  how  much  drainage  tax  remains 
to  be  paid  on  each  parcel.  On  many  of  these  lands  the  farm- 
ers themselves  must  put  in  supplementary  drains  before  crops 
are  safe. 

Some  of  the  districts  are  facing  a critical  financial  situ- 
ation. Some  day,  the  refunding  bonds  that  have  been  issued  to 
pay  the  original  indebtedness  and  the  new  bonds,  that  have 
been  sold  to  pay  for  supplementary  construction,  will  have  to  be 
paid. 

Most  of  these  lands  have  peat  soil  with  sandy  sub-soils. 
They  are  interspersed  with  sandy  islands.  Many  early  settlers 
failed  chiefly  because  .the  drainage  was  not  complete.  Others 
who  were  able  to  endure  the  hardships  of  pioneer  days  have 
made  their  farms  support  their  families. 

Prospective  settlers  do  well  to  study  the  experience  of  those 
who  have  been  through  the  mill,  and  are  establishing  a sound 
agricultural  policy  for  farming  these  lands.  The  successful 
solution  to  the  problems  involved  means  much  to  the  prosper- 
ity of  the  state  in  general  and  these  counties  in  particular. 


FIG.  2.— CENTRAL  WISCONSIN  COUNTIES. 

The  marshes  served  by  drainage  districts  lie  in  the  heart  of  the  state. 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin  5 

make  unnecessary  mistakes  either  in  the  selection  of  land  or  in  its 
management. 

The  conclusions  of  the  authors  are  enclosed  in  panels  in  the  re- 
mainder of  this  publication. 

Of  the  87  farmers  who  were  at  home  for  interviews,  not  all  had 
tried  to  raise  all  of  the  following  crops  but  58  reported  having  raised 
profitable  crops  of  oats  on  the  marsh ; corn  for  grain  or  silo,  52 ; po- 
tatoes, 37;  buckwheat,  33;  timothy,  29;  rye,  29;  soybeans,  15;  millet,  10; 
alsike  clover,  7 ; marsh  hay,  5 ; garden  truck  for  market,  5 ; sugar  beets, 
4;  cabbage,  3;  melons,  3;  barley,  3;  wheat,  2;  onions,  2;  red  top,  1; 
“million  dollar  grass,”  1 ; rape,  1 ; rutabagas,  1 ; flax,  1. 


TABLE  1.— WHO,  WHERE  AND  HOW 


Own 

or 

rent 

Acres 

Too 

wet 

Tile 

used 

Depth 

peat 

Sub- 

soil 

Too 

dry 

Years 

there 

Roller 

used 

Fer- 

tilizer 

Early 

as 

upland 

Colder 

than 

upland 

Own 

930 

Yes 

No 

l'-3' 

S-C 

No 

3 

Yes 

C-M 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

260 

Yes 

No 

H'-2' 

Sand 

No 

4 

No 

M 

No 

Yes 

Own 

80 

Yes 

No 

3' 

Sand 

No 

5 

No 

M 

Near 

Yes 

Rent 

240 

Ditch 

Rent 

480 

Yes 

No 

5'-6' 

Sand 

No 

2 

Should 

M 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

220 

Yes 

No 

2'-4' 

Sand 

No 

4 

M 

Own 

190 

No 

No 

2'-4' 

Sand 

No 

22 

t No 

M 

Own 

200 

Yes' 

No 

T-3' 

Sand 

No 

6 

Yes 

M 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

400 

No 

No 

2'-4' 

Sand 

No 

6 

Yes 

M 

Yes 

Own 

200 

Yes 

No 

2'-3^' 

Sand 

No 

4 

Yes 

M 

Nearly 

Yes 

Own 

210 

Yes 

No 

3' 

Sand 

No 

7 

No 

M 

No 

Yes 

Own 

160 

Yes 

No 

2'-3' 

Sand 

No 

12 

Yes 

M 

No 

Yes 

Own 

80 

No 

No 

r-y 

Sand 

No 

2 

No 

None 

No 

Yes 

Own 

260 

No 

No 

v-y 

Sand 

No 

17 

Yes 

C 

Yes 

Own 

40 

No 

No 

i y2' 

Sand 

No 

20 

No 

C 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

30 

No 

No 

2'-9' 

Sandy 

No 

14 

Yes 

M 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

20 

Yes 

No 

2'-6' 

blit 

Clay 

Own 

1500 

Yes 

Yes  ’ 

2'-4' 

S-C 

No 

ii 

Yes 

None 

Yes 

Yes 

Rent 

640 

Yes 

No 

16" -3' 

Clay 

No 

4 

No 

No 

No 

Yes 

Own 

223 

Yes 

Yes 

T-1J4' 

S-C 

No 

15 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

Yes 

No 

l'-2' 

Clay 

No 

No 

No 

Own 

100 

Yes 

No 

4' 

S-C 

No 

15 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

60 

No 

No 

2' 

Sand 

No 

15 

Yes 

M 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

67 

Yes 

No 

6' 

Clay 

No 

2 

No 

No 

No 

Yes 

Own 

48 

Yes 

No 

5'-6' 

Sand 

No 

30 

No 

No 

No 

Yes 

Own 

20 

No 

No 

5'-6' 

Sand 

No 

9 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

40 

No 

No 

6'-15' 

S-C 

No 

1 

Yes 

M 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

40 

Yes 

No 

T-6' 

Sand 

No 

5 

No 

M 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

100 

Yes 

No 

l'-5' 

Clay 

No 

Rent 

220 

Yes 

Yes 

4"-r 

Sand 

No 

"6 

Yes 

M 

No 

Yes 

Own 

80 

Yes 

No 

2"-3" 

Sand 

No 

4 

No 

M 

No 

Yes 

Own 

1500 

No 

Yes 

8"— 10" 

S-C 

No 

Yes 

M 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

300 

Yes 

No 

5' 

Sand 

No 

"2 

Yes 

No 

No 

Yes 

Own 

200 

Yes 

No 

6" 

Sand 

No 

1 

No 

M 

No 

Yes 

Own 

60 

No 

No 

6" 

Sand 

No 

12 

No 

M 

No 

Yes 

Own 

40 

No 

No 

Y-iyj 

Clay 

No 

6 

No 

M 

No 

Yes 

Own 

80 

Yes 

No 

1H' 

Sand 

No 

30 

No 

No 

No 

Yes 

Own 

40 

No 

No 

None 

C-S 

No 

No 

No 

Yes 

No 

Rent 

300 

No 

No 

3^'-4' 

Sand 

No 

2 

Yes 

M 

No 

Yes 

Rent 

200 

Yes 

No 

2'-5' 

S-C 

No 

2 

No 

M 

No 

Yes 

and  rent 

1320 

Yes 

No 

4"-18" 

C-S 

No 

4 

Yes 

M 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

800 

Yes 

Yes 

6" 

S-C 

No 

19 

Yes 

Lime 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

50 

Yes 

No 

O'-T 

Sand 

No 

4 

No 

M 

No 

Yes 

Own 

100 

Yes 

Yes 

T- 2' 

Sand 

No 

1 

No 

M 

Yes 

Rent 

30 

Yes 

No 

T-2' 

Sand 

No 

1 

No 

M 

No 

Yes 

Own 

1 

No 

No 

2' 

Clay 

No 

4 

No 

M 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

40 

No 

No 

6"-4' 

C-S 

No 

2 

No 

No 

No 

Yes 

Rent 

400 

YeB 

No 

3' 

Clay 

No 

3 

Yes 

Yes 

Own 

145 

Yes 

No 

S-C 

7 

Yes 

M 

No 

Yes 

Own 

160 

No 

0'-3' 

Sand 

1 

Own 

160 

No 

Own 

1000 

1 

6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


No. 

Own 

or 

rent 

Acres 

Too 

wet 

Tile 

used 

Depth 

peat 

Sub- 

soil 

Too 

dry 

Years 

there 

Roller 

used 

Fer- 

tilizer 

Early 

as 

upland 

i 

52 

Own 

10 

No 

No 

3' 

Clay 

No 

8 

No 

M 

No 

53 

Own 

160 

Yes 

No 

2W 

S-C 

1 

' No 

M 

No 

54 

Own 

55 

.No 

No 

2' 

Sand 

No 

7 

No 

No 

55 

Own 

200 

Yes 

Yes 

12" 

S-C 

No 

12 

M 

Yes 

56 

Own 

160 

Yes 

No 

12" 

S-C 

No 

5 

No 

M 

No 

57 

Own 

60 

Yes 

No 

Silt 

Loam 

No 

No 

M 

No 

58 

Rent 

140 

Yes 

Yes 

6" 

Clay 

No 

"7 

No 

M 

Yes 

59 

Own 

100 

Yes 

No 

l'-3' 

S-C 

No 

Yes 

M 

No 

60 

Rent 

640 

No 

No 

l'-2' 

Sand 

No 

"4 

M 

61 

Rent 

180 

No 

Yes 

4' 

Sand 

No 

2 

No 

M 

No 

62 

Rent 

450 

No  • 

Yes 

4' 

Sand 

No 

3 

Yes 

M-C 

No 

63 

Rent 

440 

No 

No 

5' 

Sand 

Yes 

1 

Yes 

M 

No 

64 

Rent 

160 

No 

Yes 

8' 

Sand 

Yes 

1 

Yes 

C-M 

Yes 

65 

Own 

160 

No 

Yes 

2K' 

Sand 

No 

1 

No 

M 

Yes 

66 

Rent 

600 

No 

No 

4' 

Sand 

No 

2 

No 

M 

No 

67 

Own 

160 

No 

No 

4' 

S-C 

No 

10 

Yes 

C-M 

Yes 

68 

Rent 

640 

No 

No 

3' 

Sand 

Yes 

4 

Yes 

M 

No 

69 

Rent 

180 

No 

No 

l'-3' 

Sand 

No 

y* 

. No 

70 

Rent 

140 

No 

No 

l'-3' 

Sand 

No 

71 

Own 

400 

No 

No 

4' 

Sand 

No 

12 

Yes 

C 

No 

72 

Own 

480 

No 

No 

3' 

Sand 

4 

Yes 

C-M 

No 

73 

Own 

100 

Yes 

No 

4'  . 

Sand 

No 

14 

Yes 

M 

Yes 

74 

Land  C 

ompany 

75 

Own 

320 

No 

l'-3' 

Sand 

1 

76 

Rent 

425 

No 

No 

3' 

Sand 

No 

2 

No 

M 

No 

77 

Rent 

160 

No 

No 

2'-4' 

Sand 

No 

8 

Yes 

M 

No 

78 

Own 

80 

Yes 

No 

0'-2' 

S-C 

No 

2 

M 

79.' 

Own 

279 

No 

No 

0'-3' 

Sand 

Yes 

8 

Yes 

M-C 

80 

Own 

160 

No 

No 

Yi  sand 

O'— 3' 

Sand 

No 

2 

No 

M 

E 81 

Sold 

360 

No 

No 

l'-3' 

Sand 

No 

8 

Yes 

M 

Yes 

82 

Own 

160 

Yes 

No 

l'-3' 

Sand 

No 

4 

No 

M 

No 

83 

Own 

160 

Yes 

No 

l'-3' 

Sand 

No 

4 

No 

M 

No 

84 

Own 

600 

No 

No 

0'-2' 

Sand 

No 

15 

No 

M 

Yes 

85 

Own 

320 

No 

Yes 

0'-2' 

Sand 

No 

25 

Yes 

M 

Yes 

86 

Own 

270 

Yes 

No 

l'-2' 

Sand 

No 

12 

Yes 

M 

No 

87 

Own 

80 

No 

No 

l'-2' 

Sand 

No 

4 

M 

Under  “sub-soil  ’ Under  “Fertilizer” 

C = Clay  C = Commerical  fe 

S = Sand  M = Manure 


Leading  Toward  the  Light 

The  establishment  of  a sound  agricultural  policy  in 
the  drainage  districts  of  central  Wisconsin  is  due  largely 
to  the  tireless  efforts  of  H.  W.  Ulsperger,  Soils  Depart- 
ment, College  of  Agriculture.  At  Farmers’  Institutes, 
plat  demonstrations  and  personal  visits  to  marsh  farms 
he  has  advocated  the  dairy  cow,  the  silo,  soybeans  and 
tame  hay  with  a limited  area  of  truck  crops.  As  the 
marsh  farms  develop  and  become  prosperous,  they  in- 
crease the  wealth  of  the  counties  in  which  they  are 
located,  and  build  a lasting  monument  to  Mr.  Ulsperger’s 
constructive  work. 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin  7 

J.  G.  F.  Has  160  acres  half  sand  and  half  muck  or  peat  and  lived 
there  13  years.  The  first  year  he  started  clearing  land  on  a single  forty 
with  a log  house  on  it.  Spent  two  years  in  clearing  these  forty  acres. 


Selecting  the  Land 

Ordinary  judgment  and  observation  will  tell  the 
prospective  settler  that  there  must  be  good  reason  why 
he  can  buy  some  of  the  drained  marsh  land  for  $15  an 
acre.  He  must  be  willing  to  sacrifice  personal  con- 
venience for  a time  and  put  in  considerable  money 
and  labor  to  bring  his  farm  up  to  a point  where  it 
will  support  him  and  his  family. 

Newcomers  are  advised  to  talk  with  successful 
farmers  in  the  locality  or  even  to  rent  a partially  improved 
farm  for  a year  or  two  before  purchasing  land.  These 
precautions  enable  a better  selection  of  land.  With  wider 
acquaintance  the  settler  may  be  able  to  find  an  80-acre 
tract  in  the  community  that  can  be  picked  up  for  $15  an 
acre  or  purchased  on  tax  title  or  at  a foreclosure  sale 
when  an  agent  might  charge  him  a very  much  higher 
price  per  acre  for  similar  land. 

Get  a financial  statement  of  the  district  from  the  se- 
cretary. When  the  drainage  bonds  have  to  be  paid,  the 
delinquent  lands  may  be  sold  to  satisfy  the  bond  holders 
and  the  lands  which  have  paid  their  drainage  tax  in 
full  may  be  called  upon  to  make  up  the  deficiency. 

In  any  event  see  the  land  twice  before  contracting  to 
buy,  in  the  spring  when  drainage  may  be  poor,  and  then 
during  the  summer  when  the  crops  on  adjacent  lands  may 
be  observed.  See  that  the  top  o.f  the  water  in  the  ditch 
during  a wet  spring  is  5 feet  or  more  below  the  top  of  the 
ground,  and  that  all  of  the  land  slopes  toward  the  ditch 
and  none  of  it  is  more  than  half  a mile  from  the  ditch. 
There  is  almost  sure  to  be  some  land  on  an  80  adjacent 
to  a ditch  that  has  sufficient  drainage,  and  the  rest  can 
be  tiled  when  you  are  ready  for  it. 


First  began  tiling  ten  years  ago.  Now  has  1,200  feet  of  four-inch  tile. 
Says  a settler  on  raw  peat  does  not  get  anything  the  first  few  years, 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin  9 

unless  cattle  have  tramped  over  it  first.  Got  360  bushels  from  7 acres 
of  oats  on  the  low  land.  The  new  settler  coming  in  should  have  money 
to  carry  him  through  the  first  few  years.  Would  not  under  any  cir- 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


cumstances  try  to  farm  land  that  was  all  peat.  Some  high  land,  prob- 
ably 50  per  cent  necessary. 

J.  M.  Has  11  forties.  Came  in  the  spring  of  1915.  Traded  city  prop- 
erty. All  of  the  present  buildings  were  on  the  place  when  he  located. 
The  first  year  he  broke  up  25  acres.  He  could  not  get  on  the  land  be- 
cause the  drainage  was  too  poor.  Fifteen  cows  came  with  the  place  and 
four  horses.  He  bought  the  feed  for  the  stock  the  first  summer.  Two 
and  one-half  tons  of  timothy  and  alsike  clover  cost  $26  a ton.  He 
bought  no  commercial  fertilizer  but  used  stable  manure. 

1918.  Broke  up  50  acres.  Had  100  acres  of  buckwheat,  loss  about 
10%  from  frost;  50  acres  of  oats,  made  about  20  bushels  per  acre;  25 
acres  of  corn  filled  the  silo. 

1919.  Broke  up  50  acres.  100  acres  of  buckwheat;  25  acres  of  oats 
which  made  40  bushels  to  the  acre;  50  acres  of  meadow  which  had  run 
out.  Garden  every  year. 

1920.  50  acres  of  oats  yielded  1,200  bushels ; 100  acres  of  buckwheat 
made  2000  bushels ; 25  acres  of  corn  and  35  acres  of  millet  were  fair. 

1921.  150  acres  of  buckwheat;  injured  by  frost  and  blight  made 
only  about  10  bushels  to  the  acre.  Corn  was  good,  60  acres  of  oats, 
poor  crop.  Also  put  in  millet  but  the  seeding  failed  to  catch.  Did  not 
have  the  money  to  buy  commercial  fertilizer.  Does  not  need  tile,  never 
bothered  with  water  on  this  place.  Uses  a roller  with  good  results. ' 
Peat  is  \y2  to  4 feet  in  depth  with  a sand  subsoil.  Drainage  tax  last 
year  was  $577.00.  Bothered  some  with  fire  in  the  peat  last  year.  Put 
in  buckwheat  because  it  was  easy  to  put  in.  Making  enough  to  pay  his  ■ 
interest,  taxes  and  living.  Bocal  banker  said  this  man  refused  $26,000 
for  the  farm  in  1919.  Has  kept  the  buildings  well  painted.  Cultivating 
the  peat  makes  it  decay.  Takes  two  years.  Has  40  acres  of  high  land. 
Hires  most  of  his  help.  Pays  out  about  $1,000  a year.  Keeps  20  head 
of  cows.  Buildings  worth  about  $4,000. 

H.  H.  S.  Has  280  acres  of  which  200  is  muck.  Neighbors  have  some 
peat.  Paid  $30.00  an  acre  and  came  from  Western  Iowa  in  1915. 
Drove  around  for  5 days  before  he  bought. 

1915.  Put  up  buildings  with  cash  on  hand. 

1916  Fencing,  brushing  and  breaking.  Grew  a little  oats,  corn 
and  potatoes.  Frost  injured  corn  and  potatoes. 

1917.  Oats,  corn,  potatoes  and  buckwheat.  No  frost  that  year. 

Picked  many  wild  raspberries.  , 

1918.  Oats  25  acres ; corn  for  fodder ; some  buckwheat. 

1919.  Oats,  rye,  buckwheat,  corn  and  potatoes.  Brushed  poplar 
land. 

1920.  Had  10  or  11  cows.  Raised  timothy  hay,  Golden  Glow  corn 
and  2,000  bushels  of  oats.  Sold  1,000  bushels. 

1921.  Oats,  poor,  90  acres.  Rye,  fair,  40  acres.  “The  marsh  is  no 
good  for  rye.  Kernels  shrink,  but  have  good  milling  properties.  Buck- 


FIG.  5.— BIG  BUT  UNDEVELOPED 
Its  lands  lie  in  several  drainage  basins. 


12  Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


FIG.  6.— LOOK  OUT  FOR  POOR  DRAINAGE 
Water  so  near  the  surface  as  this  makes  poor  roads  and  poor  crops. 


Is  It  Peat,  Muck  or  Marsh-Border  Soil? 

Peat  is  partly  decomposed  vegetable  matter  that  has 
accumulated  in  the  marshes.  Before  drainage  it  was 
virtually  pickled.  After  drainage  the  acids  leach  out; 
and  air  and  bacteria  come  in  and  it  decomposes  into 
muck  becoming  more  solid  and  darker  in  color.  A 
technical  definition  of  muck  requires  that  it  contain  50 
per  cent  or  more  of  mineral  matter,  but  this  is  not  muck 
as  understood  by  the  farmer.  To  him  muck  is  a soil 
which  once  was  peat,  but  which  has  decayed  until  it  has 
lost  its  tough,  fibrous  structure.  This  change  usually 
occurs  within  three  years  after  drainage  and  cultivation. 
In  this  bulletin  the  term  peat  is  used  by  the  authors  where 
some  farmers,  perhaps  properly,  would  say  muck. 

The  marsh-border  soils,  as  the  name  implies,  lie  be- 
tween the  marsh  and  the  upland,  and  in  sandy  regions 
are  more  valuable  than  either  muck  or  peat. 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin 


13 


wheat  averages  10  to  15  bushels,  one  year  with  another.  Use  a heavy 
roller.  It  takes  two  years  to  subdue  marsh  lands  after  first  breaking. 

“Am  well  satisfied.  Drainage  tax  is  $1.00  an  acre  a year.  Debt 
was  $7,700,  but  have  reduced  it  to  $5,700.  My  14  cows  made  me  $1,400 
last  year.” 

C.  M.  C.  Renting  a 970  acre  farm.  About  half  muck.  Working 
about  half  of  it. 

r 


FIG.  7.— MELLOWED  BY  DRAINAGE  AND  CULTIVATION 

firSt  breakin§>  marsh  soils  become  mellow  and  easily  cultivated 
Some  kind  of  a packer  is  necessary  to  make  them  more  compact.  culuvatea* 


1918.  Ninety  acres  of  buckwheat.  Sold  1,600  bushels  and  kept  100 
bushels  for  seed.  Good  garden.  Good  melons  on  the  muck. 

1919.  Six  acres  corn,  some  soybeans;  good  oats,  25  acres.  Rye,  24 
acres  went  12  bushels  per  acre.  Buckwheat,  100  acres;  sold  1,200 
bushels  and  kept  150  bushels  for  seed.  Cabbage,  10  acres;  sold  18 
tons;  late  planting  not  good.  Leafhopper  hurt  the  potatoes.  Good 
crop  of  medium  red  clover  on  20  acres. 


1920.  Hay  good  except  a few  spots.  5 acres  of  soybeans  drowned 
out,  but  other  15  acres  yielded  200  bushels.  Corn,  10  acres;  too  wet  in 
spring  and  frost  in  summer.  Oats,  37  acres,  600  bushels.  Rye  22  acres, 
10  bushels  an  acre.  Buckwheat,  60  acres,  frost  got  some  of  it,  saved 
100  bushel  for  seed  and  sold  600  bushels.  “The  frost  got  30  acres  of 
it  and  on  that  piece  I got  hardly  anything  out  of  it.  Cabbage  50  or  60 
acres.  Used  a carload  of  pulverized  sheep  manure.  Thirty  acres  failed. 
It  grew  well  until  it  got  to  a certain  stage.  Early  frost  in  July,  another 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


in  August ; combination  of  late  planting  and  frost  after  frost  turned 
cabbage  red.  Frost  also  hurt  the  early  planted  cabbage.  Shipped  twelve 
cars.  Twelve  ton  to  the  acre.  Had  30  acres  of  sugar  beets,  planted 
twice,  no  good.  Tried  deep  and  shallow  planting  but  there  was  no 
difference  in  results.” 

1921.  Soybeans  averaged  23  bushels  an  acre,  got  350  bushels  from 
15  acres.  Had  50  acres  in  corn.  Seven  acres  filled  the  silo  12  x 30,  one 
twelve  acre  field  made  100  baskets  an  acre  and  part  of  the  balance 


Advantages  of  Marsh  Lands 

Wisconsin’s  marsh  lands  share  her  fortunate 
geographic  location.  They  are  near  the  large  markets. 
They  are  comparatively  level,  not  subject  to  erosion,  and 
where  the  surrounding  upland  is  clay  or  silt  they  may  re- 
ceive valuable  sediment  therefrom.  If  properly  drained 
they  can  be  cultivated  earlier  in  the  spring  than  can  heavy 
clay.  They  are  free  from  stone  and  many  of  them  are 
free  from  stumps  and  brush.  They  are  rich  in  nitrogen 
and  contain  fair  amounts  of  available  phosphorus  and 
potash  where  conditions  permit  the  decomposition  of  the 
peat  into  available  plant  food.  Otherwise  in  the  raw  con- 
dition the  lands  are  deficient  in  phosphorus  and  potash. 
Sooner  or  later  the  use  of  fertilizers  containing  these 
elements  is  necessary.  (See  Bulletin  309  Wisconsin  Ex- 
periment Station.)  In  the  ten  years  of  drainage  that 
some  of  these  lands  have  had,  their  acid  condition  has 
been  materially  reduced  through  ventilation,  leaching  and 
decomposition.  The  bacteria  contained  in  barn-yard 
manure  spread  upon  the  land  hasten  the  process. 


made  15  bushels  an  acre.  “We  used  2 carloads  of  lime  on  90  acres. 
Results  noticeable.  We  seeded  150  acres  and  got  120  acres.  From  the 
120  acres  we  threshed  3,500  bushels  oats.  We  had  timothy  hay  which 
made  about  three  fourths  of  a ton  to  the  acre.  Fifty  acres  of  buck- 
wheat but  the  wind  shelled  it  out  badly.  It  went  about  8 bushels. 
Seventy  acres  of  rye.  Twenty  acres  of  rye  winter  killed  and  from  the 
balance  we  got  about  1,000  bushels.  We  put  in  four  acres  of  cabbage  but 
the  sun  was  too  hot,  partly  died.” 

G.  A.  M.  Farmed  160  acres  for  six  years.  Mostly  peat  with  three 
feet  the  greatest  depth.  No  road  at  first.  Came  from  manufacturing 
city  in  Iowa. 

1914.  Arrived  in  March.  Broke  50  acres.  Oats,  10  acres;  corn  21 
acres;  buckwheat,  8 acres;  potatoes  5 acres;  onions  2 acres.  Ditches 
had  not  been  deepened  then.  Oats  drowned  out.  Corn  made  about  30 
bushels  per  acre.  Frost  killed  the  buckwheat.  Potatoes,  fair.  Onions 
600  bushels.  Fed  wild  marsh  ha}*-.  Seeded  down  10  acres. 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin  15 

1915.  Broke  15  acres  more.  Corn,  20  acres,  frosted.  Oats,  30  acres, 
good.  Buckwheat  20  acres,  frosted.  Small  patch  of  potatoes,  good. 
Tame  hay,  15  tons  from  10  acres. 

1916.  Broke  up  20  acres  more  of  new  land.  30  acres  of  oats  made 
about  40  bushels  to  the  acre.  20  acres  of  buckwheat  was  a failure. 
20  acres  of  corn  on  the  high  land  got  ripe.  10  acres  of  hay,  about  12 
tons. 


FIG.  8.— WATER  STOPS  THE  FIRE 

The  drainage  ditches  with  water  flowing  in  them  are  barriers  against  fires.  Where 
the  hie  threatens  damage  before  it  reaches  a ditch,  pumping  has  been 'successful.  Each 
drainage  district  containing  peat  should  have  a pumping  outfit  available  for  such  an 
emergency. 

1917.  Broke  up  25  acres  more.  Built  a silo.  20  acres  corn  all  in 
silo.  Corn  on  the  marsh  very  late  in  getting  started.  40  acres  oats,  30 
bushels  to  the  acre,  12  acres  of  buckwheat  blighted  not  worth  cutting. 
4 acres  of  flax,  not  all  got  ripe.  13  acres  of  clover  was  good.  Raised 
enough  potatoes  for  the  house.  Had  5 acres  of  cabbage,  good  yield. 

1918.  Corn  25  acres,  all  but  five  in  silo  last  of  August.  Oats,  60 
acres,  35  bushels  per  acre.  Rye,  40  acres,  winter  killed.  Eight  acres 
out  of  twelve  of  clover  winter  killed. 

1919.  Corn  25  acres,  got  ripe,  filled  silo.  Had  6 acres  of  corn 
for  grain.  Oats,  90  acres,  35  bushels  an  acre.  Flax,  10  acres,  total 
crop  79  bushels.  Millet,  6 acres  cut  for  seed,  made  50  bushels  an  acrb, 
sold  for  $1.50  a bushel  locally,  Siberian  variety. 

1920.  Corn  25  acres.  Froze  the  last  day  of  July.  Oats,  50  acres, 
35  bushels  to  the  acre.  Rye,  18  acres,  five  bushels  an  acre,  spring  rye 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


on  burned  peat.  No  buckwheat,  no  onions,  no  cabbage.  Wild  hay. 
Last  three  years  our  cattle  have  not  had  any  hay  but  we  fed  the  oat 
straw. 

1921.  Burned  peat  not  much  good  for  crops  first  year  after  it 
burns.  Timothy  does  well  but  it  is  very  dusty  to  handle.  Corn  20 
acres  filled  the  silo.  The  balance  made  about  25  bushels  to  the  acre. 
Oats,  60  acres,  10  bushels  an  acre.  Soybeans,  32  acres,  cut  part  for 
hay.  Got  220  bushels  of  soybeans  from  23  acres.  Carrots  did  well. 
Cows  have  done  well  since  1917. 


Disadvantages  and  Problems 

The  five  “F’s”  that  may  help  spell  either  failure  or 
fortune  are : Floods,  frosts,  fire,  fertilizer  and  finance. 
Floods  are  handled  by  better  drainage.  The  upper  limit 
of  the  portion  of  the  ground  wholly  saturated  with  water 
should  be  at  least  three  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  land 
generally  and  more  than  that  in  the  deeper  peats.  The 
frost  hazard  is  reduced  by  better  drainage  and  by  hav- 
ing the  more  hardy  crops  in  the  rotation,  roots,  hay, 
cabbage  and  grains.  If  crops  are  well  fertilized  the  frost 
hazard  is  further  lessened.  Fires  have  burned  deep  holes 
in  dry  peat  marshes,  but  seldom  where  care  has  been 
taken  to  keep  the  surface  free  from  dry  grass  or  where 
the  peat  was  well  decomposed  and  compacted.  Dry  sur- 
face material  burns  well  in  the  spring  while  the  peat  is 
still  wet.  A deep  furrow  plowed  around  the  land  lessens 
the  fire  hazard.  The  fertilizer  problem  is  simplified  by 
the  use  of  stable  manure  which,  by  hastening  the  decay 
or  rotting  of  the  peat,  makes  more  available  the  store  of 
plant  food  in  the  soil  and  gives  results  far  in  excess  of  the 
actual  plant  food  added  by  the  manure  itself. 


“Early  oats  do  best  on  the  marsh.  Settler  should  put  in  a small 
patch  of  buckwheat  for  chicken  feed.  Grow  carrots  as  well  as  ruta- 
bagas because  horses  like  them  better.  Pumpkins  do  well  and  are  good 
for  hogs. 

“I  have  15  cows  and  7 spring  calves  and  a pure  bred  Guernsey  bull. 
Wife  takes  care  of  a big  flock  of  chickens.  Chiefly  Rhode  Island  Reds. 
We  put  up  sweet  corn  by  packing  in  stone  jars,  alternate  layers  of 
salt  and  corn. 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin 


17 


“I  sell  a few  hogs  each  year.  Feed  them  milk,  oats,  corn,  millet 
and  soybeans,  and  make  them  weigh  350  pounds.  At  first  they  do  not 
like  soybeans. 

“I  came  here  three  years  too  soon.  Drainage  was  poor  for  the  first 
three  years.  Then  the  ditches  were  deepened.” 

F.  W.  Has  278  acres,  about  half  peat  from  2 to  3 feet  deep.  Came 
from  Iowa  in  spring  of  1913. 

1913.  Built  small  house.  Broke  75  acres  for  oats  and  corn.  Oats 
made  40  bushels  an  acre.  Corn  frosted.  Good  garden.  Three  horses 
and  two  cows.  Fed  marsh  hay.  Broke  75  acres  more  in  the  fall. 


FIG.  9.— A GOOD  HOUSE  FOR  A STARTER 

Prepared  roofing  for  roof  and  sides  outside  of  sheathing.  Wall  board  on 
inside  of  studing. 

1914.  30  acres  of  corn  ripened.  Minnesota  No.  13.  50  acres  of  oats, 
light.  50  acres  of  buckwheat,  20  bushels  an  acre.  2 acres  of  flax,  too 
wet.  Hay  seeded  from  oats  the  first  year.  Shipped  in  cattle  in  May, 
60  head  on  range  and  tame  feed.  Gained  about  400  pounds.  Made 
$300  on  the  venture  and  kept  four  head. 

1915.  30  acres  of  corn,  frosted.  50  acres  of  oats,  65  bushels  an 
acre.  2 acres  of  onions,  900  bushels  from  one,  600  bushels  from  the  other 
acre.  Shipped  to  a company  at  Wausau,  Wisconsin,  at  $1.00  a bushel 
to  us.  Used  300  pounds  commercial  fertilizer  an  acre  on  onions.  Had 
50  acres  of  tame  hay. 

1916.  Oats,  40  acres  made  45  bushels  to  the  acre.  Buckwheat  40 
acres,  froze  except  small  amount.  Corn,  30  acres,  frosted  August  17th. 
Good  crop  of  onions,  but  price  was  low. 

1917.  Broke  up  some  more  land.  Oats  75  acres,  made  40  bushels. 
Buckwheat  25  acres,  frost.  Corn,  30  acres,  got  ripe.  Rye,  20  acres 
made  20  bushels  per  acre.  Hay,  timothy  and  clover.  Clover  getting 
poorer  for  some  reason.  We  have  dairy  cows,  18  milking  Durhams. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


1918.  Rye  100  acres,  18  bushels  per  acre.  Oats  200  acres,  40  bushels 
an  acre  part  on  rented  land.  Buckwheat,  150  acres,  20  bushels,  per 
acre.  Corn,  50  acres,  made  50  bushels.  Hay,  about  ton  to  the  acre. 
Our  cows  did  pretty  well  that  year. 

1919.  Oats  100  acres  made  35  or  40  bushels  an  acre.  Buckwheat 
100  acres,  froze  in  spots,  about  20  bushels  an  acre.  Rye,  50  acres,  made 
12  or  15  bushels  to  the  acre.  Corn,  35  acres,  lost  24  acres  through  frost. 
The  rest  fair. 

1920.  100  acres  oats,  made  45  bushels  an  acre.  60  acres  of  buck- 
wheat, made  18  bushels  an  acre,  80  acres  of  corn  ripened.  Made  about 
50  bushels  per  acre.  40  acres  of  tame  hay,  about  a ton  to  the  acre.  We 
had  9 or  10  cows  that  year. 


Choosing  a Building  Site 

Even  with  good  drainage  for  a building  site,  a flat 
low  area  is  less  desirable  than  an  elevation  because  the 
barnyard  is  apt  to  be  flooded  in  the  spring,  the  cellar  may 
have  water  in  it,  and  the  view  is  less  atractive  than  it  is 
from  an  eminence.  Fortunately,  almost  every  forty  in 
the  drainage  districts  of  central  Wisconsin  has  “islands” 
of  hard  land  rising  from  5 to  10  feet  above  the  marsh. 
Where  these  islands  are  on  the  front  of  the  forty,  near 
the  road,  and  contain  two  or  three  acres  or  more,  they 
make  excellent  building  sites.  The  sandy  soils  of  these 
islands  also  enable  the  farmer  to  raise  a greater  variety 
of  special  crops.  Watermelons,  for  example,  thrive 
better  on  sandy  land  than  on  muck.  The  marsh  border 
land  makes  a good  garden. 


1921.  75  acres  of  oats,  made  22  bushels  an  acre.  75  acres  buckwheat, 
12  bushels  an  acre.  40  acres  of  corn  ripened,  about  100  baskets  to  the 
acre.  “Commercial  fertilizer  almost  doubled  the  yield.  We  can’t 
raise  barley  without  fertilizer.  Roots,  dairy  and  truck  crops  are  best. 
We  can  raise  the  best  of  feed  here.  One-half  acre  of  onions  this 
year  made  300  bushels  and  sold  for  $2.00  per  bushel.” 

W.  C.  Has  160  acres  about  half  sandy  upland  and  half  marsh.  Came 
from  Rock  Island  where  they  were  engaged  in  supplying  milk  for  the 
city  and  were  experienced  in  raising  poultry.  Located  in  the  spring 
of  1919.  Brought  8 horses,  but  4 were  plenty.  Broke  and  cleared  the 
first  year  33  acres.  10  acres  are  open  marsh  and  on  the  whole  place 
we  have  about  half  upland  and  marsh.  The  first  year  raised  566  bushel 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin 


19 


of  oats  from  20  acres  of  new  breaking;  68  bushels  of  buckwheat  from 
7 acres  of  mixed  soil;  4 acres  of  spring  rye  made  about  11  bushels  an 
acre.  Started  with  11  cows  and  patches  of  corn  here  and  there  and 
everywhere  we  could  find  an  open  place.  Built  a silo  the  first  year 
and  filled  it  about  two-thirds  full. 

1920.  Raised  700  chickens.  Raised  feed  enough  for  the  cows. 
(Note:  These  people  have  a good  start.  The  wife  is  a very  energetic 
person.  Have  good  small  barn  with  modern  fixtures  inside  including  a 
cement  floor. 

H.  C.  Y.  “Bought  9 forties  in  1913.  There  is  a ditch  running  south 
through  the  center  of  land.  Also  lateral  ditch.  The  land  was  peat, 
broke  about  15  acres  in  1913.” 


FIG.  10.— BARN  FOR  A BEGINNER 

A cheap  and  warm  barn  made  from  marsh  grass  and  poles.  Let  the 
cows  pay  for  a better  one  later. 

In  1914,  40  acres  of  corn,  got  ripe.  Good  garden. 

In  1915  broke  40  acres  more.  10  acres  of  oats.  Usually  raised  40 
acres  of  corn.  Frost  got  it  twice.  Built  a silo  in  1915.  “Buckwheat 
makes  20  to  25  bushels  an  acre  on  new  breaking.  The  greatest  diffi- 
culty with  buckwheat  is  frost.  Raised  from  30  to  60  bushels  per  acre 
of  oats.  Onions  from  300  to  600  bushels  per  acre.” 

“In  1920  I had  60  acres  of  oats,  40  of  corn,  40  of  buckwheat,  putting 
in  soybeans  with  the  corn.  We  can  use  soybeans  where  clover  does  not 
do  well.  Frost  may  come  in  August.  No  tiling  needed. 

“Sold  the  place  last  spring  at  a fair  profit.  Wife’s  health  poor. 
I was  successful  after  I quit  using  Iowa  methods.  If  I had  it  to  do 
over  again  I would  not  have  bought  so  much  land.  That’s  where  nine- 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


FIG.  11.— HOUSE  CONVERTED  INTO  BARN 

When  this  farmer  got  ready  to  build  his  second  house,  he  moved  this  one 
up  to  the  old  barn  for  stable  space  and  feed  storage. 


tenths  of  the  fellows  fall  down  in  this  part  of  the  country.  I would  have 
gone  more  into  cows.  Tell  the  new  settler  to  get  cows,  put  up  a silo, 
soybeans  with  corn,  get  some  lime  to  get  the  clover  started,  and  raise 
chickens.  Turkeys  are  good,  too.” 


J.  Q.  D.  Has  640  acres  of  which  about  one-fourth  is  sandy  upland 
and  three-quarters  marsh.  Has  been  on  the  place  21  years.  Raises  corn, 
clover,  and  potatoes  on  the  sand  island.  On  the  Wood  County  soil  sur- 
vey map  his  land  appears  to  be  classed  as  peat,  shallow  and  deep. 


Phosphorus,  Potash  and  Peat 

While  marsh  soils  are  high  in  nitrogen,  they  are  gen- 
erally low  in  phosphorus  and  potash.  Yet  in  a typical 
Juneau  county  marsh  the  peat  averaging  two  feet  deep 
contains  1,500  pounds  of  phosphorus  and  2,700  pounds  of 
potash  per  acre,  or  enough  to  raise  40  bushels  of  corn 
per  acre  for  50  years.  That  the  87  farmers  interviewed 
are  unlocking  this  phosphorus  and  potash  by  inoculating 
with  manure  is  proven  by  their  crop  yields.  Those  crops 
would  be  better  if  some  commercial  fertilizer  containing 
phosphorus  and  perhaps  lime  were  added,  but  the  yields 
of  field  crops  are  fair  without  them,  where  even  a small 
quantity  of  manure  is  available  for  inoculation.  Truck 
crops  generally  require  an  extra  supply  of  mineral 
fertilizer  to  make  them  profitable. 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin  21 

1917.  Corn,  16  acres.  That  on  the  high  land  got  ripe;  that  on  the 
low  land  did  not  ripen.  Corn  is  safe  on  the  marsh  for  silage.  Oats,  40 
acres,  made  46  bushels  per  acre.  Buckwheat,  20  acres,  made  13  bushels 
per  acre.  15  bushels  a very  good  yield  for  buckwheat.  A small  amount 
of  rye  that  made  about  11  bushels  to  the  acre.  Hay,  some  alsike,  does 
well  on  the  marsh.  Made  about  \l/2  ton  per  acre.  Used  a roller  and 
a carload  of  lime  putting  it  on  the  oats.  There  was  little  if  any  dif- 
ference on  the  land  that  was  limed  and  that  that  was  not  limed. 

1918  to  1920.  Does  not  remember  details  but  got  fair  crops  every 
year  unless  frosts,  wet  or  dry  weather  occurred. 


Burning  Deep  Peat 

Some  of  the  thin  peat  soils  have  been  ruined  by 
burning. 

Peat  5 or  6 feet  deep  may  have  a layer  of  raw 
vegetable  matter — probably  moss — on  the  surface  to  a 
depth  of  one  foot.  A good  seed-bed  is  impossible  until 
this  raw  layer  is  removed.  To  burn  it  during  dry 
weather  is  dangerous.  Break  it  during  the  late  summer 
and  the  dry  furrow  slices  may  be  burned  off  safely  the 
next  spring  while  the  sub-soil  is  too  wet  to  burn.  Near 
Valley  Junction  40  acres  was  plowed  and  burned  to  an 
even  depth  in  this  way.  The  seed  bed  was  then  pre- 
pared by  disking.  The  loose  layer  on  top  was  burned  in 
this  way  on  the  deep  peat  in  the  Portage  County  District 
also.  It  left  a firm  soil  with  the  ashes  for  fertilizer.  On 
the  other  hand  the  fire  so  kills  the  soil  bacteria  that  a 
light  application  of  barnyard  manure  is  necessary  to  re- 
store their  activities  in  unlocking  the  plant  food  in  the 
peat.  Furthermore  where  the  peat  is  less  than  3 feet 
deep  we  cannot  afford  to  waste  organic  matter  by  burn- 
ing. It  all  needs  to  be  saved  to  form  plant  food  as  it 
decomposes. 


1921.  Corn,  21  acres.  Half  high  land,  half  low.  Oats,  30  acres, 
made  20  bushels  per  acre.  Buckwheat,  11  acres,  10  bushels  per  acre. 
On  the  corn  proposition  one  year  with  another  high  land  ripens  better. 
New  seeding  on  the  marsh  cut  about  1 x/2  tons  to  the  acre.  New  seeding 
on  the  upland  about  one  ton. 

1922.  Has  30  acres  plowed  for  oats  on  the  marsh.  Corn  to  be  on 
the  sandy  upland.  “Develop  the  country  by  160  acre  farms,  get  cows ; 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


tramping  of  the  soil  by  the  cattle  helped  the  land.”  Used  some  wild 
hay  and  fed  grain.  Dairy  cows  are  surer  than  running  stockers  and 
feeders.  Plant  soybeans.  Advise  the  new  settler  to  put  his  garden  on 
marsh  border  soil  instead  of  clear  peat.  Have  hens  and  fence  in  the 

garden.  “We  could  pasture  my 
cows  all  winter  on  blue  grass 
except  for  the  snow.  Increase  the 
size  of  the  dairy  herd  and  the 
size  of  the  farm  together.  Sell 
dairy  products  not  feed.  Locate 
close  to  the  ditch.  Not  possible 
to  overdrain  muck  land.  We 
sometimes  have  frosts  in  July 
and  August.  I would  advise  com- 
mercial fertilizer  from  what  I 
have  seen  but  barn  manure  is 
better.  Get  some  pigs  and  feed 
them  skimmilk.  Prefer  shallow 
peat  for  then  I can  mix  the 
sandy  subsoil  with  it  and  make  it 
more  compact.  Fire  is  a handicap 
on  these  marsh  lands ; the  first 
burning  is  not  so  bad,  but  more 
than  that  is  a handicap.  Culti- 
vation of  the  land  helps  to  stop  the  fire  hazard.  The  majority  of 
the  land  in  this  district  is  held  by  outside  people.  The  annual  drainage 
tax  is  75c  to  $1.00  an  acre.” 

A.  C.  B.  Has  165  acres,  half  up- 
land, half  marsh  of  the  marsh  bor- 
der type.  Located  in  1898.  It  was 
dry  then.  He  raised  crops  for 
three  years  and  then  there  was 
failure  because  the  land  was  too 
wet.  The  peat  has  burned  off 
leaving  muck.  Some  white  pine 
timber  on  upland. 


FIG.  12.— A SMALL  CHEAP  GRANARY 
Mouser-proof,  dry  and  large  enough 
for  a small  dairy  farm.  Used  chiefly 
for  soybeans. 


Had  had  considerable  exper- 
ience with  bees.  Now  has  43 
colonies  in  the  cellar  (winter). 
“The  first  bloom  of  the  blue- 
berry and  huckleberry  is  follow- 
ed by  blackberries,  goldenrod, 
Spanish  needles  and  buckwheat 
blossoms,  but  these  buckwheat 
blossoms  do  not  always  contain 
nectar.”  Keeps  hybrid  Italians. 
“A  colony  will  make  75  pounds 
of  honey  one  year  with  another. 


FIG.  13.— THE  SMALL  SILO  HELPS. 

A silo  pays  where  there  are  five  cows 
and  the  accompanying  livestock. 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin  | 23 


There  are  flowers  in  the  spring  and  fall  both,  always  something  for 
bees  to  work  on.  Bees  are  not  profitable  if  put  in  a locality  where  the 
land  has  not  been  improved. 

“For  the  new  settler  recommend  part  high  land  and  part  marsh. 
When  you  break  new  tough  marsh  you  can’t  plow  it  the  next  year, 
but  it  should  be  disked,  sowed  to  oats  and  seeded  down.  Recommend 
potatoes,  corn  and  rye  and  insist  that  the  settler  go  into  the  dairy  busi- 
ness. Beef  no  good.  Do  not  put  your  garden  on  peat  but  put  it 
halfway  between,  on  marsh  border.  The  land  may  be  too  wet  half  a 
mile  away  from  the  ditches.  Buckwheat  yields  from  6 to  30  bushels. 
Frost  has  not  injured  the  corn  during  the  last  three  years.  Frost  some- 
times injures  crops  in  July  and 
August.  Can  raise  good  potatoes, 
on  the  new  marsh  don’t  do  well. 
Advise  the  beginner  to  put  po- 
tatoes on  the  upland  the  first 
year  ratl  er  than  to  put  them  on 
the  marsh  on  account  of  wire 
worms.  We  grow  better  soy- 
beans on  the  marsh  than  we  do 
on  the  sandy  upland.” 

C.  S.  Has  160  acres.  Locat- 
ed 4 years  ago.  Soil  classed  as 
peat.  Some  sandy  upland.  Poor 
drainage.  Outlet  ditch  is  too 
shallow.  Did  not  know  it  till 
after  he  bought. 

1918.  Broke  up  40  acres.  Put 
in  30  acres  of  buckwheat,  frost 
damage,  got  155  bushels.  10 
acres  of  oats,  got  175  bushels. 
Poor  garden.  Not  on  the  marsh. 

1919.  34  acres  of  buck- 

wheat, yielded  700  bushels.  22 
acres  of  oats,  yielded  400  bushels. 

1 acre  of  rutabagas,  600  bushels. 
8 acres  of  rye,  2 bushels  per  acre. 

2 acres  of  corn,  good.  Garden 
poor. 

1920.  Broke  8 acres  of  new 
land.  10  acres  of  corn,  froze  in 
July.  32  acres  buckwheat,  got 
60  to  70  bushels  all  told.  Oats,  20  acres,  got  250  bushels.  Rutabagas 
acre,  100  bushels.  Had  wild  hay. 

1921.  8 acres  of  corn,  good.  24  acres  of  buckwheat,  got  300  bushels. 
9 acres  of  oats  got  234  bushels.  Rutabagas  poor.  Tame  hay,  17  acres, 
fair.  Soybeans,  good  on  well-rotted  muck.  Has  9 cows.  Would 


FIG.  14.— MORE  SILO  FOR  MORE 
COWS 

These  hoops  should  be  tightened  be- 
'ore  the  silo  is  filled.  Concrete  silos  are 
expensive  on  the  marsh  because  of  the 
scarcity  of  gravel. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


put  on  cows  right  away  from  the  start  instead  of  depending  upon  the 
grain  crops.  A mortgage  of  $5,000. 

C.  O.  Has  160  acres  two-thirds  marsh,  balance  marsh  border. 
Neighbor  of  C.  S.  Likewise  deceived  on  the  drainage. 

1918.  Broke  32  acres,  put  10  acres  in  oats,  fair.  20  in  buckwheat, 
got  142  bushels  from  30  acres.  Potatoes  2 acres  on  the  marsh,  200 
bushels. 

1919.  10  acres  of  rye,  harvested  18  bushels.  Broke  up  land  along 
the  ditch,  put  in  25  acres  of  buckwheat,  got  25  bushels  to  the  acre.  6 
acres  of  corn,  good.  Garden  good  including  tomatoes. 


Cheap  Buildings  at  First 

A 12  x 24  house  with  12  foot  studding  will  answer 
j the  purpose  the  first  two  or  three  years.  Put  on  a good 
prepared  roofing.  Sheet  the  sides  with  shiplap.  Before 
winter  put  roofing  on  the  outside  and  wallboard  on  the 
inside  of  the  first  story.  The  attic  can  be  used  for  sleep- 
ing without  this  inside  protection.  When  ready  to  build 
a better  house,  this  one  can  be  used  for  a granary,  shop 
or  storage. 

Cut  poles  for  a barn  and  use  marsh  hay  for  a roof. 

Let  the  cows  pay  for  a better  barn  later;  also  a better 
silo  to  replace  the  first  cheap  stave  silo.  Build  the  chicken 
house,  machinery  shed  and  hog  house  of  any  cheap 
material  available.  A root  cellar  in  a sand  island  costs 
nothing  but  the  labor.  If  the  tops  are  not  trimmed  to 
close,  rutabagas  and  other  roots  will  keep  well.  A root 
cellar  also  will  serve  as  a place  in  which  to  store  potatoes 
and  garden  vegetables. 



1920.  20  acres  of  oats,  got  500  bushels.  17  acres  of  buckwheat,  185 
bushels.  5 acres  of  corn,  poor,  but  used  for  fodder.  Rutabagas,  small 
patch,  did  fairly  well.  Wild  hay. 

1921.  22  acres  of  oats,  10  bushels  to  the  acre.  17  acres  of  buck- 
wheat, 168  bushels.  15  acres  of  corn  filled  silo.  Rutabagas,  too  dry. 
Potatoes,  half  an  acre,  30  bushels.  Have  9 cows,  plenty  of  feed  for 
them.  Land  has  poor  drainage,  two-thirds  of  it  too  wet. 

J.  M.  Rents  600  acres.  Fire  is  a serious  hazard.  Hauled  sand  three 
weeks  to  save  14  acres  of  clover.  Peat  fire  worse  than  upland  fire  be- 
cause you  can  see  where  the  upland  fire  is  going  while  the  peat  fire 
•goes  under. 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin 


25 


FIG.  15.— MORE  POLES  AND  MARSH  GRASS 
Poles  make  a good  crib. 

F.  W.  “As  the  land  is  drained  the  yield  of  oats  decreases  and  the 
quality  becomes  better.  There  is  serious  leaching  of  fertility.  When  they 
put  in  the  ditch  we  got  76  bushels  to  the  acre  the  year  afterward.  Since 
that  time,  however,  our  yields  are  decreasing  but  the  quality  is  better. 
The  straw  is  short  now  and  I believe  that  unless  we  can  find  some 
way  to  get  the  water  table  higher  we  can’t  do  much.  There’s  all  that 
water  going  away  in  the  ditch.  I believe  we  should  control  it  by  dams 
and  sub-irrigate  the  land.  Then  there  is  this  fire  proposition,  pretty 
serious  too.  When  I took  my  children  to  school  I had  to  drive  through 
some  awful  smoke  and  once  this  summer  if  the  wind  had  turned  our 


Easy  Plowing  First 

Limit  the  first  year’s  operations  to  farming  the  most 
convenient  and  surest  portions  of  the  newly  drained  land. 
A ten-acre  tract  free  from  brush,  with  drainage  assured 
by  being  next  to  a deep  ditch,  easy  to  break  and  accessible 
makes  a good  field.  The  next  year  enlarge  this  field  by 
bringing  in  some  of  the  land  the  breaking  of  which  may 
be  attended  with  greater  difficulties.  In  the  meantime 
pasture  these  wilder  or  wetter  portions.  It  will  help  to 
subdue  them.  Even  men  with  plenty  of  capital  make  mis- 
takes if  they  start  farming  new  land  on  too  large  a scale. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


way,  we  would  have  got  it.  The  whole  neighborhood  was  out  fighting 
fire.  I believe  the  fertility  of  our  land  leaches  through  into  the  sand 
the  way  our  drainage  stands  to-day.” 

W.  B.  ..Has  600  acres.  Largely  sand  but  some  marsh.  Silo  blew 
down,  did  not  put  it  up.  “Found  it  unprofitable  to  feed  the  stock  any- 
way because  we  did  not  have  any  milk  house.  Seven  cows,  not  doing 
well.  In  1920  sold  $1,200.00  worth  of  hogs.  This  year  we  had  some 
hogs,  did  not  care  much  whether  we  had  them  or  not.  They  did  not 
do  very  well  because  the  acorns  in  the  woods  were  not  so  good  this 
year.  Nobody  here  likes  to  milk.  Tax  last  year  was  $600.00  including 
a drainage  tax.  The  hens  are  not  laying  very  well.  Have  100.  We  had 
some  tame  hay.  Timothy  and  red  top  does  well  on  the  low  land.  We 
have  corn  fodder  in  the  hay  mow  and  a silo  filler.  We  did  not  have 
any  garden  this  year  although  the  marsh  is  good  for  garden  if  the 
season  is  not  very  wet.  Can  raise  as  good  potatoes  on  the  marsh  as  on 


FIG.  1C.— CORN  ON  THE  DITCH  BANK 

Good  drainage  means  good  crops.  Plow  near  the  ditches  first  where  drainage 
is  sure  to  be  good. 

I.  A.  H.  Has  270  acres.  Forty  acres  high  land,  balance  marsh. 
Located  October,  1909.  Old  log  house  on  the  place  occupied  by  a 
trapper,  also  old  barn.  Had  25  acres  in  crops  first  year  on  the  high 
land.  In  1910  sold  $85.00  worth  of  hay.  Hard  struggle  because  of 
limited  capital,  but  sent  children  to  school.  They  have  now  graduated 
from  high  school.  “Four  years  ago,  1917,  I broke  up  the  first  marsh. 
Drainage  poor  before  that.  Six  acres  of  oats,  made  46  bushels  to  the 
acre. 

“In  1918  on  the  marsh  11  acres  of  oats,  made  40  bushels  to  the 
acre.  4 acres  potatoes  yielded  120  bushels  an  acre.  Corn  on  the  high 
land,  balance  of  the  low  land  for  hay.  Four  acres  of  buckwheat,  gave 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin  . 


2 7 


14  or  15  bushels  to  the  acre.  Had  22  head  of  cattle,  milking  Durhams, 
home  raised.  They  did  well. 

“1919.  On  the  marsh  13  acres  of  oats,  made  36  bushels  per  acre. 
Four  acres  of  buckwheat,  frosted,  hauled  it  in  for  chicken  feed.  Four 
acres  of  potatoes,  good.  Have  kept  from  15  to  23  head  of  cattle  every 
year. 

“1920.  Corn  on  high  land  and  marsh.  Ten  acres  of  oats  on  the 
marsh,  215  bushels.  Two  acres  of  buckwheat  good.  Four  acres  of 
potatoes,  100  to  125  bushels  an  acre. 

“1921.  On  the  marsh,  oats  18  acres  light.  Eight  acres  corn,  40 
bushels  an  acre.  Fifteen  acres  of  rye  sowed  this  fall.  Recommend  tim- 
othy and  red  top  first  year  on  the  marsh.  The  deep  peat  is  not  good. 
It  acts  too  much  like  a sponge.  Hard  to  drain. 


Cows  for  Milk 

A herd  of  dairy  cows  is  imperative  on  every  success- 
ful marsh  farm.  The  farmer  unwilling  to  milk  twice  a 
day  had  better  stay  away  for  the  monthly  cream  check  is 
what  he  must  depend  on  to  buy  groceries  and  pay  the  in- 
terest and  taxes. 

Roots,  corn  silage,  alsike  hay,  soybean  hay  and  oat 
hay  can  be  raised  on  the  marsh  and  are  good  feeds  for 
cows.  Corn  ripens  for  grain  about  three  years  out  of 
five.  Oats  is  the  best  grain  to  supplement  the  corn. 
The  silo  is  profitable  for  five  or  more  cows  with  the  ac- 
companying young  stock. 

Start  with  a small  herd.  Select  the  dairy  breed  that 
predominates  in  the  community.  The  county  agent  will 
help  in  finding  good  cows  to  purchase  for  a start.  Raise 
the  heifer  calves  on  skimmilk  and  gradually  build  up  a 
good  herd. 


“Would  put  buckwheat  on  new  land  even  if  I did  not  get  a crop 
because  it  helps  fit  the  land  for  other  crops  by  causing  the  sod  to  rot. 
It  is  the  best  and  almost  only  crop  we  can  grow  on  new  breaking.  Flax 
does  not  prepare  the  soil  in  the  same  way.  A small  farm  with  cows 
is  best.  The  frost  is  a limiting  factor  with  buckwheat.” 

A.  B.  Is  farming  320  acres.  Located  1896.  Began  growing  crops 
the  first  year.  Formerly  in  store  business.  His  land  had  burned  off 
in  1894. 

1895.  Oats,  23  acres,  70  bushels  an  acre.  Timothy  for  hay. 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


1896.  100  acres  oats,  good  but  some  drowned  out.  Twenty  acres  of 
barley.  Twenty  acres  of  winter  rye.  Three  acres  of  potatoes.  Grass- 
hoppers bothered  this  year.  Millet  yield  good. 

1897.  No  farming  except  on  the  higher  pieces  of  land,  too  wet. 

1898.  “From  1898  to  1917  we  lost  crops  more  or  less  every  year  be- 


Breeding  for  Beef 

Seed  the  land  with  tame  grass  and  raise  beef  calves 
of  a beef  or  dual  purpose  breed.  One  farmer  (F.A.) 
near  Valley  Junction  has  a herd  of  high  grade  Herefords 
from  which  he  sells  a carload  of  steers  a year.  He  raises 
corn  enough  to  fatten  them,  but  attributes  his  success 
more  largely  to  the  excellent  Kentucky  blue  grass  pasture 
on  the  drained  marsh.  He  broke  the  marsh,  disced  it 
well,  and  seeded  blue  grass,  timothy  and  alsike  with  oats 
or  fall  rye  for  a nurse  crop.  He  harvested  the  rye  but 
cut  the  oats  for  hay  and  got  a good  catch  of  grass  in 
each  case.  The  blue  grass  stays  seeded  permanently. 
This  marsh  has  a ditch  on  the  lower  side  of  it  to  remove 
the  flood  water  and  a ditch  on  the  upper  side  of  it  to  cut 
off  the  seepage.  The  ditches  are  % mile  apart  and  are 
deep  enough  to  reach  into  the  sandy  subsoil.  Beef  is  the 
cash  crop  for  this  farmer,  but  he  has  a dairy  herd  on  the 
farm  also.  He  agrees  that  the  monthly  cream  check  that 
comes  from  the  dairy  herd  is  indispensable  to  the  marsh 
farmer. 

Beef  cattle  have  been  grazed  on  drained  marsh  lands 
with  varying  degrees  of  success.  Generally  where  feeders 
have  been  purchased  in  the  spring  and  sold  in  the  fall, 
the  increase  in  weight  scarcely  compensates  for  the  de- 
crease in  price  and  there  is  no  profit.  There  may  be  a 
loss  in  wild  pastures  where  the  cattle  must  walk  distances 
for  suitable  grass.  The  tramping  is  good  for  the  soil 
but  not  for  the  cattle. 


cause  of  lack  of  drainage.  Some  years  the  frost,  another  year,  too  wet. 
I was  not  able  to  farm  at  a profit  until  1917  except  to  keep  some  stock 
to  sell  in  the  fall.  Grain  farming  was  practically  a failure.  But  I 
stuck  and  made  a living.” 

1917.  Ditch  on  each  side  of  land  is  now  8 feet  deep  and  24  feet 
wide  at  the  top.  My  land  was  marsh  soil,  part  of  it,  about  50  per  cent, 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin  . 


29 


two  feet  deep ; about  one-tenth  sand  island.  The  rest  is  marsh  border 
land.  Rye,  15  bushels  an  acre.  Oats,  40  bushels  an  acre.  Buckwheat, 

spotted  with  frost,  10  and 
15  bushels.  Corn  hit  by 
frost.  Tame  hay  yield 
small. 

1918.  Corn  good. 
Wheat,  22  bushels  per 
acre.  Rye  good.  Buck- 
wheat, frosted  more  or 
less. 

1919.  Corn,  15  acres ; 
filled  silo  12  x 26  with  6 
acres.  Rye,  15  acres,  poor. 
Oats,  40  acres,  1,600  bu- 
shels. 

1920.  Corn,  good, 
better  than  1921.  Oats 
good.  Rye  winter  killed. 
Threshed  in  all  350  bu- 
shels. 


FIG.  17— THE  SALVATION  OF  THE  MARSHES 
The  dairy  cow  has  come  to  the  rescue.  Her 
monthly  cream  check  supports  the  family 
and  pays  interest  and  taxes  and  her  daily 
dropping  of  manure  fertilizes  the  land.  She 
consumes  roughage  that  would  be  hard  to 
sell  for  profit. 


1921.  Corn,  30  acres,  drilled  in  for  silage.  Filled  silos.  All  got 
ripe.  Oats,  poor.  Rye,  8 acres,  did  not  fill  very  well.  Flax,  8 acres, 
got  65  bushels.  Soybeans  1 acre,  Ito  San  variety,  17  bushels.  Eyebrow 


FIG.  18.— WHERE  CREAM  IS  MADE  INTO  BUTTER 

The  creamery  in  the  Cutler  Drainage  District.  There  was  neither  creamery 
nor  cows  before  drainage. 

variety  1 acre,  16  bushels,  Early  Black  2 acres,  30  bushels.  One  third 
land  and  balance  muck  is  a good  combination. 

“Deep  peat  is  too  light.  Soybeans  will  grow  on  more  peaty  soil 
than  corn.  Oats  is  a good  first  crop.  Buckwheat  is  too  much  of  a 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


chance  crop.  Either  heat  or  cold  will  hurt  it.  I should  have  gone  in 
stronger  for  potatoes.  Grazing  stockers  and  feeders  is  a gamble.  Ruta- 
bagas, table  beets  and  poultry  are  good.” 


The  Cash  Crop 

Cabbage  and  onions  on  well  drained  muck  bordering 
a deep  ditch  are  successfully  grown  on  the  marsh. 
Stable  manure  or  commercial  fertilizers,  perhaps  both, 
are  necessary  for  large  yields.  If  the  land  is  poorly 
drained  onions  grow  mostly  to  tops.  On  such  land  the 
stand  of  cabbage  is  uneven  and  the  plants  are  weak  and 
unable  to  withstand  cabbage  diseases. 

These  crops  are  hardly  to  be  depended  upon  on  raw 
peat.  They  require  a great  deal  of  labor  in  growing  and 
harvesting.  The  seed  bed  must  be  well  worked  up  and 
fields  kept  free  from  weeds  and  cultivated.  Some  Wis- 
consin cabbage  growers  plant  turnips  or  radishes  in  every 
tenth  row  to  help  control  the  cabbage  maggot.  It  is  not 
safe  to  grow  either  onions  or  cabbage  year  after  year  on 
the  same  land. 

As  with  all  truck  crops  the  price  is  uncertain  and 
fluctuates  greatly.  Unless  the  onion  grower  has  drying 
and  storage  facilities  he  must  accept  the  price  offered 
when  the  nation’s  harvest  is  gathered.  There  is  no  way 
to  tell  in  advance  what  this  price  may  be.  Cabbage  is 
more  bulky  in  proportion  to  value  but  is  also  subject  to 
price  fluctuations.  As  yet  there  are  no  large  storage 
warehouses  for  onions  or  cabbage  in  the  drainage  dis- 
tricts of  central  Wisconsin.  Until  such  facilities  are  pro- 
vided settlers  should  not  undertake  to  grow  these  crops 
on  large  scale.  The  matter  of  organizing  communities 
for  growing  these  crops  on  a large  scale  and  the  construc- 
tion of  suitable  warehouses  is  worthy  of  consideration. 

Marsh  farmers  are  raising  potatoes  for  table  use  and 
for  the  market.  Extensive  potato  growing  requires 
potato  raising  machinery.  Potatoes  are  easily  injured  by 
frost  and  the  market  price  depends  largely  on  the  nation’s 
arvest  of  this  crop.  The  dairy  cow  is  a surer  proposition. 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin 


31 


C.  C.  Has  80  acres  and  9 grade  Holsteins.  Worked  in  the  neigh- 
borhood and  rented  land  for  four  years  before  purchasing.  Half  up- 
land and  half  marsh. 


FIG.  19.— HOGS  AS  A SIDE  LINE 
Skimmilk  and  soybeans  make  good  pork. 

1919.  19  acres  of  buckwheat  made  20  bushels  an  acre.  Four  acres 

of  oats,  150  bushels.  Broke  16  acres  on  his  own  place  and  rented  20. 
Fifteen  acres  of  oats,  grew  360  bushels.  Corn  was  poor,  seed  didn’t 
sprout.  Three  acres  of  rye  gave  a total  of  29  bushels,  sold  in  October. 


Poultry  as  a Cash  Crop 

Raising  poultry  *'  second  in  importance  only  to  milk 
production  in  farming  these  lands.  Chickens  are  good 
foragers  and  get  much  of  their  feed  # from  waste.  They 
mature  quickly.  Only  a small  amount  of  money  is  need- 
ed to  start  and  the  increase  is  rapid.  Select  good  strong 
birds  as  foundation  stock,  keeping  them  in  clean  quarters, 
free  from  lice  and  giving  plenty  of  range  and  feed. 
Corn,  buckwheat,  oats,  both  dry  and  sprouted,  and  skim- 
milk are  good  poultry  feeds. 


1920.  Oats,  24  acres,  500  bushels.  Buckwheat,  12  acres,  frost, 
drowned  out  got  45  bushels  all  told.  Corn  7 acres,  cut  for  fodder. 
Potatoes,  frost  July  29th  killed  them.  Hay,  timothy  and  clover  does 
not  do  well  unless  limed.  The  high  land  grows  the  best  garden  in  my 
judgment.  Gardens  poor  on  peat. 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


1921.  Buckwheat,  15  acres  on  marsh,  got  136  bushels.  Oats,  22 
acres,  threshed  224  bushels,  Rye,  4J4  acres,  got  37  bushels  in  all.  Corn, 
8 acres  good.  Garden  good  on  both  the  sand  and  marsh.  Have  no 
vegetables  for  winter. 


Most  years  he  can  depend 
upon  rutabagas.  Has  marsh  hay 
and  corn  for  his  cows.  Children 
have  helped  financially. 

J.  P.  Located  on  52  acres 
10  years  ago  old  house  on  the 
place,  unfit  to  live  in  at  the 
time.  Seven  children.  Came 
Iowa,  carpenter,  plasterer, 
laborer.  Bought  his  place^  for 
$10.00  an  acre.  Mostly  marsh. 
Arrived  February  28,  1912. 

2 horses,  one  for  $40.00, 
“the  other  for  nothing.”  Fixed 
up  the  old  house,  bought  a cow 
in  June  for  $35.00.  First  year, 
twelve  acres  in  crops.  Corn 
ripened,  oats  too  dry,  land  run 
out.  Cut  oats  for  hay.  Potatoes 
poor.  Garden  good. 

Second  year  same  as  first 
year  with  buckwheat  and  oats 
better.  Broke  some  upland. 

Third  year,  35  acres  in 
crops ; 4 cows ; 3 acres  potatoes, 
got  medium  yield.  Rutabagas 
good.  Too  much  drainage  leaches 
away  the  manure.  Land  needs 
lime  and  manure.  You  can’t  tell 

the  new  settlers  anything. 

In  1922  he  put  in  25  acres  of 
oats,  corn,  25 ; potatoes  10,  soy- 
beans 3,  Sudan  grass  3.  Bought 
an  additional  tract  of  land  on  the  south,  about  100  acres.  Got  it  on 
tax  deed.  Now  has  90  acres  ready  for  cultivation  all  told.  Has  com- 
fortable house  about  6 rooms  ; pole  barn,  pole  corn  crib  and  is  one  of 

the  few  settlers  seen  who  provides  good  shelter  for  his  machinery,  all 

of  which  was  under  cover.  For  six  years  his  children  walked  four  miles 
to  school.  For  three  years  they  walked  three  miles  and  now  within  two 
miles  of  school.  He  reports  some  damage  to  crops  from  frost. 


FIG.  20.— CUCUMBERS  FOR  GARDEN 
AND  CASH 

Best  on  sandy  islands  or  border 
marsh  because  of  frost  hazard.  The 
salting  stations  at  Necedah  and  other 
marsh  towns  make  cucumbers  a good 
cash  crop.  Learn  the  cucumber  busi- 
ness by  starting  on  a small  scale. 


W.  E.  S.  Has  360  acres.  Farmed  one  year,  moved  away  for  two 
years  and  then  came  back.  Built  a new  house,  20  x 24  with  8 foot 
studding;  two  small  children.  Has  farmed  in  Michigan. 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin 


33 


Last  year  rasied  500  barred  rocks.  Chicks  hatched  with  hens.  Sowed 
oats  as  green  feed  for  chickens.  Ground  feed  for  chicks  3c  a pound. 
A year  ago  wintered  300  hens  and  used  some  sprouted  oats.  Has 
good  buckwheat  field  for  later  summer  and  fall  feed  for  chickens. 

Oats  make  15  and  20  bushels  per  arre.  Poor  yields  of  Rosen  rye. 
Has  about  10  cows,  five  heifers,  5 yearlings,  all  grade  Holsteins  that 
have  come  through  the  winter  in  good  condition. 

Farm  machinery,  seeder,  grain  binder,  corn  binder,  mower,  out  in  the 
snow.  Have  a hired  man.  Chickens  have  tuberculosis. 

E.  R.  Has  80  acres,  chiefly  marsh  border  soil.  Some  sandy  upland 
and  some  muck,  clay  beneath  the  sand. 

1920.  Oats  made  20  bushels  per  acre;  corn  12  bushels.  Old  hay 
land  badly  run  out. 


Tools  and  Machinery 

A plow  of  the  half-breaker  type  is  commonly  used 
on  the  marsh.  • A heavy  disc  is  not  advised  by  the  farmers 
unless  plenty  of  strong  horses  or  a tractor  are  available. 
They  prefer  a drill  instead  of  a broadcast  seeder  because 
the  seed  must  be  put  in  deeper  than  in  upland  soils.  A 
hand  planter  is  often  used  the  first  year  or  two  in  plant- 
ing corn.  A spike  tooth  harrow  with  wooden  bars  is 
favored  because  it  is  lighter.  A heavy  roller  is  necessary. 
Some  have  made  one  by  filling  a 12-inch  tube  with  con- 
crete. They  advise  buying  a mower  and  hay  rake  be- 
fore either  a grain  or  corn  binder.  A manure  spreader  on 
the  marsh  farm  is  important  because  it  is  hard  to  spread  a 
light  dressing  of  manure  evenly  by  hand.  A wide  tired 
high  wagon  is  preferred.  The  ordinary  walking  cultivator 
is  used  while  fields  are  still  small.  Axes,  a cross-cut  saw, 
simple  carpenter  and  garden  tools  find  a place  on  every 
farm.  It  is  unsafe  to  depend  on  borrowed  or  rented  tools 
or  machinery. 


1921.  Potatoes  4 acres,  fair.  Oats  20  bushels  per  acre;  buckwheat 
22.  Frost  hurt  the  corn  some  but  it  went  50  bushels  per  acre.  Frost 
also  hurt  the  oats.  Sold  about  $450  worth  of  fur,  muskrat,  mink, 
skunk,  ’coon  and  weasel.  Trapped  them  along  the  ditches. 

Counting  the  Cost 

In  order  to  point  out  the  more  important  items  several  experienced 
and  successful  marsh  farmers  were  asked  to  prepare  tables  or  budgets 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


showing  the  expense  that  should  be  provided  for  by  a beginner.  They 
are  presented  here,  also  remarks  of  the  farmers  furnishing  the  estimate. 

In  each  case  it  was  assumed  that  the  settler  buys  80  acres  of  well- 
drained  land  on  the  long-time  payment  plan  at  $15.00  an  acre,  plus  the 


Crop 

s Grown  on  Marsh  i 

Soils 

Frost  Resistant 

Semi-Resistant 

May  Be  Injured 

Hay  Crops : 

Corn  and  soy- 

Soybeans  for 

Alsike  and  red 

beans  for  sil- 

seed 

clover 

age 

Buckwheat 

Timothy 

Early  potatoes 

Flax 

Oats  and  peas 

Rape 

Corn  for  grain 

Blue  grass 

Strawberry 

or  seed 

Orchard  grass 

Celery 

Late  potatoes 

Rye  grass 

Soybeans  for 

White  beans 

Redtop 

hay 

Alfalfa 

Vetch  and  rye 

Grains : 

Winter  wheat 

Winter  rye 

Truck  Crops: 
Sugar  beets 

Mangels  and 

table  beets 
Cabbage 
Onions 

Carrots 

Turnips 

Rutabagas 

unpaid  portion  of  thq  drainage  tax,  and  that  he  has  $1,200  or  more 
with  which  to  start  farm  operations.  It  was  the  opinion  of  the  farmers 
interviewed  that  what  is  given  applies  equally  as  well  with  a man 
having  $10,000,  that  he  should  operate  on  a small  scale  until  he  has 
recognized  and  solved  the  special  problems  confronting  him. 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin 


35 


Budget  I. 

House,  necessary  purchased  material  12  x 16 $200.00 

Wagon,  new  130.00 

Team  200.00 

4 cows  , 200.00 

2 young  pigs  20.00 

Yearling  steer  25.00 

Chickens  15.00 

Harness  50.00 

Plow  40.00 

Disk  * 45.00 

Walking  cultivator  10.00 

Miscellaneous  tools  50.00 

Store  bill  12  mos.  at  $15.00  per  month  180.00 


$1,165.00 


Remarks.  “The  above  budget  does  not  provide  for  a barn  or  feed 
for  team  until  it  can  be  grown  and  the  settler  would  have  to  depend  on 


cows  to  pay  interest  and  taxes. 
Men  sometimes  fail  because  they 
will  not  take  advice.  One  new 
settler  lost  70  acres  of  buck- 
wheat because  he  waited  until  it 
all  got  ripe.  By  that  time  most 
of  it  had  shelled  out.  The  same 
man  left  his  potatoes  in  the 
ground  until  it  froze  up  in  No- 
vember. A settler  should  not 
work  out  for  wages  because  it 
keeps  him  from  developing  his 
farm.  Illinois  men  coming  here 
buy  too  much  land  and  try  grain 
farming  and  fail.  Too  many 
traders  are  dealing  in  marsh 
land  at  excessive  prices.  Com- 
mercial fertilizer  is  a money 
maker  for  cabbage,  but  I believe 
stable  manure  is  sufficient  for  good  yields  of  general  crops. 

“The  first  year  I would  recommend  that  the  new  settler  sqw  6 
acres  of  oats  for  hay,  seeded  down  to  alsike,  red  top  and  timothy.  Sow 
6 -acres  of  millet,  possibly  seeded  down  if  cut  before  ripe.  Buy  your 
millet  seed  from  a seed  house.  Don’t  depend  on  millet  seed  grown  by  a 
farmer  around  here  because  as  a rule  it  is  not  cured  well  enough  to 
make  it  safe  to  sow.  Sow  about  June  1st.  Sow  2 acres  of  barnyard 
millet  to  ripen  and  be  fed  to  chickens  without  threshing.  Sow  about 
10  acres  of  oats  for  grain.  Figure  on  about  20  lbs.  of  hay  for  each 
cow  daily  and  possibly  15  lbs.  of  roots.  Put  in  6 acres  of  Ttn  San 
soybeans  for  hay. 


FIG.  21. — -STOREHOUSES  FOR 
CABBAGE 

Successful  cabbage  marketing  re- 
quires a store-house  from  which  ship- 
ment can  be  made  when  the  market  is 
right. 


36  Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 

“Break  and  plant  5 acres  to  Flint  corn  for  fodder  or  better  still 
the  Corey  variety  of  sweet  corn,  soiling  crop.  Have  two  plantings  of 
corn  for  fodder,  early  and  late.  Fall  breaking  is  best  for  oats  on  the 
marsh.  Wild  pasture  is  a disappointment. 

“Break  up  land  on  both  the  sandy  island  and  marsh  for  rutabagas 


i' jut.  — ruuLim  run  iviAniYjCi  r 

Poultry  requires  only  a small  cash  outlay.  (Send  to  the  College  of  Agri- 
culture for  bulletins.)  Buckwheat,  injured  by  frost  and  unsalable,  makes  good 
feed  for  poultry. 

and  turnips.  I would  suggest  a pit  in  the  ground  instead  of  root  cellar 
at  the  start.  My  root  cellar  is  about  12  x 40  feet  and  in  it  are  potatoes, 
cabbages,  parsnips,  turnips  and  rutabagas.  Sow  turnips  during  the  last 
cultivation  of  corn.  Five  tons  of  roots  for  4 cows  for  the  winter. 

“Plant  potatoes  on 
both  the  high  and  low 
land,  about  an  acre  on 
each.  Potatoes  are  the 
best  cash  crop  the  first 
year  on  a peat  marsh.  Put 
your  garden  chiefly  on  the 
marsh. 

“The  settler  should 
own  his  own  team  and 
and  tools.  Hiring  is  not  a 
practical  proposition  be- 
cause when  the  settler 
wants  work  done,  his 
neighbor  needs  the  use  of 
his  own  team  and  outfit. 

“If  you  have  four  cows 
buy  two  small  pigs  and 
possibly  a steer  calf  for 
meat  for  winter. 


FIG.  23.— THE  HEAVIER  THE  BETTER 

This  iron  drum  is  filled  with  concrete  to 
make  it  heavy.  To  make  it  heavier,  load  the 
rack  with  stone.  Unrolled,  mellow  marsh 
soils  may  dry  out  to  a depth  of  three  inches. 
Rolled  after  seeding,  they  remain  firm 
enough  to  support  roots  and  hold  water. 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin  37 

“Watch  for  auction  sales  to  buy  tools,  harness,  horses  and  cows. 
Build  a pole  barn  with  marsh  hay  roof.  If  you  buy  new  tools,  of 
course,  it  will  cost  you  more  than  the  figures  mentioned.” 


Soybeans  for  Hay  and  Seed 

No  marsh  farm  can  afford  to  get  along  without  soy- 
beans. The  Ito  San,  Manchu  and  Black  Eyebrow 
varieties  mature  in  about  115  days.  The  Wisconsin 
Early  Black  matures  in  105  days,  and  to  that  extent  is 
better  adapted  to  fields  subject  to  frost.  They  can  be  cut 
for  hay  even  when  hit  by  frosts. 


Budget  II. 

Materials  for  house $250.00 

Wagon,  get  one  second  hand,  if  possible  75.00 

Team,  chunks  200.00 

3 cows  and  1 heifer  . 160.00 

2 spring  pigs  8.00 

Harness  40.00 

Plow  14",  half  breaker  type  20.00 

Disk,  not  over  5'  wide  .'. 40.00 

Walking  cultivator  5.00 

Harrow,  8 feet  12.00 

Miscellaneous  tools,  axes,  shovels,  hoes,  saws,  etc 25.00 

Chicken  house  12  x 12,  poles  10.00 

Chickens,  10  12.00 

Hay  for  4 horses  and  2 cows  from  March  until  June,  2 tons 

at  $15.00  1 30.00 

Ground  feed,  one  ton  30.00 

Well,  with  wood  pump  10.00 

Store  bill  12  mos.  at  $15.00  a month  180.00 


$1,107.00 

Remarks.  “Assume  that  he  contracted  for  an  80  containing  65 
acres  of  marsh  and  15  acres  of  sandy  upland.  Interest  and  taxes  to  be 
met  each  year.  Would  estimate  his  drainage  tax  at  $114,  general  tax 
about  $25.00. 

“Build  a root  house  on  side  of  sandy  island.  For  a barn,  cut  poles 
8 or  10  feet  high,  put  them  up  vertically,  board  up  with  poles  inside  and 
outside,  stuff  with  wild  grass.  Poles  close  together  on  the  top  for  a 
roof,  covered  with  small  bundles  of  marsh  hay. 


38 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


“Build  a house  of  rough  lumber  16  x 20,  a story  and  a half  high, 
12  foot  studding,  8 feet  in  the  clear  below,  leaving  4 feet  at  the  base  of 
the  rafter  with  attic  for  storage  and  bedroom.  Board  up  and  paper  out- 
side with  good  grade  of  roofing  felt  on  the  sides  and  tops.  You  can 
buy  this  for  about  $2.50  for  100  square  feet,  guaranteed  for  15  years, 
640  feet  for  the  roof.  The  roof  lumber  should  be  sized  to  prevent  the 
roof  from  cracking.  The  settler  can  buy  2 x 4s  for  about  $20.00  a thous- 
and, hemlock  sized  $30.00.  He  could  use  either  shiplap  or  matched 
lumber  for  sheathing  with  wallboard  inside  the  house.  He  will  need 
about  675  square  feet  of  wallboard  costing  him  not  more  than  $30.00; 
six  windows,  $15.00;  1 door,  $3.00,  making  a total  cost  of  materials 
$250.00. 


FIG.  24.— BUCKWHEAT  ON  BREAKING 

It  will  grow  on  tough  peat  without  much  disking.  It  shades  the  ground  well, 
keeps  it  moist  and  makes  it  decompose.  Frost  is  its  worst  enemy,  but  even 
with  crop  wholly  or  partially  lost  by  frost,  it  pays  as  a conditioner  for  tough 
peats. 

“Native  pasture  is  earlier  than  tame  pasture  unless  you  winter  over 
your  fall  pasture.  We  figure  on  feeding  about  7 months. 

“The  first  year  sow  6 acres  of  oats  for  hay,  seeded  down  to  timothy, 
alsike  and  red  top.  Red  top  is  a good  grass,  very  prolific  and  tenacious 
of  life  and  in  a wet  season  will  stand  more  moisture  than  timothy  or 
alsike.  Sow  6 acres  of  Japanese  millet.  This  makes  better  hay  than 
German  millet  because  it  is  finer.  There  is  more  forage  and  it  is  more 
succulent  than  the  other  variety.  Cut  this  as  soon  as  the  seed  forms 
and  before  it  ripens.  Do  not  seed  this  down.  A low  yield  will  be  one 
and  one-half  tons  to  the  acre. 

“Three  acres,  six  better  of  Ito  San  soybeans  or  early  Black 
variety  if  kept  for  seed.  Put  in  3 or  4 acres  of  corn  of  a variety  that 
has  been  grown  locally  for  some  time,  because  it  is  earlier  and  ac- 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin 


39 


climated.  Plant  about  3 feet  8 inches  each  way.  Oats  on  new  break- 
ing in  the  spring  may  dry  out.  Put  in  5 acres  of  buckwheat  and  10 
if  possible.  The  straw  has  some  feeding  value  if  cut  before  freezing. 
One  acre  of  rutabagas  but  work  up  the  ground  very  fine,  sow,  and 
harrow  afterwards.  Fence  in  the  sandy  island  for  early  and  late  pas- 
ture. The  cattle  won’t  get  much  out  of  it  during  the  summer  but  in 
the  spring  and  fall  they  can  find  some  feed.  Put  in  6 acres  of  oats  for  hay. 
Cut  shortly  after  it  is  headed  and  before  it  is  ripe.  One  ton  to  the 


Timothy  and  Alsike  Sure 

The  frost  does  not  hurt  them.  They  can  also  grow 
in  places  too  wet  for  other  crops.  Seed  about  8 pounds 
of  each  to  the  acre.  While  it  is  sometimes  possible  to 
get  a catch  by  seeding  on  the  frozen  ground  in  the  early 
spring  without  harrowing,  it  is  usually  better  to  seed 
when  the  soil  can  be  harrowed  in  the  spring  or  early  fall. 

The  best  way  to  seed  timothy  is  with  oats  and  peas 
and  cut  the  combination  for  hay  before  it  gets  ripe.  Sow 
as  much  acreage  as  possible  during  the  first  year  on  fair- 
ly well  decomposed  peat  soil. 

Men  operating  large  blocks  of  drained  marsh  land 
can  do  no  better  than  to  seed  it  to  timothy  and  alsike. 
In  fact  it  would  be  well  for  such  men  to  break  and  seed 
all  of  their  drained  marsh  before  offering  it  for  sale  to 
settlers.  Then  if  land  sales  are  slow,  there  will  be  profit 
in  the  hay,  which  can  be  handled  with  less  labor  and  risk 
than  any  other  crop.  It  will  help  keep  down  the  carrying 
charge  to  the  advantage  of  the  settler  who  will  eventually 
come. 


acre  would  be  a low  yield.  Recommend  soybeans  highly.  Have  grown 
them  two  years,  plant  in  rows,  three-fourths  of  a ton  to  an  acre  will 
be  a low  yield. 

“Let  the  corn  stand  as  long  as  possible  or  cut  at  once  after  frost, 
3 tons  of  dry  corn  fodder  to  the  acre  would  be  a low  yield.  Oats  and 
soybeans  should  yield  each  at  least  1 ton  to  the  acre;  millet  \y2  tons. 

“Put  early  potatoes  on  the  upland.  It  takes  them  a little  longer 
to  start  on  the  marsh  and  a little  longer  to  ripen.  Get  good  surface 
drainage.  Tiling  is  too  expensive  until  our  land  is  worth  $150.00  an 
acre.” 


40 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


Budget  III. 

1 team  $200.00 

4 cows  160.00 

Harness  50.00 

Wagon,  second  hand  25.00 

Plow,  half  breaker  type  20.00 

1 disk  • 45.00 

Harrow,  preferably  wood  frame  because  it  is  lighter  16.00 

1 walking  cultivator  5.00 

Garden  tools 25.00 


FIG.  25.— HIDES  FOR  THE  TANNERY 

If  a man  wants  to  hunt  and  trap  along  nearby  streams,  he  can  do  so.  This 
lot  of  hides  brought  $250. 


Mower  60.00 

Hay  rake  „ _ 25.00 

House  14  x 28,  rough  lumber,  heavy  felt  roofing  outside, 

no  lining  inside  160.00 

Pole  barn  

Well  and  pump  15.00 

Store  bill,  12  mos.  at  $15.00  a month  180.00 

2 tons  of  hay  for  first  feeding 24.00 

Chickens  10.00 


Total  $1,020.00 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin 


41 


Remarks.  “Best  to  have  half  marsh  and  half  high  land.  Assume  that 
he  contracted  for  80  acres.  In  addition  to  interest  his  carrying  charges 
annually  would  be  drainage  tax  about  $80,  general  tax  $18.00. 


“No  time  for  root  crops  the  first  year  but  raise  30  tons  of  forage 
crops  as  follows : 6 acres  oats  for  hay,  6 acres  of  millet  and  6 acres  corn 
with  Ito  San  soybeans.  Longfellow  flint  corn  best.  Let  beans  stand 

for  a while  after  corn  is  cut. 


“Put  in  all  the  potatoes  you 
have  time  to  plant.  Put  early 
potatoes  and  garden  on  marsh 
border  land.  No  pigs  at  the 
start.  Buy  some  buckwheat  for 
chickens. 

“After  through  with  planting 
potatoes,  break  up  some  land,  put 
in  buckwheat  for  chicken  feed. 
Can  sow  this  as  late  as  July 
15th.  Use  early  varieties  for  all 
garden  vegetables.  As  feed  for 
two  horses  the  first  year,  from 
March  until  July  1st,  bushel 
a day  of  ground  feed,  oats  and 
corn,  two  tons,  $60.00. 

“No  tiling  at  the  start.  With 
fair  returns  the  new  settler 
should  have  at  the  beginning  of 
the  second  year  4 cows,  4 year- 
lings, 2 horses  and  18  acres  of 
oats  to  be  disked  in,  then  follow 
the  first  year’s  system  with  for- 
age crops.  Fence  in  all  upland 

FIG.  26.— “BUCKWHEATS”  FOR  possible  for  early  and  late  pas- 

BREAKFAST  ture. 

Sorghum  to  go  with  the  cakes  is  made  “Don’t  forget  outnumbers  as 

from  the  cane  grown  on  the  sandy  is-  . 

lands.  cash  crop.  I hey  do  well  on 

breaking.  My  neighbor,  last 
year  sold  nearly  $200.00  worth  from  two  acres.  Build  up  the  farm 
around  your  cows.  Even  a 40  acre  farm  might  be  all  right  here  on 
the  marsh  for  the  man  with  little  capital.  It  is  possible  to  begin  in  a 
small  way  and  then  spread  out. 


“Bought  my  last  piece  this  fall,  155  acres  to  the-  west  of  me  for  the 
taxes  against  it,  amounting  to  about  $10.00  an  acre.  80  acres  ad- 
joining on  the  east  is  now  for  sale  for  the  taxes  against  it.  This  parti- 
cular 80  lacks  drainage  but  it  as  good  as  much  of  the  land  in  the  south- 
ern part  of  this  district.  (Cranberry  Creek).” 


42  Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 

Budget  IV. 

House  14  x 28,  materials  * $350.00 

Pole  barn  

3 horses  (better  than  two)  300.00 

Wagon,  second  hand  : 40.00 

Harness  40.00 

Plow,  regular  breaker  14  inch  20.00 

Disk,  6 foot  40.00 

Harrow,  10  foot  20.00 

Mower  50.00 

Hay  rake  30.00 

Cultivator  25.00 

Miscellaneous  tools  30.00 

4 cows  200.00 

2 spring  pigs  : - 10.00 

24  hens  25.00 

Feed  for  stock  from  March  to  June  1,  hay  50.00 

Ground  feed  60.00 

Store  bill,  12  months  at  $20.00  a month  240.00 

Cement  roller  5.00 


Total  $1,535.00 


Rotation  and  Selection  of  Crops 

Put  the  crops  most  susceptible  to  frost  on  the  better 
drained  lands  near  the  ditches.  Put  buckwheat  on  the 
tougher  new  breaking.  Corn,  rye  or  timothy  and  alsike 
do  well  where  the  sod  is  less  tough.  After  either  corn, 
rye  or  buckwheat,  soybeans  or  truck  crops  do  well  for 
two  years.  Then  seed  to  timothy  and  alsike  for  two 
years.  This  makes  a good  5-year  rotation.  If  a hay  is  to 
be  the  cash  crop  seed  to  timothy  and  alsike  the  second 
year  and  allow  to  remain  from  2 to  5 years. 


Remarks.  “Carrying  charges  on  his  land  in  addition  to  interest 
would  be,  drainage  taxes  $80,  general  tax  about  $30. 

“I  have  farmed  on  the  marsh  7 years.  The  settler  buying  land  in 
this  country  should  take  about  two  weeks  to  investigate  and  it  will  pay 
him  to  see  the  land  twice  during  the  season.  I was  disappointed  because 
it  took  more  money  to  develop  my  farm  than  I was  given  to  believe.  The 
settler  should  examine  the  land  after  frost  is  out  of  the  ground.  The 
land  in  this  district  (Little  Yellow)  is  not  all  well  drained.  The  settler 
should  buy  as  close  to  the  ditch  as  possible.  Our  land  was  well  drained 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin 


43 


but  half  a mile  away  the  land  was  too  wet.  The  new  settler  should 
see  the  land  late  in  April  or  early  in  May.  Land  men  bring  prospects 
in  during  a dry  season  and  settlers  can’t  tell  whether  it  has  good  drain- 
age. That’s  the  way  I bought. 

“Would  recommend  the  following  first  year’s  crops : 

6 acres  oats  and  peas  for  hay,  estimated  minimum  yield  3 tons. 

6 acres  millet,  estimated  minimum  yield  3 tons. 

3 acres  soybeans,  Ito  Sans,  estimated  minimum  yield  3 tons. 

5 acres  corn  drilled  estimated  minimum  yield  10  tons. 

(frost  will  get  the  corn  about  3 years  out  of  five) 

5 acres  oats  (seeded  down)  as  grain  for  stock,  minimum  total  yield 
125  bushels. 


1 acre  rutabagas,  minimum  yield,  200  bushels. 

“Put  the  garden  on  the  marsh- 
border  type  of  soil.  Use  early 
varieties  of  garden  crops.  Put 
in  two  acres  of  buckwheat  for 
chicken  feed.  The  new  settler 
can  easily  break  an  acre  a day 
and  he  has  a big  advantage  if  he 
has  an  extra  horse  that  he  can 
put  on  for  heavy  work.  It  he  has 
only  a team  and  one  horse  gets 
sick,  it  slows  up  his  work. 

“Get  your  land  ready  for  oats 
first.  Then  prepare  your  corn 
land  and  the  land  for  soybeans. 
Buckwheat  should  be  put  in 
about  the  tenth  of  June,  then 
rutabagas  and  millet,  to  July  1st. 

“For  fall  work  the  first  year 
plow  new  land.  Three  horses  on 
a 14"  plow  will  do  a great  deal 
more  work  than  two.  Plow  at 
least  20  acres  the  first  fall.  Cows 
should  take  care  of  interest  and 
taxes. 

“In  preparing  land  for  crops 
use  a heavy  roller.  Where  the 
1TG.  27.  THE  ^SCHOOL  TEACHER’S  land  was  rolled,  I got  20  bushels. 

The  sod  should  be  well  worked 
She  is  training  the  farmers  of  the  , T. 

future  in  the  new  school  house  on  the  UP  f°r  potatoes.  it  the  new 

niarsh'  settler  has  a surplus  of  feed  the 

first  winter  the  banker  will  help  him  get  more  stock.  I tried  out  Angus 

cattle  same  as  in  Iowa  but  it  didn’t  work  well  up  here.  One  reason 

was  because  there  was  no  market  for  young  bulls.  We  raised  60 

turkeys  one  year.  They  do  well  in  this,  country.  Bees  are  good. 


44 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


“Of  small  grain  crops  on  the  marsh,  oats  are  the  best.  Of  other 
grain,  crops  rye  is  best  but  it  will  be  to  the  settler’s  advantage  to  cut 
out  rye  altogether. 

“Strawberries  on  the  marsh  may  make  a fair  cash  crop.  Red  rasp- 
berries, currants,  gooseberries,  rhubarb,  asparagus,  all  good.  Put  in 
.the  garden  so  as  to  cultivate  it  with  a horse. 

“The  second  year  if  the  settler  has  been  industrious  he  can  afford 
to  borrow  money  to  build  a silo.  He  should  take  precautions  on  the 


Wood  Lots  and  Drainage 

A wood  lot  is  desirable  for  fuel,  fence  posts  and 
rough  timber. 

Many  sandy  islands  and  marshes  have  timber  that 
may  serve  these  purposes.  With  careful  selection  of  the 
site  the  wood  lot  may  be  conserved  after  drainage. 

No  case  has  been  observed  where  the  drainage  of 
the  marsh  injured  the  trees  on  the  upland  or  islands. 
Drainage  may  or  may  not  destroy  the  shallow  rooted 
tamarack  common  to  the  marshes.  Near  Mather  in  peat 
10  feet  in  depth  a ditch  8 feet  deep  through  dense 
tamarack  did  not  kill  any  trees  outside  the  spoil  bank. 
In  many  places  the  seepage  of  water  from  the  sand  island 
has  kept  alive  the  tamarack  near  the  marsh  border.  But 
where  the  seepage  is  cut  off  by  a ditch  on  each  side  of  a 
marsh  the  water  table  is  so  lowered  that  the  older  trees 
find  it  impossible  to  change  their  habit.  They  die  for 
want  of  water  and  must  be  cut  the  year  after  drainage  to 
prevent  waste.  The  younger  trees  on  these  well  drained 
acreas  are  able  to  develop  a new  and  deeper  root  system 
and  thrive  better  after  drainage  than  before.  The  usual 
precaution  against  fire  is  necessary. 


marsh  to  guard  against  damage  by  fire  by  plowing  around  his  land  if 
possible.  The  peat  is  more  subject  to  frost  than  muck.  The  water  table 
should  be  at  least  4 feet  down.  I would  not  care  if  it  was  six  feet.  I 
was  deceived  because  I looked  at  the  land  in  September  and  the  next 
spring  when  I came  there  was  water  everywhere.  I would  not  want  to 
see  settlers  come  in  with  the  representations  that  were  made  to  me. 
Deep  peat  in  my  opinion  is  a counterfeit.  There  is  a great  deal  of  diff- 
erence between  peat  and  muck.  Jf  the  land  is  peat  I should  prefer 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin  45 

a depth  of  about  two  feet  because  if  it  is  too  shallow  the  fertilizer 
leaches  through  and  I don’t  like  to  see  the  sand  stirred  up  in  plowing. 
The  settler  should  not  break  up  land  on  the  sand  islands  because  if  you 
destroy  the  sod,  sand  burrs  come  in.  He  should,  however,  sow  it  to 
blue  grass  and  white  clover  and  disc.  He  should  also  fence  in  his 
garden  with  woven  wire. 


The  Place  for  Tile 

The  new  settler  may  dispense  with  drain  tile  for  the 
first  few  years.  Let  him  plow  only  the  land  so  near  to 
the  outlet  ditch  as  not  to  require  tile.  Unless  there  is  20 
acres  or  more  of  such  land  on  an  80  the  newcomer  had 
better  look  around  the  neighborhood  until  he  finds  an  80 
that  has  at  least  20  acres  of  well  drained  marsh  on  it.  In 
the  districts  that  have  deep  ditches  in  sandy  subsoils 
there  are  areas  ready  for  the  plow.  On 
the  remainder,  lines  of  5"  to  8"  tile  at  the  edge  of  the 
sandy  islands  and  in  pockets  not  well  served  by  the  out- 
let ditches  may  be  put  in  by  the  farmer  when  his  opera- 
tions require  more  tillable  acres. 


Budget  V. 

House,  14  x 28  materials  $200.00 

Team  200.00 

Wagon  50.00 

Harness  30.00 

Plow,  14"  half  breaker  25.00 

Disk  45.00 

Harness,  second  hand  15.00 

Mower  75.00 

Rake  40.00 

Miscellaneous  tools  50.00 

4 cows  200.00 

2 spring  pigs  6.00 

First  year  poultry  10.00 

Store  bill,  12  months  at  $15.00 180.00 


Total  $1,126.00 


Remarks.  “This  does  not  include  feed  for  his  stock  until  he  is  able 
to  grow  it.  The  4 cows  should  net  a profit  of  $200  a year  which  would 
take  care  of  his  interest,  drainage  tax  about  $64  and  general  tax  $25. 

“Can  keep  more  cows  with  a silo.  The  banker  will  finance  a good 
settler  for  a silo. 


46 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


“Soybeans  good  for  grain  or  hay.  Early  Blacks  thresh  well  and 
the  straw  is  good  for  horses.  Costs  25  cents  a bushel  to  thresh  them. 
Three  horses  better  than  two. 

“Six  acres  of  oats  will  make  6 tons  of  hay  easily.  Siberian  millet 
may  produce  48  bushels  of  seed  per  acre  and  the  straw  is  good  for 
horses.  Have  sold  seed  for  $2.00  a bushel.  Millet  not  hard  on  land. 
Sure  of  either  seed  or  hay.  Put  in  5 acres  of  Carey  or  Early  Ever- 
green sweet  corn  for  fodder.” 


FIG.  28.— TILE  FOR  INTENSIVE  FARMING 

After  all  of  the  land  drained  by  the  open  ditches  is  put  under  cultivation, 
drain  out  the  pockets  with  a good  drain  tile.  Don’t  lay  tile  any  less  than 
five  inches  in  diameter.  Send  to  the  Agricultural  College  for  a bulletin  on 


tiling. 

Budget  VI. 

House  14  x 28  materials  $200.00 

Pole  barn  

3 horses  (he  insists  on  this ; bought  locally) 250.00 


4 cows  (would  advise  him  to  pay  a little  more  and  get 
something  young  instead  of  old  cows ; says  he  should 
buy  more  cows  if  he  is  able  to  put  up  a silo  in  the  fall 
of  the  first  year;  the  marsh  grass  pasture  is  better 


today  than  formerly) : 240.00 

Harness  40.00 

Wagon  80.00 

Disk  (for  3 horses,  get  a 6'  outfit)  45.00 

Harrow,  iron  frame,  3 sections  17.00 

Walking  cultivator  15.00 

Mower  45.00 

Plow  16"  half  breaker  15.00 

Rake  ' 30.00 

Hay  rack  (materials)  5.00 


Drainage  District  Farms  in  Wisconsin 


47 


Miscellaneous  tools  50.00 

Hay  for  4 cows  from  date  of  locating  March  15th  to  May 

1st,  \l/2  tons . 25.00 

Ground  feed  for  cows  from  same  period  90.00 

90  bushels  of  oats  for  horses  45.00 

Hay  for  horses,  3 tons  at  $12.00  36.00 

2 spring  pigs  12.00 

Sow  due  to  farrow  30.00 

2 dozen  hens  24.00 

Store  bill  12  months  at  $15.00  a month  180.00 


Total  $1,474.00 


Can  Drainage  Be  Too  Deep 

Deep  drainage  during  the  spring  encourages  a deep 
rooting  of  plants.  Deep  roots  can  find  water  even  dur- 
ing a dry  July  or  August.  Crops  that  suffer  during  these 
months  do  so  because  they  had  too  much  water  in  the 
spring,  rather  than  too  little  later.  There  may  be  certain 
ditches  in  each  drainage  district  that  might  be  dammed  in 
the  early  summer  with  advantage,  to  give  the  plants  an 
abundance  of  water  while  they  are  finishing  their 
growth.  Only  after  a careful  study  as  to  where  such 
dams  are  needed,  and  feasible,  should  they  be  con- 
structed. 


Remarks.  “Assume  the  settler  contracting  for  80  acres  has  $1,200 
cash  when  he  begins  work  and  no  payments  except  interest  and  taxes 
for  three  years.  Should  have  at  least  40  acres  of  drained  marsh.  Could 
not  make  a living  on  80  acres  of  sandy  upland  alone.  I believe  non- 
resident holders  are  asking  too  much  for  marsh  land.  Suggest  that  home 
seekers  look  for  deedable  tax  land.  There  are  some  good  tracts  ob- 
tainable in  this  way  for  about  $10.00  an  acre. 

“Build  a pole  barn  at  first.  Raise  forage  crops  as  follows  ; 6 acres 
oats,  seeded  down,  to  be  cut  for  hay,  yield,  5 tons ; 6 acres  millet,  6 tons ; 
3 acres  soybeans,  Ito  Sans,  3 tons ; 5 acres  early  corn  for  fodder,  10 
tons.  Have  3 tons  for  each  cow.  While  getting  started  figure  on  $75 
for  horse  feed  and  two  tons  of  bran  for  other  stock.  Four  cows  would 
make  enough  to  pay  $100  a year  for  drainage  and  general  taxes  and 
$140  for  interest. 


FIG.  29.— AFTER  TWENTY  YEARS 

At  first  the  struggle  was  hard  because  of  poor  drainage.  This  house  is  a 
monument  to  persistent  effort  and  good  farming  on  a drained  marsh. 

“First  ditches  dug  in  1900  not  deep  enough.  Were  deepened  to  8 
or  9 feet  in  1914  to  1917.  Plenty  of  deep  ditches  better  than  tile  at 
start.  Would  hot  tackle  an  80  where  the  first  10  acres  had  to  be  tiled.” 


48  Wisconsin  Bulletin  358 


“The  first  fall  break  more  land  for  two  additional  cows.  Fall 
plowing  best  for  oats.  Follow  millet  with  potatoes  and  have  bigger 
acreage  of  millet  and  soybeans  second  year.  Fence  sand  islands  for 
early  and  late  pasture. 

“Don’t  disturb  the  original  sod  if  you  want  pasture.  North  slope  of 
sand  island  best  for  garden  first  year.  Recommend  currants,  goose- 
berries, rhubarb  and  cucumbers. 


mmv, 


January,  1924 


Bulletin  359 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN 
MADISON 


Emergency  Hay  Crops 

G.  B.  Mortimer 

ARMERS  must  sometimes  depend  upon 
substitute  hay  crops  when  alfalfa  and  clover 
fail. 

The  best  emergency  hay  crops  for  Wis- 
consin are : Soybeans ; oats  and  field  peas ; 
Sudan  grass  and  soybeans ; Sudan  grass ; 
millet ; and  oats.  There  is  enough  variety 
in  this  list  for  the  farmer  to  choose  the  kind 
best  suited  to  his  needs.  All  of  these  crops 
are  annuals;  some  are  legumes;  others  are 
grasses ; some  are  adapted  to  early  seeding,  and  others  to  late 
seeding. 

The  ones  best  suited  to  early  seeding  are  oats  alone  or  oats 
and  field  peas.  The  others  are  adapted  to  later  seedings, 
ranging  from  corn  planting  time  to  the  first  week  in  July. 
Owing  to  the  date  at  which  some  of  them  may  be  seeded, 
they  are  also  catch  crops.  If  one  of  the  main  crops  of  the 
rotation  fails,  for  example  corn,  there  will  usually  be  plenty 
of  time  to  seed  the  field  to  soybeans,  to  millet,  or  to  Sudan 
grass. 

Likewise,  land  that  cannot  be  planted  to  the  earlier  crops 
may  be  used  for  one  of  these.  Land  infested  with  noxious 
weeds,  such  as  quack  grass  or  Canada  thistle,  may  be  given 
a weed  killing  treatment  by  discing  it  during  the  early  part 
of  the  season  and  then  planting  a smother  crop  such  as  Sudan 
grass  to  occupy  the  ground  the  latter  part  of  the  season.  In 
this  way  a crop  of  hay  may  be  secured  at  the  same  time. 

Oats  and  Field  Peas  for  Hay 

The  best  early  seeded  grass  and  legume  mixture  for  emer- 
gency hay  is  oats  and  field  peas.  Where  the  soil  and  climate 
are  adapted  to  pea  growing,  this  mixture  is  excellent.  The 


Emergency  Hay  Crops 


3 


two  crops  grow  well  together  since  both  should  be  seeded 
at  about  the  same  time  and  both  are  rapid  growers.  Any  of 
the  standard  varieties  of  field  peas  will  give  good  results, 
such  as  the  Canadian,  Scotch,  or  the  Wisconsin  Green.  The 
medium  late  oats  such  as  the  Swedish  Select,  Pedigree  No. 
5,  or  the  Wisconsin  Wonder,  Pedigree  No.  1,  are  well  adapted 
to  grow  with  any  of  these  varieties  of  peas,  particularly  the 
Green  and  Scotch  varieties. 

A standard  rate  of  seeding  for  Wisconsin  farmers  is  \y2 
bushels  of  each  an  acre.  If  more  peas  are  desired  \y2  bushels 
of  oats  with  2 bushels  of  peas  will  give  splendid  results.  The 
seed  of  the  two  may  be  thoroughly  mixed  and  drilled  in  with 
a grain  drill  or  seeded  with  a broadcast  seeder.  Early  seed- 
ings  give  the  best  results,  but  since  the  crop  is  intended  for 
hay  and  not  for  seed,  the  mixture  may  be  seeded  as  late  as 
the  third  week  of  May  in  a normal  season  with  good  results. 


Table  I — Hay  Yields  of  Oat  and  Pea  Mixtures 


Rates  of  seeding  per  acre 

Tons  of  cured  hay  per 

acre 

Peas 

Oats 

1919 

1920 

1921 

1922 

Average 

90  lbs. 

48  lbs. 

2.74 

2.72 

2.30 

3.32 

2.77 

The  best  time  to  cut  for  hay  is  when  the  oats  are  in  the 
milk  stage.  The  peas  are  then  usually  beginning  to  develop 
pods.  If  there  is  much  delay  the  hay  is  liable  to  be  too  straw- 
like since  oats  develop  very  rapidly  when  the  seeds  begin  to 
form.  If  the  hay  is  well  made,  it  will  be  palatable  and  nutri- 
tious. Good  oat  and  pea  hay  has  nearly  as  much  digestible 
protein  per  100  pounds  of  dry  matter  as  clover  hay  but  lacks 
its  palatability.  Although  not  the  equal  of  oat  and  pea  hay 
in  feeding  value,  oats  alone  makes  a fair  quality  of  hay  if 
taken  at  the  right  time. 

What  is  Sudan  Grass? 

Sudan  grass1  is  the  most  recent  grass  crop  added  to  Wis- 
consin’s forage  list.  It  belongs  to  the  sorghum  family ; and 

i Sudan  grass  was  first  introduced  into  this  country  by  the  Federal  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  Office  of  Forage  Crop  Investigations,  on  March  16, 
1909.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  widely  distributed  with  the  result  that  it 
has  become  an  important  hay  and  pasture  crop  in  the  southwestern  portion 
of  the  United  States.  Seven  years  of  field  testing  by  the  Agronomy  Depart- 
ment of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  has  demonstrated  that  Sudan  grass 
is  adapted  to  Wisconsin  conditions  for  emergency  hay  purposes. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  359 


one  reason  cattle  relish  it  is  because  of  its  sweet  flavor.  When 
seeded  in  rows  and  cultivated,  individual  plants  may  grow  to 
a height  of  eight  feet,  but  when  drilled  in  like  grain  or 
seeded  broadcast,  it  rarely  grows  taller  than  six  feet.  The 
flowering  stems  are  slender  and  bear  numerous  leaves.  It 

tillers  or  puts  forth 
shoots  very  freely.  This 
adds  greatly  to  the 
leafiness  of  the  crop 
and  to  the  lengths  of 
time  during  which  it 
may  be  cut  for  hay.  A 
single  plant  when 
growing  in  a fertile 
soil  will  produce  from 
fifty  to  a hundred  til- 
lers or  shoots.  It  is  an 
annual  plant  and, 
therefore,  must  be 
seeded  each  season.  It 
is  strictly  fibrous  root- 
ed like  the  common 
grains,  and  hence  is 
able  to  spread  only 
through  its  seeds.  Its 
seed  head  is  a spread- 
ing panicle  like  oats 
ranging  in  color  all  the 
way  from  greenish 
yellow  to  a pinkish 

FIG.  1.— SUDAN  GRASS  IN  FULL  BLOOM 


The  best  stage  to  cut  Sudan  grass  for  hay 
lies  between  early  and  full  bloom. 


purple. 


Best  Growing  Environment 


Climate — All  sorghums  make  their  best  growth  in  a warm 
climate  or  in  regions  that  have  a relatively  warm  growing 
season.  Sudan  grass  is  no  exception  to  this  rule.  In  regions 


Emergency  Hay  Crops  5 

where  the  growing  season  is  long,  from  three  to  four  cut- 
tings may  be  taken.  Unless  grown  on  lighter  soils,  Sudan 
grass  is  not  well  adapted  to  the  northern  portion  of  Wiscon- 
sin. Throughout  the  southern  and  central  portions  of  the 
state,  at  least  one  good  cutting  of  hay  may  be  secured  and 
sometimes  there  is  sufficient  after  growth  to  make  a second 
cutting.  However,  it  is  usually  best  to  pasture  the  second 
growth. 

One  of  the  best  things  about  Sudan  grass  is  its  ability  to 
withstand  long  periods  of  drouth  without  being  seriously 
affected.  Although  its  growth  will  be  somewhat  retarded, 
still  it  makes  at  least  a fair  return.  Its  drouth  resisting 
ability,  together  with  its  vigorous  feeding  habits,  adapts  it 
to  the  sandier  soils  which  are  inclined  to  dry  out  earlier  in 
the  season. 

Soil.— When  grown  upon  a rich  clay  loam  soil  Sudan  grass 
yields  maximum  returns.  However,  it  will  grow  upon  a wide 
range  of  soils  from  sands  to  clays.  Upon  the  poorer  soils  it 
makes  a better  growth  than  most  hay  plants.  Unlike  the 
legumes,  it  is  not  intolerant  to  acid  soils.  Sudan  grass,  how- 
ever, is  not  adapted  to  cold,  wet  soils  and  will  produce  prac- 
tically no  returns  upon  them.  It  requires  warmth  which  is 
not  found  in  wet,  muggy  soils.  All  such  soils  should  be  well 
drained  before  any  attempt  is  made  to  grow  this  crop. 

Growing  Sudan  Grass 

The  Right  Seed  Bed. — The  soil  for  Sudan  grass  should  be 
well  prepared.  Either  spring  or  fall  plowing  gives  good  re- 
sults. In  either  case  harrow  the  soil  thoroughly  before  seed- 
ing in  order  to  keep  the  weeds  down.  This  can  be  success- 
fully done  since  the  crop  is  not  seeded  before  corn  planting 
dates.  The  farmer  growing  Sudan  grass  should  give  it  a 
seed  bed  equal  to  that  for  corn.  In  the  case  of  spring  plow- 
ing, it  is  well  to  compact  the  soil  so  as  to  firm  it.  This  will 
favor  both  germination  of  the  seed  and  root  development. 

The  Best  Seeding  Dates. — As  a cold  soil  does  not  favor  the 
growth  of  Sudan  grass,  there  is  nothing  to  be  gained  through 
early  seedings  of  the  crop.  Numerous  trials  at  the  experi- 
mental farms  have  sht>wn  that  seedings  made  from  about  the 
middle  of  May  up  to  the  middle  of  June  give  the  greatest 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  359 


hay  returns,.  Early  seedings,  made  during  the  latter  part  of 
April  or  the  first  week  in  May  do  not  seem  to  recover  from 
the  dwarfing  effects  of  lower  temperatures.  Another  serious 
effect  of  early  seeding  is  rapid  weed  development  due  to  the 
slow  growth  of  the  Sudan  grass.  Seedings  have  been  made 
as  late  as  the  first  week  in  July  with  good  results. 

How  to  Seed  Sudan  Grass. — For  Wisconsin  and  other  states 
having  similar  rainfall,  Sudan  grass  should  be  broadcasted  or 
drilled  in  like  the  small  grains.  Experiments  show  that  the 
hay  is  of  finer  quality  and  the  yields  are  usually  better  than 
when  grown  in  cultivated  rows.  Furthermore,  solid  seeding 
saves  the  labor  of  cultivation.  In  regions  that  lack  moisture, 
crops  grown  in  cultivated  rows  give  best  results. 

In  seeding  the  crop  either  the  common  grain  drill  or  the 
broadcast  seeder  may  be  used  satisfactorily.  Well-cleaned 
Sudan  grass  seed  will  feed  freely  through  either  of  these 
machines  and  will  be  distributed  sufficiently  well  to  secure 
a good  stand.  On  soils  that  are  inclined  to  pack  following 
heavy  rains,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  seed  too  deep.  The 
best  seeding  depth  is  about  an  inch.  On  the  lighter  soils, 
however,  the  seed  may  be  sown  at  a depth  of  from  2 to  2 
inches.  Deep  seeding  will  not  cause  the  crop  to  root  deeper 
since  most  of  the  roots  form  at  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

Rate  of  Seeding. — Light  rates  of  seeding  seem  to  give  as 
good  results  as  heavy  rates  on  account  of  its  strong  tillering 
habit.  Nothing  can  be  said  to  favor  rates  of  seeding  over  25 
pounds  an  acre.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  quality  of 
the  seed  should  determine  the  rate.  On  soils  that  will  grow 
good  crops  of  grain  and  corn,  the  best  rate  of  seeding  Sudan 
grass  is  about  20  pounds  to  the  acre.  Very  little  difference 
has  been  noted  in  yields  of  hay  from  20  pound  and  25  pound 
rates  of  seeding.  More  than  these  amounts  are  not  recom- 
mended. If  the  crop  is  to  be  grown  in  cultivated  rows  about 
24  inches  apart,  5 pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  will  be  enough. 


Table  II. — Yields  of  Sudan  Grass  Hay  Per  Acre 


Acre  rate  ol 
seeding 

Tons  of 

cured  hay  per 

acre 

1916  | 

1917  | 

1918 

| 1919  | 1920  | 

1921  | 

1922  | 

Average 

20  lbs. 

3.65  | 

3.06 

| 3.54  | 3.20  | 

3.01  | 

3.52  | 

! 3.33 

25  lbs 

2.59  | 

| 3.51  | 

2.78 

| 3.30  | 2.86  | 

1 

1 

3.01 

30  lbs. 

1 

1 

| 3.21  | 3.70  | 

3.40  | 

1 

| 3.43 

Seeded  in  f-6"  rows 

2.65 

| 4.00  | 

2.13 

1 2.72  | | 

2.94  | 

1 

2.88 

Emergency  Hay  Crops 


7 


Harvesting  for  Hay 

Sudan  grass  is  easily  made  into  a bright,  leafy  and  palatable 
hay.  In  good  haying  weather,  it  may  be  cut  in  the  morning 
and  raked  up  the  next  day.  Owing  to  the  coarseness  of  the 
stems,  they  do  not  dry  out  as  quickly  as  do  the  leaves,  and 
unless  one  is  careful  the  hay  may  be  stacked  or  placed  in  the 
barns  when  it  is  still  too  moist.  Care  should  be  taken  to  see 
that  the  stems  are  sufficiently  dry  before  the  hay  is  stored 
otherwise  heating  will  result.  The  hay  may  be  dried  thor- 
oughly without  danger  of  losing  the  leaves. 

Although  there  is  a best  time  to  make  hay,  the  period  dur- 
ing which  Sudan  grass  may  be  cut  without  suffering  much 
in  quality  is  longer  than  for  the  average  hay  grass.  This  is 
due  to  the  numerous  tillers  that  are  successively  produced 
and  hence  there  is  always  a large  amount  of  immature  growth 
which  adds  to  the  quality  of  the  hay.  This  feature  is  very 
important  since  hay  crops  cannot  always  be  harvested  at  the 
right  time  to  make  the  best  product. 

Although  Sudan  grass  will  produce  a second  cutting  in 
sections  where  the  growing  season  is  sufficiently  long,  but 
one  crop  can  be  expected  in  Wisconsin.  It  should,  therefore, 
be  allowed  to  make  the  most  desirable  growth  before  cutting. 
Experiments  show  that  the  best  hay  and  the  greatest  yields 
are  obtained  if  the  crop  is  taken  somewhere  between  the 
time  when  the  first  heads  appear  and  when  it  is  completely 
headed.  In  an  average  season,  the  cutting  period  will  be 
reached  in  about  60  to  70  days  following  seeding. 

Sudan  Grass  Hay 

Sudan  is  a heavy  yielding  hay  grass.  In  this  respect  it 
clearly  outranks  millet  as  an  emergency  hay  crop.  Yields 
ranging  from  2 to  4 tons  of  cured  hay  an  acre  have  been  se- 
cured from  one  cutting  in  Wisconsin.  According  to  Table  1, 
the  yield  to  the  acre  for  the  period  indicated  was  somewhat 
over  3 tons.  The  hay  is  relished  by  both  cattle  and  horses  and 
although  not  the  equal  of  clover  and  alfafa  hay,  still  it  makes 
a very  desirable  supplement  when  there  are  shortages  of  these 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  359 


hays.  One  of  the  greatest  objections  to  the  hay  is  its  coarse- 
ness, but  this  can  be  partially  overcome  by  cutting  the  crop 
a trifle  early  when  it  is  beginning  to  bloom. 

According  to  Tables  III  and  IV  the  hay  is  similar  in  com- 
position and  digestibility  to  common  foxtail  millet. 


Table  III. — Average  Percentage  Composition  of  Air  Dried  Hay  of  Emergency 

Hay  Crops. 


Kind  of  Hay 

Water 

Crude 

Protein 

Carboh 

Fiber 

ydrates 

N-free 

extract 

Fat 

Ash 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent  • 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Sudan  Grass 

11.6 

8.2 

26.9 

44.7 

1.6 

7.0 

Millets 

14.3 

8.3 

24.0 

44.3 

2.8 

6.3 

Oats 

12.0 

8.4 

28.3 

41.7 

2.8 

6.8 

Oats  & Peas 

16.6 

11.4 

25.6 

36.5 

2.6 

7.3 

Soybeans 

8.6 

16.0 

24.9 

39.1 

2.8 

8.6 

Eighteenth  Edition  of  Feeds  & Feeding — Table  I — Henry  & Morrison 


Table  IV. — Average  Digestible  Nutrients  in  Air  Dried  Hay  of  Emergency  Hay 

Crops 


Kind  of  Hay 

Total  dry 
matter  in 
100  lbs. 

Digestible  Nutrients  in  100 

lbs. 

Crude 

Protein 

Carbohy- 

drates 

Fat 

Total 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

Sudan  Grass 

88.4 

3.7 

45.7 

0.9 

i 51.4 

Millet 

85.7 

5.0 

46.0 

1.8 

55.0 

Oats 

88.0 

4.5 

38.1 

1.7  ! 

[ 46.4 

Oats  & Peas 

83.4 

8.3 

37.1 

1.5 

48.8 

Soybeans 

91.4 

11.7 

39.2 

1.2 

| 53.6 

Eighteenth  Edition  of  Feeds  & Feeding — Table  III — Henry  & Morrison 


Since  Sudan  grass  hay  practically  equals  millet  hay  in 
feeding  value  and  since  it  makes  larger  yields  of  a more  palat- 
able hay,  it  is  the  superior  emergency  grass  hay  crop  of  the 
two  wherever  it  can  be  successfully  grown. 

Sudan  Grass  for  Pasture 

Sudan  grass  can  be  used  to  supplement  regular  pastures. 
Although  the  crop  has  not  been  used  this  way  to  any  great 
extent  in  Wisconsin,  some  farmers  have  pastured  it  with  con- 
siderable success.  They  find  that  it  is  very  palatable  in  the 
green  it'ate  and  recovers  quickly  when  eaten  off  on  account 
of  its  rapid  growth.  Moreover,  it  is  not  easily  uprooted  by 
cattle  and  tramping  does  not  seem  to  injure  it  seriously.  In 
addition,  it  comes  on  at  a time  when  the  regular  pastures  are 
beginning  to  fail.  For  these  reasons,  it  is  a desirable  supple- 
mentary pasture  crop. 


Emergency  Hay  Crops 


9 


When  used  for  pasture,  the  stock  should  not  be  turned  in 
until  the  grass  is  at  least  a foot  high.  From  that  time  on, 
pasturing  may  be  continuous,  although  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  allow  it  to  be  eaten  too  close  to  the  ground.  If  used 
judiciously,  Sudan  grass  will  aid  materially  in  carrying  suc- 
cessful pasturage  through  the  drier  months  of  the  summer. 

While  this  crop  may  be  pastured  with  comparative  safety, 
there  is  a slight  danger  similar  to  that  resulting  from  pastur- 
ing sorghums,  known  as  prussic  acid  poisoning.  According 
to  the  Federal  Department  of  Agriculture,  only  three  authen- 
tic cases  of  such  poisoning  have  been  reported.  In  each  case 
the  poisoning  resulted  from  pasturing  the  frosted  crop  and 
not  from  feeding  the  hay.  The  only  danger  seems  to  be  when 
cattle  pasture  on  a crop  that  has  been  severely  affected  with 
drouth.  The  best  way  to  dispose  of  the  aftermath  or  second 
growth  of  Sudan  grass,  the  first  crop  of  which  has  been  used 
for  hay,  is  to  pasture  it.  It  is  advisable  to  pasture  it  off  be- 
fore severe  frosts,  otherwise  sickness  may  follow  owing  to 
prussic  acid  poisoning. 

Sudan  Grass  and  Soybeans  for  Hay 

The  digestible  protein  content  of  Sudan  grass  hay  is  not 
high  and  for  that  reason  it  is  not  very  satisfactory  for  a dairy 
herd.  Trials  with  Sudan  grass  and  soybeans  gave  very 
promising  results  for  a hay  mixture  as  shown  in  Table  V. 


Table  V. — Sudan  Grass  and  Soybean  Mixtures  for  Hay 


Variety  of 
soybean 

Seeding  rates 

* Tons  of  cured  hay 

per  ; 

acre 

Sudan  grass 

Soybeans 

1919  | 

1920 

1921  | 1922 

Average 

Medium  Green 

10  lbs. 

60  lbs.  | 

3.30  j 

| 3.24 

1 . 

3.27 

10  lbs. 

90  lbs. 

4.13  1 

3.46 

3.79 

Manchu 

10  lbs. 

60  lbs. 

1 3.23 

2.80 

1 . 

3.01 

10  lbs. 

90  lbs. 

4.34  | 

4.. 6 9 

4.51 

Early  Black 

10  lbs. 

90  lbs. 

3.49  1 

4.00 

3.74 

When  seeded  in  a soybean  mixture,  Sudan  grass  should 
not  be  used  at  more  than  half  the  regular  rate.  Ten  pounds 
of  seed  is  sufficient.  The  later  maturing  varieties  of  soy- 
beans for  Wisconsin,  such  as  the  Medium  Green,  Manchu,  Ito 
San  and  Mid-West,  are  better  than  early  ones  like  the  Early 
Black.  This  variety  tends  to  lose  many  of  the  lower  leaves 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  359 


because  it  reaches  more  complete  maturity  before  the  crop  is 
suitable  for  cutting.  Although  60  pounds  or  a bushel  of  the 
beans  have  given  good  results,  the  trials  show  that  90  pounds 
or  a bushel  and  a half  of  the  beans  give  a higher  yield,  and 
the  quality  is  better  since  more  of  the  hay  is  leguminous. 
The  Sudan  grass  in  the  mixture  aids  in  curing  the 
beans  by  preventing  too  much  matting  of  the  leaves 
during  curing.  The  mixture  should  be  cut  for  hay 


FIG.  2.— SUDAN  GRASS  AND  SOYBEANS  GROWING  TOGETHER 
This  makes  a good  emergency  hay  mixture;  Sudan  grass  with  soybeans 
adds  to  the  yield  of  hay  and  aids  in  curing  the  beans. 

when  the  Sudan  grass  is  fairly  well  headed.  It  is  advisable 
to  inoculate  the  soybeans,  particularly  when  the  mixture  is 
grown  upon  sandy  soils.  This  combination  is  especially 
adapted  to  the  lighter  soils  where  the  Sudan  grass  will 
not  make  such  a smothering  growth.  Experiments  with 
this  mixture  have  shown  that  one  third  of  the  hay  will  be  soy- 
beans. 


Emergency  Hay  Crops 


I I 

Growing  Sudan  Grass  Seed 

In  southern  Wisconsin,  Sudan  grass  will  set  seed  abundant- 
ly. Losses  due  to  shattering  are  small  for  the  heads  retain 
the  seeds  very  well  even  beyond  complete  maturity.  If 
Sudan  grass  is  intended  for  seed  it  should  be  sown  the  same 
as  when  grown  for  hay.  When  the  seeds  are  mature,  the 
crop  should  be  cut.  Although  the  plants  are  still  quite  succu- 
lent at  this  time,  it  is  best  to  cut  with  a grain  binder,  and 
allow  the  bundles  to  cure  in  the  shock.  When  the  seed  heads 
have  thus  cured  sufficiently,  thresh  with  a grain  separator, 
taking  care  to  regulate  the  air  blast  so  that  the  seeds  will 
not  be  blown  out  with  the  straw. 


FIG.  3.— SUDAN  GRASS  SEED  CAN  BE  PRODUCED  IN  WISCONSIN 
When  the  seed  is  mature,  the  crop  is  cut  with  a grain  binder  and  cured 
in  the  shock. 


Good  clean  seed  will  weigh  from  35  pounds  to  40  pounds 
a bushel  although  weights  vary  from  about  25  pounds  to  40 
pounds.  The  average  yield  of  seed  to  an  acre  will  vary  be- 
tween 300  pounds  and  500  pounds.  The  best  rates  of  seeding 
for  hay  yields  also  appear  to  be  the  best  for  seed  yields. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  359 


Table  VI. — Sudan  Gbass  Seed  Yields 


Seeding  rates  per  acre 

Pounds  of  seed  per  acre 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Average 

20  lbs. 
25  lbs. 

451.22 

432.29 

426.26 

346.66 

327.80 

392.31 

401.76 

390.42 

The  question  is  frequently  asked  whether  there  is  any 
danger  of  the  soil  becoming  infested  with  Johnson  grass  if 
southern  grown  seed  is  used.  Although  Johnson  grass  grown 
in  the  south  is  a weed  pest  in  many  sections  owing  to  its  per- 
ennial nature  and  manner  of  spreading,  it  behaves  strictly  as 
an  annual  in  the  northern  states,  hence  there  is  no  danger 
whatever.  Most  of  the  seed  used  in  the  North  is  southern 
grown  since  the  northern  states  have  not  as  yet  developed  a 
Sudan  grass  seed  industry.  A slight  amount  of  Johnson  grass 
seed  with  Sudan  grass  seed  is  no  great  disadvantage  to  the 
northern  grower. 

Sudan  Grass  as  a Smother  Crop 

Owing  to  the  vigorous,  rapid  growth  of  Sudan  grass  both 
in  root  and  top,  it  is  an  admirable  smother  crop  for  annual 
weeds  and  for  some  perennials,  particularly  quack  grass. 
Since  seeding  may  be  delayed  until  the  last  week  in  June,  it 
may  be  combined  very  effectively  with  a partial  fallow  system 
for  the  control  of  weeds.  If  the  fallowing  period  is  reason- 
ably dry  so  that  the  quack  grass  is  weakened,  it  is  possible 
to  eradicate  it  in  a single  season  by  following  the  fallow  with 
a heavy  seeding  of  Sudan  as  late  as  the  last  of  June  or  the 
first  week  in  July.  This  treatment  may  be  repeated  the  se- 
cond season,  or  the  field  may  be  planted  to  a cultivated  crop 
like  corn. 

The  infested  field  should  be  plowed  as  late  as  possible  the 
previous  fall  to  expose  the  quack  grass  rootstocks  to  freez- 
ing. The  following  spring  the  soil  should  be  worked  suffi- 
ciently to  prevent  the  quack  from  making  any  leaf  growth. 
By  so  doing  the  underground  stems  by  which  the  grass 
spreads  so  efficiently  are  weakened  and  often  destroyed 
through  starvation.  If  the  fallow  is  continued  up  to  the  last 
week  in  June  and  followed  with  a heavy  seeding  of  Sudan 
grass,  control  is  very  effective  and  a crop  of  hay  may  also  be 
secured. 


Emergency  Hay  Crops 


13 


Millets  for  Hay 

Millets  have  been  used  as  a hay  substitute  for  a long  time. 
Of  the  numerous  forms  of  this  crop,  the  foxtail  varieties  are 
best  suited  to  Wisconsin  for  forage.  The  common  foxtail 
millet  is  the  superior  variety  for  hay.  It  is  the  earliest  ma- 
turing and  can  be  made  into  hay  when  the  weather  is  more 
suitable  to  hay  making.  It  is  more  palatable  since  it  is  finer 
stemmed  and  more  leafy.  Millet,  like  Sudan  grass,  is  a late 
seeded  emergency  hay  crop.  Since,  however,  Sudan  grass 
outyields  millet  and  is  superior  in  quality  it  is  quite  probable 
that  it  will  replace  millet  to  a large  extent.  In  every  trial 
made  at  the  Experimental  Farm,  Sudan  grass  has  outyielded 
millet  by  at  least  a ton  of  cured  hay  to  an  acre. 

Common  foxtail  millet  may  be  seeded  anywhere  from  corn 
planting  time  up  to  the  last  week  in  June.  Earlier  seedings 
usually  fail  because  millet,  like  Sudan  grass,  requires  a warm 
soil.  The  seed  may  be  either  drilled  in  or  broadcasted  at 
the  rate  of  3 to  4 pecks  an  acre,  care  being  taken  not  to  seed 
too  deep. 

The  best  hay  is  made  from  millet  if  the  crop  is  cut  when 
it  is  fairly  well  headed.  Beyond  this  stage,  the  stems  become 
hard  and  woody  and  much  of  the  hay  value  is  lost  in  the 
formation  of  seed.  Millet  is  easily  made  into  hay,  no  greater 
difficulty  being  experienced  than  in  making  timothy  hay.  A 
good  stand  of  millet  will  yield  at  least  2 tons  of  cured  hay  an 
acre.  Although  fairly  palatable,  millet  hay  is  not  in  a class 
with  either  soybean,  pea  and  oat,  and  soybean  and  Sudan 
grass  hays.  It  should  supplement  other  roughages  rather 
than  be  fed  continuously  for  any  period  of  time. 

Soybeans  for  Hay 

The  soybean  is  the  best  hay  substitute  for  the  dairyman 
when  there  are  shortages  in  alfalfa  and  clover.  Unlike 
Sudan  jgrass  and  the  millets,  soybeans  are  leguminous  and 
provide  a hay  relatively  high  in  digestible  protein  and  total 
digestible  nutrients.  (See  Tables  III  and  IV.)  Soybean 
hay  ranks  with  alfalfa  in  this  respect  and  is  somewhat  super- 
ior to  red  clover.  In  addition  to  its  good  qualities  for  a hay,  a 
crop  of  soybeans,  if  properly  inoculated,  has  a beneficial  effect 
upon  the  soil  by  fixing  atmospheric  nitrogen. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  359 


Best  Varieties  for  Hay 

Soybean  varieties  for  seed  production  are  also  suitable  for 
hay.  The  Ito  San,  Manchu,  Wisconsin  Early  Black,  Black 
Eyebrow,  Mid-West,  and  Medium  Early  Green  varieties  are 
all  suited  for  hay  production  in  Wisconsin.  For  the  northern 
and  central  portions  of  the  state,  the  Early  Blacks  are  most 
widely  used,  particularly  upon  the  heavy  soils.  For  the  light- 
er soils  in  this  section,  the  other  varieties  are  also  advised 
with  perhaps  the  exception  of  the  Medium  Greens  and  the 
Mid-Wests.  In  the  southern  portion  of  the  state,  Manchus 
and  Ito  Sans  are  well  adapted  to  heavy  soils,  while  upon 
the  lighter  soils,  later  varieties  such  as  the  Medium  Greens 
and  Mid-Wests  are  excellent. 

Growing  Soybeans  for  Hay 

Soybeans  are  not  a difficult  crop  to  grow  for  hay.  No  le- 
gume is  so  widely  adapted  to  various  soils.  Soybeans  grow 
well  on  both  heavy  and  light  soils  and  are  valuable  for  very 
sandy  soils.  The  crop  is  not  sensitive  to  an  acid  soil  and  so 
may  be  profitably  grown  without  liming.  Even  well  drained 
marsh  soils  will  grow  soybeans  successfully. 

For  best  results,  soybeans  should  be  planted  about  the 
same  time  as  corn.  They  may  be  seeded  with  success  up  to 
the  third  week  in  June.  If,  following  the  removal  of  early 
canning  peas,  the  soil  is  disced  and  seeded  to  soybeans  by  the 
first  of  July,  a fair  yield  of  hay  may  sometimes  be  secured. 
The  early  plantings  are  best,  however,  since  the  crop  grows 
better  during  the  early  part  of  the  season  and  reaches  ma- 
turity when  the  haying  weather  is  most  desirable. 

Soybeans  for  hay  may  be  either  seeded  in  cultivated  rows 
like  corn  or  drilled  in  like  grain.  On  heavy  soils,  the  latter 
method  is  usually  preferable,  while  upon  the  lighter  soils 
seeding  in  cultivated  rows  should  be»more  frequently  prac- 
ticed, since  on  these  soils  the  crop  seems  to  do  better  under 
cultivation.  Planting  in  rows  requires  from  one-half  to 
three-quarters  of  a bushel  of  seed  an  acre.  For  a drilled-in 
crop  the  amount  of  seed  for  an  acre  varies  from  one  and  one  quar- 


Emergency  Hay  Crops 


15 


ter  to  two  bushels  depending  upon  the  size  of  the  seed  and  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  The  corn  planter,  set  either  at  the  regu- 
lar width  for  corn  or  narrowed  up  as  desired,  may  be  used 
for  row  planting. 


FIG.  5.— SOYBEANS  GROWING  IN  CULTIVATED  ROWS 
Soybeans  may  be  grown  in  cultivated  rows,  particularly  upon  soils  where 
weeds  are  bound  to  give  trouble. 

Soybeans  should  not  be  planted  too  deep,  particularly  on 
heavy  soils,  otherwise  the  plants  may  not  come  up  well. 
From  an  inch  to  not  more  than  an  inch  and  a half  is  usually 
deep  enough.  The  seed  should  be  inoculated  with  soybean 
culture  before  planting  for  best  results. 

Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  protect  broadcasted 
or  drilled-in  beans  from  the  weeds.  Two  good  practices  may 
be  used.  First,  since  soybeans  are  a fairly  late  seeded  crop, 
many  of  the  weeds  may  be  destroyed  by  keeping  the  soil  well 
worked  previous  to  planting.  Second,  either  the  light  harrow 
or  the  weeder  may  be  used  effectively  without  much  injury 
to  the  crop  when  the  plants  are  from  2 to  6 inches  high.  The 
best  time  to  do  this  is  in  the  afternoon  of  a sunshiny  day.  The 
plants  are  then  limp  or  more  wilted  and  the  harrow  will  pass 
through  readily  without  breaking  them  off. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  359 


Making  Soybean  Hay 

Soybeans  should  be  cut  for  hay  before  the  lower  leaves 
start  to  fall.  At  this  stage,  the  lower  seed  pods  are  well 
formed  and  partially  filled.  Delaying  beyond  this  stage  pro- 
duces a hay  with  woody  stems  which  cattle  refuse  to  eat. 
Soybean  hay  is  not  difficult  to  make  if  the  weather  is  at  all 
favorable.  The  crop  should  be  cut  with  a mower  when  the 
dew  has  dried  off  and  then  allowed  to  thoroughly  wilt  in  the 
swath.  Every  precaution  should  be  taken  -to  preserve  the 
leaves  since  they  have  the  greatest  feeding  value. 


FIG.  6.— MAKING  SOYBEAN  HAY 

Largest  yields  and  hay  of  best  quality  are  obtained  by  cutting  soybeans 
when  the  lower  pods  are  well  formed. 

Following  the  wilt  in  the  swath,  soybeans  should  be  raked 
into  windrows  and  if  sufficient  labor  is  available,  made  into 
small  cocks  and  allowed  to  cure  until  fit  to  store.  This  will 
make  the  best  grade  of  hay.  Before  it  is  stacked  or  stored  in 
the  barn,  the  hay  should  be  thoroughly  dry.  The  cocks 
should  be  turned  over  and  allowed  to  dry  for  a few  hours 
before  hauling.  However,  in  handling  large  acreages  with 
limited  labor,  a fair  grade  of  hay  can  be  made  directly  from 
the  windrow. 


I 


UNIVERSITY  OF  WISCONSIN,  MADISON 


Strawberry  Culture  In  Wisconsin 


James  G.  Moore 

THE  STRAWBERRY  is  the  most  important  small  fruit  grown 
in  Wisconsin,  both  commercially  and  for  home  use.  The 
reasons  for  its  great  popularity  are,  ease  of  culture,  earliness,  short 
period  between  planting  and  fruiting,  comparative  freedom  from  pests, 
adaptability  to  varying  conditions,  and  the  great  popularity  of  the 
fruit  itself.  It  is  grown  for  home  use  in  all  parts  of  the  state.  Com- 
mercially it  is  largely  confined  to  areas  reasonably  near  large 
markets,  but  in  a few  sections  it  is  produced  strictly  for  whole- 
sale markets. 


Choose  Plantation  Site  Carefully 

The  selection  of  the  site  has  much  to  do  with  success,  particularly 
where  this  fruit  is  grown  commercially.  It  is  an  important  factor  in 
earliness  and  prevention  of  injury  from  late  spring  frosts.  If  ex- 
ceptionally early  fruit,  which  brings  maximum  prices,  is  desired,  safety 


To  Succeed  With  Strawberries  

Select  site  for  plantation  with  care. 

Prepare  the  soil  thoroughly. 

Keep  the  soil  fertile. 

Plant  adapted  varieties. 

Use  only  good  plants. 

Set  plants  properly. 

Keep  the  soil  thoroughly  tilled. 

Protect  plants  and  fruit  by  using  a mulch. 
Place  only  good  fruit  on  the  market. 

Make  the  package  attractive. 


Strawberry  Culture  In  Wisconsin 


3 


from  frost  injury  must  be  sacrificed  to  a considerable  degree.  For 
such  a crop  select  a site  with  a southern  exposure  and  preferably 
with  a light  soil.  If  earliness  is  not  of  prime  importance,  choose  a 
northern  slope  to  retard  the  flowing  period,  which  lessens  the  danger 
from  injury  from  late  frosts,  and  causes  later  ripening  of  the  fruit.  The 
slope  should  be  gentle  so  as  not  to  favor  serious  soil  washing.  The 
selection  of  the  site  for  the  home  plantation  is  not  so  important. 
Nearness  to  the  house  is  usually  of  more  importance  than  either 
earliness  or  greater  safety  from  frost  injury. 


Select  as  Good  a Soil  as  Possible 

There  is  no  one  “best  soil”  for  strawberries.  The  crop  is  grown 
commercially  on  soil  of  practically  all  types,  ranging  from  rather  light 
sands  to  heavy  clay  and  black  prairie  loams.  On  each,  excellent  re- 
sults are  secured  if  proper  cultural  practices  are  followed  and  the 
right  varieties  grown.  For  commercial  plantations,  a deep,  rich,  well- 
drained  sandy  loam  is  usually  preferred. 

Certain  qualities  are  necessary  in  any  soil  if  good  results  are  to  be 
secured.  Ability  to  retain  moisture  is  of  first  importance,  as  the  pro- 
duction of  heavy  crops  demands  large  amounts  of  moisture.  Ordinarily 
rains  at  fruiting  time  are  insufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  crop.  This 
is  especially  true  if  the  greater  part  of  the  spring  rains  has  run  off 
instead  of  being  absorbed  by  the  soil.  The  soil  should  be  in  condition 
to  catch  and  hold  the  moisture.  The  ability  of  the  soil  to  do  this  de- 
pends upon  its  texture,  organic  content  and  physical  condition.  Water 
runs  off  a soil  with  compact  surface.  Lumpy,  cloddy  soils  lose  their 
moisture  much  more  readily  than  those  of  fine  tilth.  Decaying  vegetable 
(organic)  matter  in  the  soil  increases  its  water-holding  capacity.  Soils 
which  do  not  and  cannot  be  made  to  possess  these  requisites  should  be 
avoided  in  selecting  a site  for  growing  strawberries. 

The  plant-food  content  of  the  soil  should  not  be  overlooked.  Com- 
paratively fertile  soils  are  most  desirable.  If  a soil  is  ideal  in  other 
respects,  however,  deficiency  in  plant  food  should  not  deter  one  from 
selecting  it  for  a strawberry  plantation,  as  such  deficiency  can  be  over- 
come. 

If  a soil  selected  does  not  contain  a liberal  amount  of  decaying 
vegetable  matter,  it  should  be  applied  in  preparing  the  soil  to  receive 
the  plants.  Such  material,  in  addition  to  influencing  the  water-holding 
ability  of  the  soil,  bears  an  important  relation  to  its  productiveness. 
This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  new  land  gives  such  satisfactory  re- 
sults when  planted  to  small  fruits. 

Good  drainage  is  necessary.  While  an  abundance  of  soil  moisture 
is  advantageous,  an  excess  is  very  harmful.  The  water  table  should  be 
a sufficient  distance  below  the  surface  to  allow  for  good  root  develop- 
ment. It  should  also  be  possible  for  excessive  soil  moisture  to  be 
carried  away  readily. 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  360 


Thorough  Soil  Preparation  Pays 

Good  soil  preparation  will  repay  the  grower  in  lessened  work  later 
on  and  usually  produces  larger  crops  of  finer  fruit  than  if  it  is  poorly 
done. 

Four  things  in  particular  need  to  be  taken  into  account  in  prepar- 
ing the  soil.  These  are:  the  control  of  pests;  the  plant  food  and 

organic  matter  content  of  the  soil;  and  the  tilth.  Preferably  the  tract 
chosen  should  have  grown  a cultivated  crop  one  or  two  years  before 
being  planted  to  strawberries. 

The  cultivation  lessens  the  danger  of  injury  from  the  white  grub ; 
weeds  are  less  likely  to  prove  troublesome;  and-  a good  tilth  is  more 
easily  secured  under  such  conditions.  If  it  is  necessary  to  use  sod  land 
it  should  be  spaded  or  plowed  during  the  summer  or  fall  previous  to 
planting  so  as  to  give  as  much  chance  as  possible  for  the  sod  to  rot. 

Liberal  amounts  of  plant  food  are  essential  to  the  production  of 
large  crops.  There  is  little  danger  of  getting  a strawberry  soil  too 
rich.  In  practically  all  cases  it  will  be  desirable  to  increase  the  plant 
food  at  the  time  of  preparing  the  soil.  Most  growers  prefer  to  use  well 
rotted  manure  for  this  purpose.  It  is  usually  more  economical  to  sup- 
plement the  manure  with  commercial  fertilizer.  If  necessary  to  use 
coarse  (unrotted)  manure,  it  should  be  applied  in  preparing  the  soil 
for  the  crop  preceding  the  strawberry.  If  fairly  well  rotted  it  may  be 
applied  the  fall  preceding  setting  of  the  plantation  and  plowed  under. 
Well  rotted  manure  is  ordinarily  applied  before  plowing  in  the  spring. 
If  very  fine,  it  may  be  used  as  a top  dressing  after  plowing  and  worked 
into  the  soil. 


No  Set  Rule  To  Follow 

So  much  depends  upon  the  natural  fertility  of  the  soil  and  its 
previous  cropping  and  fertilization  that  no  general  formula  for  the  ap- 
plication of  fertilizer  would  apply  in  all  cases.  Growers  will  find  it 
necessary  to  determine  largely  for  themselves  by  field  trials  what  is 
lacking  and  then  increase  the  element  or  elements  which  are  deficient. 

The  amount  of  manure  used  varies  greatly.  The  average  applica- 
tion is  from  ten  to  twenty  tons  or  loads  per  acre.  Some  growers  use 
as  much  as  forty  loads  per  acre.  It  would  seem  to  be  more  economical, 
in  most  cases,  to  use  a smaller  amount  and  supplement  it  by  using  com- 
mercial fertilizers.  Possibly  a better  way  to  determine  the  amount  of 
manure  to  apply  would  be  on  the  basis  of  the  organic  matter  needed. 
Under  this  method  enough  manure  would  be  put  on,  if  available,  to 
give  the  desired  amount  of  organic  matter.  It  would  then  be  sup- 
plemented, if  desirable,  with  from  200  to  400  pounds  of  acid  phosphate 
and  possibly  50  to  100  pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia. 

Some  growers  prefer  a complete  commercial  fertilizer  either  used 
alone  or  supplementing  the  manure.  A fertilizer  containing  3 per  cent 


Strawberry  Culture  In  Wisconsin 


5 


nitrogen,  7 per  cent  phosphoric  acid  and  9 per  cent  potash,  called  a 
3-7-9  mixture  is  usually  chosen.  A mixed  fertilizer  of  this  composition 
may  be  bought  but  where  considerable  quantities  are  needed,  it  is 
usually  more  economical  to  purchase  the  materials  carrying  the  desired 
elements  and  mix  them  at  home.  When  used  without  manure  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  have  the  nitrogen  carried  in  two  forms — one  in  which  it  is 
readdy  available  and  the  other  more  slowly  available. 

It  is  impossible  to  state  just  what  amounts  would  give  best  results, 
but  Table  I is  suggestive  of  the  quantity  of  various  common  fertilizers 
which  will  furnish  desired  amounts  of  plant  food. 


Table  I. — Some  Febtilizers  and  Suggested  Rates  of  Application 


Fertilizer 

Per  cent 
strength 

Pounds 
per  acre 

Pounds 

element 

Nitrate  of  soda  

15  N 

100-200 

15-30  N 

sulphate  of  ammonia  

20  N 

100-200 

20-40  N 

Dried  blood  

14  N 

200-300 

28-42  N 

Vluriate  of  potash  

50  K20 

100-200 

41-82  R 

sulphate  of  potash  

48  K20 

100-200 

40-80  K 

Bone  meal  

21  P20B 

250-400 

23-37  P 

\.cid  phosphate  

15  P205 

350-500 

23-33  P 

N— Nitrogen;  K^O— -Potash ; P205  — Phosphoric  Acid; 
K — Potassium;  P — Phosphorus. 


•In  mixing  these  materials  to  make  the  3-7-9  fertilizer  recommend- 
ed it  is  possible  to  adjust  the  proportions  in  various  ways.  To  indicate 
how  the  problem  may  be  solved  two  such  mixtures  are  shown  in 
Table  II. 


Table  II. — Suggested  Fertilizer  Mixtures 


Fertilizer 


Mixture  I 

Nitrate  of  soda  

Acid  phosphate  .... 
Sulphate  of  potash 


Mixture  II 

Dried  blood  

Bone  meal  

Muriate  of  potash 


Per  cent 

Amount 

Pounds  of 

strength 

in  pounds 

plant  food 

15  ts 

100 

15N 

15  PA 

225 

35  PA 

48  K20 

95 

45  K20 

14  N 

150 

21  N 

21  p2o5 

125 

49  PA 

50  K20 

180 

63  K20 

6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  360 


In  these  formulas  if  nitrogen  is  to  be  carried  in  two  forms,  ap- 
proximately equal  amounts  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia 
and  dried  blood  should  be  used.  Choice  cotton  seed  meal  can  be  sub- 
stituted for  dried  blood.  To  give  the  same  amount  of  nitrogen,  double 
the  amount  of  cotton  seed  meal  should  be  used. 

There  is  practically  no  danger  of  increasing  any  of  the  elements 
to  an  injurious  extent  except  nitrogen.  An  excessive  amount  of  this 
element  has  a tendency  to  cause  heavy  vegetative  growth  at  the  ex- 
pense of  fruit  production.  When  used  as  supplementing  manure,  the 
amount  of  nitrogen  may  be  reduced.  In  doing  this  it  is  probably  best  to 
leave  out  the  less  readily  available  form. 

Commercial  fertilizers  should  be  put  on  after  plowing  and 
thoroughly  mixed  into  the  soil. 


Do  Not  Neglect  the  Organic  Matter 

Increased  amount  of  plant  food  in  the  soil  is  of  little  value  to 
plants  unless  there  is  an  abundance  of  organic  matter  present.  Fre- 
quently so-called  poor  soils  have  sufficient  plant  food  but  are  unpro- 
ductive because  of  insufficient  organic  matter.  As  previously  pointed 
out,  the  use  of  manure  is  the  common  method  of  increasing  the  organic 
matter  content  of  soil.  If  sufficient  manure  or  similar  litter  cannot  be 
secured  then  it  is  necessary  to  resort  to  green  manuring.  Any  crop 
which  produces  a large  vegetative  growth  in  a relatively  short  period 
may  be  used.  When  leguminous  crops  are  grown  for  green  manuring 
the  nitrogen  content  of  the  soil  is  also  increased.  Some  growers  supply 
organic  matter  largely  by  growing  clover  in  the  rotation  in  advance  of 
the  cultivated  crop  preceding  the  strawberries. 


Good  Tilth  is  Very  Important 

Soil  which  is  to  be  planted  to  strawberries  should  be  plowed  or 
spaded  fairly  deep.  The  heavier  types  of  soil  should  be  plowed  deeper 
than  the  lighter  ones.  Fall  plowing  is  desirable  particularly  on  heavy 
soils.  When  this  is  done  discing  or  shallow  plowing  should  be  the  first 
tillage  operation  in  the  spring. 

Thorough  harrowing,  planking,  or  other  cultivation  should  follow 
to  put  the  soil  in  as  fine  tilth  as  possible.  It  is  particularly  important 
that  the  upper  two  or  three  inches  be  loose  and  friable  in  order  that 
planting  may  be  facilitated  and  soil  moisture  conserved.  Some  soils 
may  be  so  loose  and  open  as  to  make  rolling  desirable.  If  done,  it 

should  be  followed  immediately  by  harrowing  to  retard  the  escape  of 
moisture. 


Strawberry  Culture  In  Wisconsin 


7 


How  to  Select  the  Plants 


Good  plants  are  necessary  for  the  best  results.  When  the  plants 
for  the  new  plantation  are  bought,  there  is  little  chance  for  selection 
but  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  grower  takes  the  plants  from  an  old 
plantation,  he  can  carefully  select  them.  Three  things  largely  de- 
termine the  desirability  of  a plant : Age,  character  of  the  root  system, 
and  freedom  from  pests. 

The  plants  should  be 
strong  and  vigorous,  aris- 
ing from  runners  of  the 
same  season  or  in  the  case 
of  spring  planting  from 
the  season  previous  to  the 
time  of  planting.  Old, 
fruited  plants  should  not 
be  used.  It  is  desirable  to 
have  a plant  with  good  top 
growth.  It  is  more  im- 
portant, however,  that  it 
possess  a good  root  system. 

A plant  with  a large 
healthy  root  system  and  a 
comparatively  small  top  is 
much  to  be  preferred  to 
one  in  which  these  con- 
ditions are  reversed.  The 
former  will  soon  develop  a 
large  top  while  the  latter 
will  find  much  difficulty  in 
putting  out  new  growth. 

Care  for  the  plants  properly  on  their  arrival.  Neglect  at  this  time 
frequently  results  in  failure  to  get  a good  stand.  Often  plants  are 
shipped  long  distances  or  are  delayed  in  transit  and  so  arrive  in  poor 
condition.  Lack  of  proper  attention  means  a loss  of  the  plants,  as  well 
as  time  and  labor.  Even  plants  arriving  in  good  condition  deteriorate 
rapidly  if  not  properly  cared  for. 

Remove  the  plants  from  the  package  as  soon  as  they  are  received 
and  heel  them  in.  This  process  consists  in  placing  the  plants  in  the 
soil  in  loosely  compact  rows.  Select  a location  protected  from  sun  and 
wind.  Spade  up  the  soil,  putting  it  in  the  same  condition  as  it  would  be 
if  the  plants  were  to  be  set  permanently.  Make  a broad  V-shaped 
trench  about  eight  inches  deep.  Open  the  bundles  and  distribute  the 
plants  along  the  trench  just  far  enough  apart  to  allow  the  root  system 
of  each  to  come  fully  in  contact  with  the  soil.  Refill  the  trench,  com- 
pressing the  soil,  being  careful  that  the  crowns  are  not  covered  nor  the 
upper  part  of  the  roots  exposed.  Place  the  variety  label  at  the  end  of 


FIG.  1. — ONLY  STRONG  PLANTS  ARE  WORTH 
PLANTING 


The 

weak. 


plant  at  the  left  is  too  young  and 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  360 


the  row  to  avoid  any  danger  of  mixing  varieties  later  on.  Water  the 
plants  thoroughly  after  heeling-in.  If  early  in  the  spring,  the  plants 
should  be  mulched  to  prevent  injury  from  freezing  and  in  this  way  may 


FIG.  2. — HEELING-IN  SAVES  PLANTS  AND  DISAPPOINTMENTS 
Plants  should  be  properly  heeled-in  as  soon  as  received. 

be  kept  for  some  time  without  being  injured.  However,  the  length  of 
time  they  are  left  heeled-in  should  be  as  short  as  possible. 

Spring  Planting  Usually  Best 

Spring  planting  is  usually  more  successful  under  Wisconsin  con- 
ditions. Sometimes  home  plantations  are  set  in  August  or  early  in 
September,  so  that  fruit  may  be  harvested  the  next  season.  This  pro- 
cedure is  questionable  and  in  commercial  plantings  is  to  be  dis- 
couraged. 

The  systems  of  setting  plants  vary  with  the  extent  of  the  planta- 
tions and  the  whims  of  the  grower.  Three  more  or  less  distinct  systems 
of  planting  and  various  modifications  of  these  are  in  use.  They  are  the' 
hill,  hedge  row,  and  matted  row  systems.  The  matted  row  is  used  al- 
most entirely  in  this  state.  In  this  system  the  runner  plants  are  spaced 
about  6 to  8 inches  apart  until  they  take  up  the  entire  area  devoted  to 
the  row. 

The  distance  between  plants  in  the  row  varies  primarily  with  the 
ability  of  the  plant  to  produce  runners  and  the  system  of  planting. 
Except  in  the  hill  system,  it  is  most  largely  dependent  upon  the  ability 
of  the  plant  to  produce  runners.  Some  varieties,  like  Senator  Dunlap 


Strawberry  Culture  In  Wisconsin 


9 


and  Sample,  throw  out  numerous  long  runners  and  will  need  to  be 
planted  farther  apart  than  the  Bubach,  Chesapeake  and  other  shy  plant- 
makers.  The  distance  between  plants  in  the  row  varies  from  fifteen  to 
thirty  inches.  The  most  common  distance  is  24  inches. 

System  of  planting  and  method  of  tillage  determine  the  distance  be- 
tween rows.  Where  hand  tillage  is  practiced,  rows  in  the  hill  and 
single-hedge  row  systems  may  be  30  inches  apart.  Thirty-six  inches  is 
about  the  minimum  for  the  double-hedge  row  and  matted  row.  Where 
horse  cultivation  is  used,  these  distances  will  need  to  be  increased  6 
to  12  inches.  The  usual  distance  for  the  matted  row,  when  horse 
cultivation  is  used,  is  3l/>  or  4 feet. 

The  number  of  plants  required  to  set  an  acre  varies  with  the  dis- 
tance of  planting.  Table  III  gives  the  number  for  various  distances  of 
planting. 


Table  III. — Number  of  Plants  Per  Acre  Planted  in  Hills,  Double- 
Hedge,  and  Matted-Row  Systems 


Distance 

between 

Plants 

Plants 

Rows 

Inches 

Feet 

15 

3 

11,616 

15 

3.5 

9,955 

15 

4 

8,712 

18 

3 

9,680 

18 

3.5 

8,298 

18 

4 

7,260 

24 

3 

7,260 

24 

3.5 

6,223 

24 

4 

5,445 

30 

3 

5,808 

30 

3.5 

4,979 

30 

4 

4,356 

In  planting  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  field  marked  out  in  at  least 
one  direction.  If  marked  in  one  direction  only,  it  probably  should  be 
done  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  row  as  this  gives  the  loca- 
tion of  the  plants  in  the  row.  The  rows  may  be  kept  straight  by  the 
use  of  a garden  line.  Care  should  be  exercised  not  to  crowd  the  line 
out  of  place  as  crooked  rows  result.  Some  growers  place  the  line  6 
inches  to  one  side  of  the  place  where  the  plants  are  to  be  set  and  then 
measure  with  the  spade  or  trowel  for  the  exact  location  of  the  plant. 
This  prevents  difficulty  arising  from  the  shifting  of  the  line.  Some 
growers  mark  the  rows  and  estimate  the  proper  location  of  the  plants 
in  the  row. 

In  large  plantations  marking  both  ways  is  preferable.  There  are 
several  ways  of  doing  this,  the  most  common  being  an  especially  con- 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  360 


structed  sled  or  pole  marker  of  the  corn-marker  type,  but  with  ad- 
justable runners  or  pins.  It  is  preferable  to  have  rows  run  north  and 
south  whenever  possible  as  this  provides  an  equal  distribution  of  sun- 
shine to  both  sides  of  the  row. 

Prune  Before  Planting 


Pruning  is  usually  necessary  before  setting  the  plants.  It  consists 
in  reducing  the  top  and  shortening  the  roots.  Top  pruning  is  usually 
done  at  planting.  All  dead  leaves,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  live 
ones  should  be  removed.  Only  one  or  two  small,  healthy  leaves  should 

be  left,  as  they  are  suffi- 
cient for  the  needs  of  the 
plant  at  that  time,  a much 
larger  number  being  likely 
to  prove  injurious  by  caus- 
ing too  much  transpiration. 
Root-pruning  consists  in 
cutting  off  the  ends  of  the 
roots,  leaving  the  roots 
three  to  four  inches  long. 
The  roots  should  be  kept 
as  long  as  possible  and 
still  not  interfere  too 
seriously  in  planting.  This 
operation  is  performed 
when  the  plants  are  heel- 
ed-in or  just  before  the 
setting.  If  plants  are  to  be 
left  heeled-in  for  a;  con- 
siderable time,  it  is  better 
to  defer  the  root  pruning 
until  planting  time. 


FIG.  3.— UNPRUNED  AND  PRUNED  PLANTS 

Pruning  facilitates  planting  and  enables 
the  plant  to  get  a better  start. 


Exercise  Care  in  Setting 


Three  things  are  es- 
sential in  setting  strawberries:  (1)  The  plants  must  be  set  at  the 
proper  depth;  (2)  the  soil  must  come  in  firm  contact  with  the  roots; 
and  (3)  the  roots  must  not  be  allowed  to  become  dry  during  the  setting. 

The  plants  should  be  so  set  that  the  soil  covers  the  base  of  the 
crown  of  the  plant.  Deeper  planting  covers  the  crown,  and  the  bud 
may  not  be  able  to  push  out  of  the  soil.  Shallower  planting  exposes 
the  upper  portion  of  the  roots  and  the  plant  is  killed  by  the  roots 
drying  out.  The  soil  should  be  pressed  firmly  against  the  roots  so  as  to 
bring  all  points  in  contact  with  the  soil.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  plant 
is  unable  to  secure  enough  water  to  sustain  life.  In  order  to  bring  all 


Strawberry  Culture  In  Wisconsin 


11 


parts  of  the  roots  in  contact  with  the  soil,  they  should  be  spread  out 
as  much  as  practicable.  Good  results  can  be  secured  without  spend- 
ing additional  time  to  spread  out  the  roots. 

To  allow  the  roots  to  dry  out  during  planting  is  usually  fatal. 
Provision  should  be  made  for  keeping  them  moist  at  all  times.  This  is 
usually  done  by  putting  the  plants  into  a pail  of  water  or 
by  wrapping  them  in  a wet  cloth.  Sometimes  a boy  is  employed  to 
drop  the  plants  ahead  of  the  men  who  set  them.  If  this  method  is 
followed,  it  is  very  important  to  see  that  the  boy  is  not  more  than  two 
or  three  plants  ahead  of  the  planter  at  any  time. 


FIG.  4.— SET  PLANTS  AT  PROPER  DEPTH 
Left — Plant  set  too  deep.  Center — not  deep  enough.  Right — correct  depth. 


Methods  of  Setting 

Methods  of  setting  vary  somewhat.  The  trowel  or  dibble  and  spade 
methods  are  commonly  used.  In  some  cases,  on  light  soils  in  extra 
good  tilth,  the  opening  for  the  plant  is  made  with  the  hands.  Some 

growers  prefer  the  spade,  while  others  will  have  nothing  but  the  dibble, 
claiming  that  it  is  more  rapid  and  insures  better  work.  Either  method 
is  satisfactory  if  care  is  exercised  in  doing  the  work,  but  neither  will 
give  good  results  if  the  work  is  carelessly  done.  When  setting  large 
acreages  some  growers  use  a planting  machine  such  as  is  used  in  setting 
cabbage  or  tobacco. 

In  dibble  planting  each  planter  works  independently.  The  dibble  is 
thrust  into  the  soil  and  by  a sidewise  movement  an  opening  is  made 
for  the  plant.  The  roots  are  thrust  into  the  opening,  lowering  the  plant 
somewhat  below  the  height  it  is  to  stand.  It  is  then  raised  to  its 
permanent  position  so  that  the  roots  may  be  well  spread  out  and 
placed  naturally  instead  of  being  crowded  into  a bunch.  The  dibble  is 
then  thrust  into  the  soil  at  a slight  distance  from  the  plant  and  soil  is 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  360 


FIG.  5.— PLANTING  WITH  A DIBBLE 
Considered  by  many  the  best  method  of  setting  plants. 


Strawberry  Culture  In  Wisconsin 


13 


FIG.  6.— SOME  GOOD  DIBBLES 
The  dibble  is  an  efficient  implement 
Tor  setting  strawberries. 


When  planting  by  the  spade 
method  two  men  work  together, 
one  to  handle  the  spade  and  one 
to  prune  and  place  the  plants. 
A smooth,  bright  spade  is 
necessary,  as  the  soil  will  stick 
to  a rusty  one.  The  spade  is 
thrust  into  the  soil  from  two- 
thirds  to  three-fourths  the  length 
of  the  blade.  In  this  operation 
the  back  'of  the  spade  is  away 
from  the  operator.  By  a for- 
ward and  backward  movement 
an  opening  is  made  in  the  soil.  The  spade  is  then  either  wholly 
or  partly  removed,  depending  upon  how  great  a tendency  the 
soil  has  to  fall  into  the  opening.  The  man  who  places  the  plant,  work- 
ing on  the  opposite  side  of  the  row,  grasps  the  plant  between  his  thumb 
and  the  palm  of  his  hand,  and  using  fingers  to  spread  the  roots,  insets 
them  into  the  opening  with  a sort  of  swinging  motion.  The  spade- 
operator  again  pushes  the  spade  into  the  soil  this  time  two  or  three 
inches  from  the  plant  and  presses  soil  against  the  roots.  Meanwhile 

the  man  who  places  the  plants  presses 
the  soil  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
plant  with  his  foot  which  insures  a 
good  contact  between  the  soil  and 
roots.  As  with  the  dibble  method,  the 
second  hole  made  in  planting  is  then 
filled. 


FIG.  7.— SPREAD  ROOTS 


crowded  against  the  roots.  The 
second  opening  is  filled  by 
knocking  loose  earth  into  it.  In 
dibble  planting,  the  men  usually 
work  in  teams  of  three.  One 
drops  the  plants;  the  other  two 
set  them. 


Care  Needed  After  Planting 

Cultivate  immediately  after  planting 
in  order  to:  (1)  Conserve  moisture. 

(2)  increase  the  available  food  supply; 
and  (3)  destroy  weeds  which  affect 
both  moisture  and  food  supply. 


An  easy  method  of  accomplish-  The  conservation  of  moisture  dur- 
ing this  result  in  spade  planting.  r ,, 

v s mg  the  summer  months  following 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  360 


planting  is  the  most  important  result  of  proper  cultivation.  If  the  soil  is 
left  compact  after  planting,  or  allowed  to  become  compact  during  the 
summer,  the  loss  of  soil  moisture  takes  place  rapidly  and  in  such 
quantities  that  the  plant  soon  reaches  a point  where  further 
growth  is  reduced  or  entirely  checked.  No  matter  how 
much  available  plant  food  may  be  present  in  the  soil,  without  soil 
moisture  the  plant  is  unable  to  use  it.  Cultivation,  therefore,  must  be 
of  such  a nature  as  to  provide  the  most  effective  means  of  conserving 
all  the  soil  moisture  possible.  If  this  be  done,  plant  food  will  be  made 
available  and  weeds  will  be  kept  down. 

The  best  practical  means  of  conserving  soil  moisture  is  by  main- 
taining a soil  mulch  of  one  or  two  inches  on  the  surface.  To  do  this, 
frequent  cultivation  is  necessary.  The  soil  should  be  stirred  at  least 
once  every  ten  days  or  two  weeks  and  following  each  rainfall  which 
compacts  the  surface  soil.  Cultivation  should  take  place  as  soon  after 
a rain  as  the  soil  will  permit.  The  cultivation  should  be  shallow.  A 
soil  mulch  of  one  to  two  inches  is  effective  in  conserving  moisture,  and 
as  the  strawberry  is  a shallow-rooted  plant,  deep  cultivation  might 
severely  injure  the  root  system.  Cultivation  should  be  in  two  directions 
if  possible  until  the  runners  begin  to  form,  when  it  must  be  confined  to 
one  direction.  Hoe  about  the  plants  immediately  after  planting  to 
loosen  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Other  hoeings  may  be  given  with  profit  if 
time  permits.  The  stirring  of  the  soil  should  continue  throughout  the 
season  or  until  the  plant  has  practically  ceased  growing. 

Grow  Plants  First  Season 

The  fruiting  of  plants  during  the  same  season  as  planted  or  the 
first  season  after  planting,  if  set  in  the  fall,  is  to  be  discouraged,  ex- 
cept in  home  gardens  and  with  everbearing  sorts.  The  plants  should 
exert  all  their  activity  the  first  year  in  producing  good  vigorous  crowns 
and  strong  runner  plants.  In  order  to  conserve  all  the  strength  of  the 
plants  for  this  purpose  the  buds  or  blossoms  should  be  removed  as 
soon  as  possible  after  being  formed. 

Runner  plants  should  be  selected  as  soon  as  possible  and  given 
conditions  which  will  insure  quick  rooting.  Their  distribution  will  de- 
pend upon  the  system  of  planting  in  use.  In  matted  rows  the  plants 
should  be  kept  from  six  to  eight  inches  apart  to  prevent  the  rows  be- 
coming too  thick.  The  amount  of  time  which  can  be  profitably  spent 
placing  runners  will  depend  quite  largely  upon  the  cost  of  available 
labor. 


Why  Mulch  Strawberry  Beds? 

Mulching  is  one  of  the  essentials  of  successful  strawberry  culture. 
In  Wisconsin  its  chief  uses  are  to  prevent  heaving  of  the  plants  in 


Strawberry  Culture  In  Wisconsin 


15 


spring  and  to  keep  the  fruit  clean.  These  make  the  use  of  mulch  im- 
perative in  a majority  of  instances,  but  there  are  other  advantages  to 
be  gained  by  its  use.  Moisture  is  conserved  during  the  spring  months, 
the  weeds  are  kept  down,  fruiting  may  be  retarded  somewhat  if  desir- 
able, and  the  soil  is  kept  from  baking. 

A good  mulch  should  be  free  from  weed  seed,  spread  evenly  and 
break  up  readily  in  the  spring.  Various  materials  possess  more  or  less 
fully  these  desirable  qualities.  Wheat  or  oat  straw;  coarse,  strawy 
horse  manure ; and  marsh  hay  are  the  three  in  most  common  use,  al- 
though any  one  of  these  may  be  objectionable  if  it  has  too  many  weed 
seeds.  Marsh  hay  if  cut  at  the  proper  time  is  less  likely  to  have  weed 
seeds,  but  in  any  case  the  hay  should  be  cut  before  the  seed  ripens 
enough  for  germination,  or  before  it  becomes  very  objectionable. 
Neither  marsh  hay  nor  manure  break  up  in  the  spring  so  well  as  wheat- 
straw,  but  the  manure  has  the  advantage  of  adding  plant  food.  Oat 
straw  is  frequently  too  foul  with  weeds  to  make  a good  mulch. 
Shredded  corn  stalks  and  pine  needles  are  sometimes  used  for  mulch- 
ing. 

The  mulch  is  usually  applied  in  the  fall.  Most  growers  wait  until 
the  ground  is  frozen  permanently;  others  apply  it  shortly  before  freez- 
ing, claiming  that  there  is  less  danger  of  injury  to  the  plants  due  to 
alternate  freezing  and  thawing.  In  the  northern  part  of  the  state, 
where  heavy  falls  of  snow  come  early  and  remain  on  the  ground  dur- 
ing the  winter,  growers  frequently  do  not  apply  the  mulch  until  spring. 
It  is  doubtful  if  this  is  the  best  practice. 

The  depth  of  the  mulch  will  vary  with  different  conditions.  If  ap- 
plied in  the  spring,  it  may  be  distributed  thinly  over  the  rows.  In  the 
fall  it  should  be  heavier  so  as  to  prevent  alternate  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing of  the  ground  in  the  spring.  It  should  not  be  so  thick,  however,  as 
to  smother  the  plants.  The  usual  depth  under  Wisconsin  conditions 
is  two  to  four  inches  after  the  mulch  has  settled. 

When  to  Remove  Mulch 

The  time  of  removing  a mulch,  applied  in  the  fall,  depends  upon  the 
seasonal  conditions  and  the  time  the  fruit  is  desired.  As  the  chief 
object  is  to  prevent  the  heaving  action  of  alternate  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing, the  mulch  should  be  left  until  such  danger  is  past.  It  is  also  well  to 
leave  the  mulch  long  enough  to  retard  blossoming  sufficiently  to  escape 
late  frosts.  If  it  is  desirable  to  use  the  mulch  as  a means  of  retarding 
the  ripening  of  the  fruit,  the  mulch  may  be  left  until  the  plants  begin  to 
push  a few  leaves  up  through  it.  It  should  not  be  left  so  long,  how- 
ever that  considerable  growth  takes  place  beneath  it.  If  early  fruit  is 
desired,  remove  the  mulch  as  early  as  possible,  even  taking  some 
chances  of  injury  from  late  frosts. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  360 


If  the  mulch  be  a light  one,  about  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  loosen 
it  somewhat  so  that  the  plants  will  be  able  to  grow  through  it.  If 
heavy,  it  is  necessary  to  rake  off  a portion  and  place  it  between  the 
rows.  Occasionally,  where  the  space  not  occupied  by  plants  is  small, 
it  may  be  found  necessary  to  remove  part  of  the  mulch  from  the  field. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  all  the  mulch  should  not  be  re- 
moved from  the  plants.  The  plants  should  grow  up  through  enough 
mulch  to  keep  the  ripened  fruit  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  soil. 
There  is  no  sale  for  dirty  or  sandy  berries.  Do  not  leave  chunks  of 
mulch  over  the  plants,  as  this  will  cause  injury. 

Some  growers  practice  cultivation  from  the  time  the  soil  is  fit  to 
work  until  the  berries  are  half  grown.  In  such  cases  the  mulch  remov- 
ed from  over  the  rows  must  be  hauled  off  and  replaced  again  at  fruit- 
ing time.  This,  however,  is  not  the  common  practice,  as  the  average 
grower  lets  the  mulch  conserve  the  moisture  and  keep  down  the  weeds 
until  after  fruiting. 

Caring  for  the  Crop 

Harvesting  seems  to  be  one  of  the  most  trying  operations  of  straw- 
berry culture,  primarily  because  of  the  difficulty  of  getting  reliable 
pickers.  If  the  strawberry  is  to  reach  the  market  in  a salable  con- 
dition, it  must  be  handled  carefully  and  with  the  utmost  attention  to 
details.  It  is  difficult  to  get  the  average  picker  to  realize  the  im- 
portance of  these  things.  The  strawberry  is  a very  tender  fruit  and 
should  be  picked  by  pinching  off  the  stems,  but  the  stems  should  not  be 
left  long.  Pulling  the  berry  from  the  plant  should  not  be  allowed,  as 
many  berries  are  partly  crushed  or  the  stem  and  calyx  pulled  out,  both 
of  which  result  in  rapid  deterioration  and  failure  to  stand  up  well  in 
transit. 

Supply  the  picker  with  a carrier  holding  from  four  to  six  boxes. 
When  the  picking  is  good,  the  larger  number  is  not  too  many,  but 
when  the  fruit  is  ripening  slowly  and  it  requires  some  time  to  pick  a 
boxful,  fewer  boxes  should  be  picked  before  taking  them  to  the  pack- 
ing-shed. It  should  be  the  aim  to  get  the  berries  into  the  shade  as 
soon  after  they  are  picked  as  practicable.  If  left  to  stand  in  the  full 
sunlight,  a box  of  berries  is  spoiled  in  a very  short  time. 

Some  growers  attempt  to  have  their  pickers  grade  the  berries 
when  picking.  This  is  practicable  only  when  the  pickers  are  above  the 
average  or  the  fruit  exceptionally  uniform,  and  is  not  satisfactory  if  a 
grower  is  building  up  a reputation  for  superiority.  The  average  boy 
or  girl  who  picks  berries  is  not  to  be  trusted  to  sort  or  grade  them. 
In  most  cases,  therefore,  it  is  more  satisfactory  to  have  the  pickers 
give  no  attention  to  this  matter  and  provide  an  additional  force  to 
grade  and  pack  the  fruit. 


Strawberry  Culture  In  Wisconsin 


17 


The  question  of  how  ripe  the  fruit  should  be  when  picked  is  one 
which  bothers  many  growers.  Varying  conditions  make  it  impossible 
to  give  a definite  rule.  Much  depends  upon  the  distance  the  fruit 
must  be  transported  before  reaching  its  destination.  For  home  use,  the 
berry  should  be  allowed  to  become  fully  ripe,  as  then  it  will  have  a 
better  flavor.  If  designed  for  the  local  market,  the  fruit  should  be 


FIG.  8.— TWO  TYPES  OF  CARRIERS 

The  carrier  facilitates  harvesting.  When  picking  is  poor,  reduce  the 
number  of  boxes  given  the  picker  at  any  one  time. 


entirely  colored,  but  showing  light  at  the  tip  and  on  the  lower  side, 
while  for  distant  markets  the  berries  should  be  red  on  the  exposed 
side,  and  pink  or  slightly  white  on  the  underside  or  at  the  tip.  In  order 
to  secure  fruit  of  the  right  degree  of  ripeness,  pickings  must  be  fre- 
quent. As  a rule  not  more  than  one  day  should  intervene  between 
pickings,  and  if  the  weather  is  hot  and  the  berries  are  ripening  fast, 
picking  every  day  is  better  if  practicable.  Fruit  should  not  be  picked, 
however,  when  wet. 


Just  how  much  additional  time  should  be  spent  in  sorting,  grading, 
and  packing  the  fruit  depends  upon  the  individual  grower  or  the  ex- 
change through  which  the  fruit  is  handled.  Some  sorting  and  grading 
is  always  necessary  if  a good,  attractive  product  is  to  be  placed  on  the 
market.  A good  sorting  table  may  be  made  of  a piece  of  cheese  cloth 
fastened  to  a frame.  Where  careful  grading  and  packing  are  done,  one 
p'acker  can  take  care  of  the  fruit  from  three  pickers. 


Handling  the  Bed  after  Harvest 


The  permanence  of  the  bed  is  a question  upon  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  get  growers  to  agree.  Some  growers  harvest  but  one  crop 
from  a field  while  others  take  as  many  as  three.  In  beds  for  home 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  360 


use  this  number  is  exceeded  at  times.  The  number  of  crops  which  it 
is  profitable  to  harvest  from  a plantation  depends  primarily  on  the 
question  of  whether  the  plants  are  in  good  condition  and  whether  or 
not  it  will  be  cheaper  to  renovate  the  old  bed  than  to  start  a new  one. 
Both  of  these  factors  depend  largely  upon  the  care  that  has  been  given 
the  field.  If  careful  attention  has  been  given  to  thinning  out  the  plants, 
keeping  pests  in  check,  preventing  the  weeds  from  seeding,  and  adding 


The  following  rules  for  picking  and  handling  strawberries 
are  in  force  in  one  of  the  western  fruit  exchanges. 

(1)  Berries  must  not  be  picked  while  there  is  moisture 

on  plants 

(2)  Berries  should  be  pink  all  over,  or  three-fourths  red 

(3)  Berries  should  be  picked  riper  in  cool  weather  than 

in  warm 

(4)  A picker  must  not  be  allowed  to  hold  more  than 

one  or  two  berries  in  his  hand  at  the  same  time 

(5)  Filled  carriers  must  not  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the 

sun 

(6)  Berries  must  be  picked  with  a stem  a quarter  of 

an  inch  long  and  not  longer  or  shorter 

(7)  Sort  out  all  green,  over-ripe,  misshapen,  and  small 

berries 

(8)  No  culls  in  boxes.  Put  in  nothing  but  fair-sized 

berries 

(9)  Use  clean  crates  and  keep  them  from  being  soiled 

(10)  Haul  in  spring  wagon  and  cover  to  keep  out  the  dust 


plant  food,  a larger  number  of  crops  may  be  removed  than  if  these 
matters  are  given  only  ordinary  attention.  Weeds  play  an  important 
part  in  the  consideration,  and  as  a rule  the  difficulty  with  which  they 
are  controlled  makes  it  inadvisable  to  crop  more  than  two  years.  As 
indicated  above,  some  growers  harvest  but  one  crop,  claiming  that  it 
is  cheaper  to  start  a new  plantation  than  to  renovate  the  old  one.  Those 
who  harvest  two  crops  claim  larger  yields  for  the  second  crop  than  for 
the  first. 

Renovating  the  old  bed  is  essential  if  a second  crop  is  to  be 
harvested.  This  operation  differs  with  different  growers  and  with 


Strawberry  Culture  In  Wisconsin 


19 


different  systems  of  planting.  As  the  matted  row  is  the  most  common 
form  in  Wisconsin,  directions  for  renovating  will  be  for  plantations  of 
that  system. 

Mow  and  Destroy  Old  Foliage 

Developing  strong  new  growth  is  an  important  consideration.  As 
a considerable  portion  of  the  foliage  has  become  more  or  less  injured 
during  harvesting  and  is  likely  to  be  infested  with  both  fungous  and 
insect  pests,  it  is  usually  desirable  to  get  rid  of  the  old  foliage  and  per- 
mit new  to  develop.  The  most  economical  method  of  removing  the  old 
growth  seems  to  be  to  mow  the  patch.  This  can  be  done  very 
efficiently  with  a mowing  machine  with  the  cutter  bar  tilted  up  in 
front  only  enough  to  prevent  digging  into  the  ground.  Some  growers 
dispose  of  the  portion  removed  by  burning  over  the  patch.  The  mulch 
which  is  left  between  the  rows  is  stirred  up  and  with  the  leaves  is 
allowed  to  dry.  When  in  a good  burning  condition,  fire  is  started  on 
the  windward  side  of  the  field  on  a windy  day,  the  object  being  to  burn 
over  the  patch  quickly.  Slow  burning  of  piles  of  leaves  or  litter  over 
the  plants  causes  injury  to  the  crowns.  When  there  is  difficulty  in 
getting  the  fire  to  run  well  the  leaves  and  litter  may  be  raked  between 
the  rows  and  burned.  Some  growers  rake  up  the  leaves  and  coarse 
mulch  with  a horse  rake  and  haul  them  off  the  plantation. 

Narrowing  the  rows  is  the  second  operation  in  renovation.  This 
may  be  accomplished  by  plowing  a furrow  down  either  side  of  the  row, 
throwing  them  away  from  the  row,  or  by  running  twice  between  the 
rows  with  a two-horse  cultivator.  In  this  way  the  row  may  be  cut 
down  to  the  width  desired,  which  usually  is  from  eight  to  twelve  inches. 
On  heavy  soils  difficulty  is  sometimes  experienced  in  plowing  or  cultivat- 
ing between  rows  because  of  the  compactness  of  the  soil  due  to  tramp- 
ing during  harvest.  There  seem  to  be  only  two  things  to  do  in  such  a 
case,  irrigate  or  wait  for  rain.  The  narrowing  of  the  rows  should  be 
followed  by  harrowing  in  the  direction  of  the  plowing  and  then  across 
the  rows.  The  beds  may  be  gone  over  several  times  until  the  soil  is  in 
ideal  condition.  For  this  purpose,  a spike-toothed  harrow  with  teeth 
slanting  back  is  preferable,  although  a weeder  may  be  used  with  fairly 
good  results. 

Fertilization  may  be  accomplished  at  this  time  by  distributing  well- 
rotted  manure  over  the  rows  and  by  cultivating  or  plowing  in  a liberal 
amount  between  the  rows.  A small  application  of  nitrate  of  soda — one 
hundred  pounds  per  acre — may  be  also  applied  to  hasten  new  growth, 
but  plants  should  not  be  allowed  to  become  too  thick.  With  the  beds 
in  this  condition,  cultural  methods  are  the  same  as  for  the  first  year. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  360 


Strawberry  Pests 

The  common  pests  of  the  strawberry  are  the  leaf-spot  disease,  the 
white  grub,  the  strawberry  leaf-roller,  the  strawberry  aphis,  and  the 
weevil.  All  pests  are  most  easily  controlled  when  the  location  of  the 
plantation  is  changed  frequently. 

The  leaf-spot,  or  strawberry  blight,  appears  as  round  reddish- 
brown  or  purplish  spots  on  the  foliage.  Usually  it  is  not  a serious  pest. 
When  it  becomes  troublesome  it  can  be  controlled  by  spraying  with 
Bordeaux  mixture.  Usually  an  application  just  before  blossoming  will 
hold  the  disease  in  check.  At  times  it  may  be  desirable  to  make  an  ap- 
plication as  soon  as  growth  starts  and  also  one  immediately  after 
blossoming. 

Cutting  off  and  burning  the  old  foliage  is  helpful  on  plantations  to 
be  fruited  a second  time.  If  the  disease  appears  on  the  new  growths 
an  application  of  Bordeaux  should  be  made. 

The  white  grub  is  frequently  a serious  pest  of  strawberries  in  Wis- 
consin. It  attacks  the  plant  just  below  the  crown,  severing  the  top  from 
the  roots.  Its  presence  is  first  noticed  by  wilted  plants  which  when 
picked  up  are  free  of  roots.  There  is  no  very  satisfactory  remedy  for 
this  insect.  Avoid  newly  plowed  sod  land. 

The  adult  leaf  roller  lays  its  eggs  on  the  leaves  early  in  the  spring. 
The  newly  hatched  larva  feeds  for  a short  time  on  the  leaf,  then  draws 
the  leaflet  together  with  a silken  thread  and  feeds  upon  the  leaflet 
from  within.  Spray  with  three  pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead  to  fifty 
gallons  of  water  at  the  first  appearance  of  rolling  of  the  leaves.  This 
may  be  followed  by  another  application  a week  to  ten  days  later.  Mov- 
ing off  and  burning  the  leaves  after  harvest  also  aids  in  its  control.  A 
bed  which  is  not  to  be  fruited  a second  time  should  be  plowed  under  im- 
mediately after  harvest. 

The  strawberry  aphis  or  foot  louse  is  a common  pest  in  this  state. 
As  it  works  beneath  the  surface,  it  is  not  easily  detected.  Ants  work- 
ing around  the  base  of  a weak  plant  are  the  best  indication  of  the 
presence  of  this  pest.  The  presence  of  ants  does  not  always  indicate 
that  the  plants  are  infested,  nor  are  the  ants  always  present  where  the 
aphis  is  to  be  found. 

The  first  attempt  to  control  root  aphis  should  be  the  taking  of  pre- 
cautions against  infestation  from  outside  sources.  Persons  securing  stock 
from  such  sources  should  dip  the  plants  just  before  setting,  in  an  eight  per 
cent  kerosene  emulsion  or  a solution  of  nicotine  sulphate,  one  part 
to  one  thousand.  The  plants  should  be  left  in  this  solution  ten  to 
fifteen  minutes.  If  the  plantation  is  badly  infested,  little  can  be  done  to 
eradicate  the  pest  and  it  is  probably  best  to  start  a new  plantation  on 
another  site.  Burning  over  late  in  the  fall  is  beneficial. 

The  strawberry  weevil  is  the  least  common  of  the  pests  mentioned. 
This  insect  does  its  damage  by  puncturing  the  bud  of  perfect  varieties 


Strawberry  Culture  In  Wisconsin 


21 


and  laying  an  egg  in  the  interior.  The  flower  stem  is  then  partly  cut 
in  two  so  as  to  check  further  development  of  the  bud.  This  cutting 
causes  the  buds  to  wilt  and  later  to  fall  off.  Where  the  insect  is 
troublesome  the  planting  should  consist  largely  of  imperfect  varieties. 
Only  enough  perfect  flowered  plants  to  insure  pollination  should  be  set. 
The  perfect  flowered  variety  chosen  should  be  a profuse  bloomer. 


Cross-Pollination  Is  Important 

Several  factors  must  be  considered  in  the  selection  of  varieties.  It 
is  quite  as  essential  that  sexual  union  take  place  for  the  production  of  a 
crop  of  berries  as  it  is  in  securing  offspring  from  animals. 

The  strawberry  plant  is  some- 
what peculiar  in  that  different 
varieties  produce  different  kinds 
of  flowers.  Some  varieties, 
such  as  Senator  Dunlap,  have 
flowers  bearing  both  male  and 
female  organs,  and  are  there- 
fore capable  of  self-fertilization. 
Such  varieties  are  known  as 
perfect,  staminate,  or  male 
varieties.  The  last  two  terms, 
however,  are  somewhat  mislead- 
ing, for  the  flower  possesses  both 
stamens  and  pistils,  and  is  there- 
fore not  only  a male  but  a 
female  flower  as  well. 

Other  varieties,  such  as  War- 
field,  have  only  the  female  or- 
gans present,  and  therefore  can- 
not produce  fruit  without  the 
presence  of  a stamen-bearing  or 
perfect  variety.  Varieties  having  only  the  female  sex  organs  are  called 
imperfect,  pistillate,  or  female  varieties.  We  have  no  varieties  of 
strawberries  in  which  only  the  male  organs,  stamens,  are  present. 

If  an  imperfect  variety  is  to  be  grown,  care  must  be  taken  to 
select  a perfect  variety  to  be  planted  with  it  so  as  to  provide  for 
pollination.  The  first  consideration  is  simultaneous  flowering.  If  a 
variety  is  to  act  as  a pollinizer  of  another,  both  must  be  in  flower  at  the 
same  time.  In  fact,  it  is  desirable  to  have  a perfect  variety  in  which 
the  blooming  period  is  longer  than  that  of  the  imperfect,  so  that  the 
ripe  pollen  may  be  available  at  all  times.  The  perfect  variety  should 
also  produce  a large  amount  of  pollen.  Varieties  differ  materially  in 
this  respect,  but  unless  conditions  are  very  favorable,  shy  pollen-pro- 
ducers will  not  give  good  pollination  of  imperfect  varieties.  This 


FIG.  9.— TYPES  OF  FLOWERS 


Stamen-bearing  flowers  are  necessary 
to  fruit-production.  Imperfect  varieties 
must  be  accompanied  by  perfect.  Left — 
perfect  flower.  Right — imperfect. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  360 


ability  to  produce  abundant  pollen  is  one  of  the  chief  factors  in  mak- 
ing Senator  Dunlap  such  a good  pollinizer. 

Another  requisite  of  a good  pollinizer  is  its  affinity  for  the  im- 
perfect variety.  Comparatively  little  is  known  about  the  pollen 
affinities  of  different  varieties,  but  experimental  work  has  shown  that 
such  relationships  do  exist.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  two  perfect 
varieties  of  seemingly  equal  pollination  possibilities  may  give  very 
different  results  when  used  to  fertilize  the  same  imperfect  variety.  Some 
varieties  seem  to  be  quite  cosmopolitan  in  their  affinities,  and  if  their 
other  characteristics  are  favorable,  these  varieties  should  be  choosen  for 
this  purpose.  Of  the  varieties  showing  this  cosmopolitan  tendency  none 
of  those  tried  have  exceeded  Senator  Dunlap  in  general  qualifications 
as  a good  pollinizing  variety. 

It  is  commonly  believed  by  growers  that  when  perfect  varieties  are 
grown,  it  is  not  necessary  to  provide  for  cross  fertilization.  This  is 
true,  but  investigation  has  shown  that  in  most  cases  cross-fertilization 
gives  better  results  than  self-fertilization  even  with  perfect  varieties. 
For  this  reason  it  seems  wise  even  when  planting  a perfect  variety  to 
use  more  than  one  variety. 

What  proportion  of  the  pollinizing  variety  should  be  used?  Doubt- 
less much  depends  upon  conditions.  If  the  season  is  favorable  for 
pollination  or  if  bees  are  kept  in  the  immediate  vicinity,  a smaller 
proportion  of  the  pollinizer  is  necessary  than  if  climatic  conditions  at 
flowering  time  were  unfavorable,  or  pollen  carriers  scarce.  One  row 
of  pollinizing  plants  to  one  of  the  variety  to  be  pollinized  is  common, 
one  to  two  is  frequent,  and  one  to  three  is  sometimes  used  but  is  scarce- 
ly to  be  recommended. 


What  Varieties  Are  Best? 


Frequently  the  question  is  asked:  “What  is  the  best  variety  of 
strawberry?”  It  is  impossible  to  recommend  any  variety,  or  any  two  or 
three  varieties,  as  the  best,  for  no  one  variety  does  best  under  all  con- 
ditions. It  is  equally  true  that  certain  varieties  are  more  capable  of 
adapting  themselves  to  a greater  range  of  conditions  than  are  other 
varieties.  As  a result,  these  varieties  are  found  growing  over  a wider 
range  of  territory  and  under  more  varying  conditions  than  those  less 
exacting  in  their  requirements.  It  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  such 
a variety  will  therefore  be  the  best  for  any  particular  set  of  conditions ; 
on  the  other  hand,  there  is  a greater  probability  that  some  less  cosmo- 
politan variety  will  be  more  profitable  if  the  grower  only  has  the 
patience  to  determine  which  variety  best  meets  his  conditions. 

Strawberries  may  be  grouped  into  two  -classes,  those  which  pro- 
duce their  fruit  during  the  early  summer,  and  the  “everbearing”  or 
those  which  produce  an  early  crop  and  later  on  another  crop  continu- 
ing until  cold  weather  prevents  further  production.  The  former  class 


Strawberry  Culture  In  Wisconsin 


23 


is  far  the  more  important  at  the  present  time,  but  the  everbearing 
varieties  are  becoming  more  popular  as  they  are  improved. 

A study  of  varieties  being  grown  in  Wisconsin  shows  that  regard- 
less of  varying  soil  conditions  practically  the  same  varieties  are  used  in 
all  parts  of  the  state.  This  would  indicate  that  these  varieties  are 
cosmopolitan  and  can  be  recommended  as  doing  reasonably  well  under 
practically  all  conditions.  A commercial  grower  should  not  be  satisfied 
with  average  results.  He  should  constantly  be  trying  out  a limited 
number  of  other  varieties  in  comparison  with  the  ones  he  is  growing  in 
an  attempt  to  find,  if  possible,  varieties  which  are  better  adapted  to  his 
conditions.  It  is  some  trouble  and  expense  to  run  a trial  plot  for  test- 
ing varieties,  but  it  is  quite  likely  to  prove  a paying  investment. 

The  following  varieties  are  suggested  as  likely  to  prove  reasonably 
satisfactory  while  tests  are  being  made  to  find  if  possible  those  better 
adapted  to  particular  conditions : Dunlap,  Warfield,  Glen  Mary, 

Pocomoke,  Aroma,  Gandy,  and  Sample.  These  are  named  approximate- 
ly in  the  order  of  ripening. 

Dunlap  is  the  most  extensively  grown  strawberry  in  Wisconsin, 
both  in  home  and  commercial  plantations.  It  seems  to  be  well  adapted 
to  a wide  range  of  conditions.  It  is  a heavy  plant  maker.  Care  should 
be  exercised  not  to  let  it  become  too  thick  as  production  is  reduced 
when  this  occurs. 

Warfield  is  an  imperfect  variety,  mostly  grown  as  a companion 
berry  of  Dunlap.  It  is  a hardy  variety  but  under  most  conditions  not 
as  productive  as  Dunlap. 

Glen  Mary  is  partially  imperfect  and  should  be  set  with  a pollinizer. 
It  is  a second  early  berry.  A good  producer  but  quite  subject  to  spot. 

Pocomoke.  This  variety  is  also  called  Gibson.  It  is  a mid-season 
variety.  It  is  hardy  and  productive,  and  produces  large  fruit  which 
ships  well. 

Aroma.  A large,  high  quality,  attractive  fruit  which  ships  well. 
It  is  disease-resistant  and  productive.  A good  variety  for  producing 
a fancy  product.  Mid-season  to  late. 

Gandy.  A good  late  variety.  Not  productive  except ' on  heavy, 
moist  soils. 

Sample.  One  of  the  best  late  strawberries.  Fruit  large,  attractive, 
and  uniform.  Ships  only  moderately  well.  It  is  imperfect,  being  com- 
monly pollinated  with  Dunlap. 

“Everbearing”  Strawberries 

The  “everbearing”  variety  most  popular  in  Wisconsin  is  Pro- 
gressive. This  variety  is  grown  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  other  fall 
or  everbearing  varieties.  Different  varieties  of  the  everbearers  differ 
materially  in  the  methods  of  handling.  Owing  to  the  popularity  of  Pro- 
gressive, directions  will  be  given  for  growing  that  variety. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  360 


The  soil  should  be  rich,  even  more  fertile  than  for  the  June  bearing 
varieties.  It  must  contain  a large  amount  of  organic  matter  as  an 
abundant  moisture  supply  during  July,  August  and  early  September 
is  absolutely  necessary  if  a good  fall  crop  is  to  be  secured. 

Plant  In  Spring 

The  plants  should  be  set  in  the  spring  as  soon  as  soil  conditions  will 
permit.  The  plants  should  be  about  24  inches  apart  in  the  row  and  the 
rows  3J4  to  4 feet  apart.  These  dimensions  are  for  the  matted  row 
system,  which  most  growers  will  find  preferable. 

Take  Off  Early  Blossoms 

For  best  results,  the  blossoms  should  be  pinched  off  as  soon  as 
they  appear  until  the  early  part  of  July.  From  that  time  on  they  may 
be  left  to  produce  fruit.  Encourage  the  runners  to  root  as  readily  as 
possible.  A light  mulch  under  the  plants  and  frequent,  shallow  tillage 
between  the  rows  are  conducive  to  the  largest  production.  Some 
system  of  artificial  watering  is  very  advantageous  in  growing  the  late 
crop,  as  frequently  unless  the  best  tillage  and  mulching  is  provided  it 
is  cut  short  by  lack  of  moisture. 

How  Long? 

Two  crops  are  probably  the  maximum  number  to  be  taken  from  a 
plantation.  Many  growers  take  only  the  fall  crop,  as  the  spring  crop 
is  usually  much  lighter  and  the  berries  smaller.  Most  home  growers, 
however,  prefer  to  take  a spring  crop  also.  One  of  the  reasons  for  this 
is  that  the  everbearers  ripen  somewhat  earlier  than  the  June  varieties. 
If  the  plantation  is  to  be  kept  for  a spring  crop,  it  should  be  mulched 
during  the  winter  as  are  the  June  varieties. 


AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 
UNIVERSITY  OF  WIS&>B^N 
' MADISON 

» ..  * . v‘>  v Jr*  - '•  " ^ . I 


lletin  361 


February,  1924 


DIGEST 


Lime  is  added  to  soils  to  make  it  possible  to  grow  clover,  alfalfa  and 
other  legumes  successfully  on  them.  The  lime  has  several  uses  for  it 
takes  a place  in  nitrification,  helps  to  make  phosphorus  available  to 
plants  and  combines  with  acids  in  plants  that  may  be  injurious. 

Pages  3-5 

Lime  deficient  soils  are  also  usually  deficient  in  available  phosphorus. 

On  farms  where  the  manure  supply  is  inadequate,  limited  quantities  of 
phosphate  fertilizer  must  be  purchased  to  permit  the  maximum  growth 
of  legume  crops.  Pages  5-7 

The  lime  needs  of  Wisconsin  soils  vary  in  the  six  important  soil  areas 
as  shown  on  the  map  on  page  7. 

Lime  has  given  profitable  returns  on  sandy  and  silt  loam  soils  in  all 

parts  of  Wisconsin.  The  marsh  soils  of  central  and  northern  Wisconsin 
respond  to  lime,  while  those  in  southern  Wisconsin  do  not  need  lime. 

Pages  7-11 

The  portable  limestone  grinding  machine  is  a success.  It  can  oper- 
ate successfully  only  in  communities  that  are  well  supplied  with  quarries 
containing  high  quality  limestone.  Local  grinding  of  lime  in  most 
communities  reduces  the  long  expensive  wagon  haul  and  makes  it 
possible  for  farmers  to  haul  the  lime  at  their  convenience. 

Pages  11-16 

The  principal  kinds  of  agricultural  lime  available  to  Wisconsin  farm- 
ers are:  Pulverized  limestone,  marl,  paper  mill  waste,  mine  tailings, 
waste  lime  from  sugar-beet  factories,  air  slacked  lime  and  burned  lime 
or  quicklime.  Pages  17-20 

Any  form  of  lime  should  be  applied  previous  to  the  crop  which  g.ves 
the  greatest  response  to  lime.  Lime  may  be  spread  by  hand  with  a 
shovel,  with  special  lime  sowers,  or  with  a manure  spreader.  The 
end-gate  type  of  lime  spreader  is  best  for  spreading  all  forms  of  lime. 

Pages  20-23 

Liming  for  soil  improvement  should  always  be  supplemented  by  fer- 
tilizing, either  with  barnyard  manure  or  commercial  fertilizer. 

Page  24 

Unleached  wood  ashes  contain  50  per  cent  lime  in  addition  to  5 
per  cent  of  potash.  They  may  be  applied  at  the  rate  of  2 tons  per  acre. 

Page  24 


Liming  Wisconsin  Soils 

A.  R.  Whitson,  Griffith  Richards  and  H.  W.  Ullsperger 


-w-  IME  IS  NEEDED  on  75  per  cent  of  the  tillable  land  in  Wis- 
consin in  order  to  grow  the  best  crops  of  clover,  alfalfa  and 
* other  legumes.  It  is  well  known  that  the  growing  of  legumin- 
ous plants,  such  as  clover  and  alfalfa,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
principles  in  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Wisconsin  farmers 
should  apply  lime  to  their  land  in  order  to  increase  their  crop  yields. 
Fortunately,  many  sections  of  Wisconsin  have  inexhaustible  deposits 
of  limestone,  while  in  the  sandy  sections  where  no  lime  is  found, 
marl  beds  can  be  dredged  to  supply  the  lime. 

Uses  of  Lime  in  the  Soil — Lime  has  several  uses  in  the  soil.  It 
takes  part  in  the  nitrification  by  which  the  nitrogen  of  organic  matter 
is  converted  into  a form  which  can  be  absorbed  by  plants.  It  com- 
bines with  phosphorus  and  assists  in  making  that  element  available  to 
plants.  It  combines  with  acids  formed  in  plants,  neutralizing  them  so 
they  will  not  be  injurious  to  the  plant. 


Fig.  1.— A SPLENDID  ALFALFA  FIELD  ON  SANDY  SOIL 

Four  tons  of  limestone  and  twelve  loads  of  manure  per  acre  helped  to 
produce  this  wonderful  alfalfa  crop  on  a rather  poor  sandy  loam  soil  that 
would  not  grow  red  clover  before  these  fertilizer  treatments  were  made. 
This  field  is  located  at  the  United  States  Government  Indian  School  at  Tomah. 

Forms  of  Lime  in  Soil — Lime  or  calcium  exists  in  the  soil  in  several 
combinations  with  other  elements.  It  exists  in  silicates  or  minerals 
in  granitic  rocks ; in  carbonates  which  constitute  limestones ; in  organic 
matter,  as  well  as  in  such  salts  as  sulphates,  chlorides,  and  nitrates 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  361 


which  exist,  however,  in  very  small  amounts  in  all  except  alkali  soils. 
The  total  amount  in  soils  in  all  these  forms  varies  greatly.  Some 
Wisconsin  soils  have  30,000  to  40,000  pounds  of  calcium,  the  chief  ele- 
ment in  lime,  while  others  have  less  than  a thousand.  The  lime  in 
some  forms  is  more  available  than  in  others.  Lime  in  carbonate  form 
is  easily  used  and  that  in  some  kinds  of  silicates  also  may  be  used. 

Relation  of  Lime  to  Acidity — Lime  is  one  of  the  class  of  substances 
called  bases  by  the  chemist.  Bases  combine  with  acids  and  form  salts,  a 
process  which  is  called  neutralizing  the  acidity.  Acidity  of  the  soil  is  caus- 
ed by  insufficient  lime  or  other  base  to  neutralize  all  the  acid  portion  of 
the  soil.  But  there  may  be  considerable  available  lime  in  the  soil  even 
though  there  is  not  enough  to  neutralize  all  the  acidity.  On  the  other 
hand,  soils  with  little  or  no  acidity  also  may  have  very  little  available 
lime.  It  is  therefore  impossible  to  determine  the  amount  of  available 
lime  by  determining  the  degree  of  acidity.  Some  soils  are  very  defi- 
cient in  available  lime  even  though  they  are  only  slightly  acid,  and 
other  soils  are  well  supplied  with  available  lime  in  spite  of  considerable 
acidity. 

The  soils  of  northern  Wisconsin  have  in  the  virgin  state  a good 
supply  of  available  lime.  This  is  shown  by  the  excellent  growth  made 
by  all  crops  including  clover  although  practically  all  the  soils  are  dis- 
tinctly acid.  After  they  have  been  cropped  a number  of  years  so  much 
available  lime  has  been  used  up  that  more  is  needed. 

Since  acidity  of  soils  tends  to  keep  the  lime  from  being  available,  a 
knowledge  of  the  degree  of  acidity  in  the  soil  helps  in  determining 
whether  it  needs  lime  or  not.  But  at  present  the  only  certain  method 
is  actual  field  trial ; and  such  trials  are  the  best  guide  to  the  amount  of 
lime  which  should  be  used. 

A Simple  Test  of  the  Need  for  Lime — A simple  test  is  made  as  fol- 
lows : Slake  a bushel  of  quick  lime  with  water.  When  it  is  in  a dry 
powdered  condition  spread  it  and  work  it  into  a strip  of  ground  a rod 
wide  and  four  rods  long.  This  should  be  done  after  plowing.  In  place 
of  the  bushel  of  quick  lime,  two  bushels  of  air  slaked  lime  or  150 
pounds  of  ground  limestone  may  be  used.  The  strip  should  be  in  a 
field  where  clover  does  not  do  as  well  as  it  should.  The  lime  can  be 
applied  when  preparing  the  field  for  corn  the  year  before  it  will  be 
seeded  down  or  the  same  year  it  is  being  seeded  although  better  re- 
sults on  clover  or  alfalfa  are  secured  when  lime  is  applied  a year  be- 
fore the  clover  or  alfalfa  is  sown. 


Lime  for  Legumes 

Legumes  such  as  clover  and  alfalfa  maintain  the  nitrogen 
in  the  soil.  They  use  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  for  their 
growth  through  the  work  of  the  certain  kinds  of  bacteria  or 
germs  which  penetrate  the  smaller  hair-like  roots  of  these 
plants  and  cause  abnormal  swellings  called  nodules.  Within 


Liming  Wisconsin  Soils 


5 


these  nodules  the  nitrogen  from  the  soil  air  is  “fixed”  in  some  way, 
that  is,  the  nitrogen  gas  is  built  up  into  fertilizing  materials  which 
the  legumes  can  use  in  their  growth.  Under  proper  conditions,  there- 
fore, these  plants  can  get  their  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  grow  on  soils 
which  do  not  contain  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrates  or  ammonium 
compounds,  as  is  necessary  for  the  growth  of  other  crops. 

The  bacteria  which  form  nodules  on  medium  red  clover,  alfalfa,  and 
sweet  clover,  require  more  lime  than  the  bacteria  which  develop  nod- 
ules on  the  roots  of  some  other  legumes  such  as  cowpeas,  lupines, 
and  serradella. 

Medium  red  clover,  mammoth  clover,  and  alfalfa  can  fix  more  nitro- 
gen in  a season  than  can  those  legumes  which  can  grow  on  soils  de- 
ficient in  lime.  Furthermore,  they  are  better  forage  crops  than  most, 
if  not  all  legumes  which  will  grow  on  lime  deficient  soils  because  they 
can  be  made  into  hay  more  readily.  Alfalfa  yields  larger  amounts  of 
valuable  feed  than  legumes  which  thrive  on  lime  deficient  soils.  It  is,  there- 
fore, desirable  to  lime  the  soils  when  necessary  and  grow  clover  and 
alfalfa,  rather  than  to  raise  legume  crops  that  will  tolerate  lime  defi- 
cient soils.  Nevertheless,  where  the  cost  of  lime  is  too  great  on  ac- 
count of  distance  from  an  available  supply,  or  for  other  reasons,  these 
second  rate  legumes  should  be  used  to  maintain  the  nitrogen  supply 
of  the  soil. 

Legumes  Need  Phosphates  as  Well  as  Lime 

Legumes,  like  all  other  plants,  require  mineral  elements  such  as  phos- 
phorus and  potassium  as  well  as  lime.  Therefore,  even  legumes  which 
are  able  to  obtain  their  nitrogen  from  the  air  must  depend  on  the 
supply  of  these  mineral  elements  present  in  the  soil.  Their  growth 
will  thus  be  limited  unless  an  abundant  supply  of  these  elements  is  pres- 
ent in  the  soil  in  an  available  form.  Well-rotted  barnyard  manure  is 
an  excellent  source  of  these  mineral  elements  and  the  heaviest  crops 
of  clover  and  alfalfa  can  be  grown  by  using  it  as  a fertilizer.  How- 
ever, in  using  barnyard  manure  for  leguminous  crops  these  plants  are 
being  fed  nitrogen  and  are  not  forced  to  gather  it  from  the  air.  Unless 
the  entire  farm  is  already  in  a high  state  of  fertility  and  a sufficient 
supply  of  manure  is  produced  to  fertilize  every  field  abundantly,  it  is 
better  to  purchase  at  least  limited  quantities  of  phosphorus  and  lime 
needed  to  permit  the  maximum  growth  of  legumes,  especially  of  alfalfa. 
The  manure  may  then  be  applied  to  land  on  which  other  crops  such 
as  corn  and  grain  are  grown  so  that  the  nitrogen  in  the  manure  will 
be  used  to  the  best  advantage. 

Relation  of  Lime  to  Available  Phosphorus 

Phosphorus  is  ordinarily  present  in  soils  in  very  limited  amounts, 
and  since  it  is  sold  in  practically  every  product  which  leaves  the  farm 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  361 


it  is  in  greatest  danger  of  serious  reduction.  The  bones  of  animals 
sold  take  it  off  the  farm  in  concentrated  form.  On  a large  fraction  of 
the  farms  of  the  state  the  supply  of  phosphorus  is  too  small  to  per- 
mit the  largest  yields  of  crops. 

Even  though  practically  all  the  crops  grown  on  the  farm  are  fed 
and  the  manure  returned,  there  is  still  a considerable  loss  of  phos-- 
phorus  from  the  farm  in  the  bones  of  animals  or  milk  sold.  Only  the 
purchase  of  considerable  bran,  oil  meal,  or  other  feed  high  in  protein 
or  of  phosphorus  fertilizers  will  replace  this  element. 


i 


Fig.  2— MOST  ACID  SOILS  RESPOND  TO  PHOSPHATE  FERTILIZERS 

On  this  acid  prairie  soil,  the  addition  of  phosphate  produced  a larger 
yield  of  corn  and  ears  of  better  quality.  Corn  from  the  phosphate  plot  on 
right.  On  such  land,  corn  and  oats  need  phosphate  especially,  while  clover 
or  alfalfa  require  lime  in  addition  to  phosphate. 


There  appears  to  be  a close  connection  between  the  amount  of  lime 
in  the  soil  and  the  availability  of  phosphorus.  In  general,  acid  soils  low 
in  lime  are  also  low  in  available  phosphorus  and  respond  to  a phosphate 
fertilizer.  Black  prairie  soils  which  have  long  been  cropped  are  very 
deficient  in  available  phosphorus  (Fig.  2),  although  they  still  have  a good 
supply  of  nitrogen.  Marsh  soils  low  in  lime  need  phosphorus  as  well 
as  potassium,  while  those  high  in  lime  usually  need  potassium  only, 
at  least  during  the  first  few  years  of  cropping. 


Liming  Wisconsin  Soils 


7 


How  Much  Lime  to  Use 

The  sketch  map  Fig.  3 shows  the  most  important  soil  areas  in  the 
state.  The  lime  requirements  of  each  can  be  fairly  well  stated. 

No.  1 — Unglaciated  Limestone  Area.— Long  leaching  and  cropping 
of  these  soils  has  removed  much  of  the  available  lime,  especially  on  the 


Fig.  3.— THE  SIX  SOIL  AREAS  IN  WISCONSIN  HAVE  DIFFERENT  LIME 

REQUIREMENTS 


Lime  is  required  in  amounts  varying  from  2 to  4 tons  per  acre  for  the 
alfalfa  crop  on  areas  1,  3,  4 and  5.  Lime  is  generally  not  required  on  the 
heavy  red  clay  soils  even  for  the  alfalfa  crop. 

higher  portions ; so  in  that  region  the  use  of  two  to  three  tons  of 
ground  limestone  for  alfalfa  per  acre  when  first  seeded  and  one  to  two 
tons  at  each  later  seeding  is  quite  necessary  on  the  upper  slopes  and 
hill  tops.  An  application  of  one  to  two  tons  every  three  to  five  years 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  361 


will  probably  be  profitable  on  the  other  staple  crops  including  clover. 
The  soils  of  the  lower  slopes  and  valleys  of  this  region  have  in  many 
cases  received  considerable  lime  carried  down  by  the  water  seeping 
underground  from  the  higher  hillsides ; so  that  lime  is  less  necessary 
and  will  be  required  probably  only  for  alfalfa. 

No.  2. — Glaciated  Limestone  Soils — The  soils  of  this  region  were  ori- 
ginally formed  by  the  glacial  ice  grinding  up  some  of  the  limestone  rock 
and  mixing  it  with  the  surface  soil  previously  there.  Most  of  the  soils 
of  this  region,  therefore,  have  an  abundance  of  available  lime  in  their 
subsoils.  Nevertheless,  the  upper  slopes  and  hill  tops  have  often  been 
robbed  of  their  lime  by  leaching  and  the  growing  of  crops  to  such  an 
extent  that  an  application  of  ground  limestone  now,  at  least  for  alfalfa, 
is  necessary  to  get  the  best  results.  The  marsh  soils  of  this  region  are 
well  supplied  with  lime  brought  down  by  water  seeping  into  them 
from  surrounding  land  containing  lime. 

No.  3 — Sandy  Soils — The  soils  shown  as  No.  3 on  the  map  are 
practically  always  low  in  available  lime.  The  only  exception  to  this 
occurs  in  portions  of  Waushara,  Marquette,  and  Columbia  counties 
where  the  ice  flowed  across  from  a region  of  limestone  rock  onto  a re- 
gion of  sandstone  and  carried  with  it  more  or  less  ground  limestone. 
East  of  the  moraine  in  these  counties  some  fields  are  to  be  found  in  the 
soil  of  which  pebbles  and  grains  of  limestone  brought  by  the  ice  occur 
and  such  fields  are  therefore  well  supplied  with  lime.  Except  in  these 
limited  cases  the  sandy  soils  of  the  area  numbered  3 require  one  to 
two  tons  of  ground  limestone  or  marl  per  acre  every  four  to  six  years 
for  staple  crops,  including  corn,  rye  and  clover. 

When  seeding  down  to  alfalfa  a heavier  application  should  be  made 
and  probably  2 x/2  to  3 tons  of  ground  limestone  or  marl  is  the  most 
profitable  rate  for  the  first  application.  From  \l/2  to  2 tons  are  needed 
whenever  the  same  field  is  reseeded  to  alfalfa  thereafter. 

The  marsh  soils  of  the  sandy  area  are  low  in  lime  and  while  this 
has  not  been  a disadvantage  in  many  cases  so  far,  it  is  well  to  make 
a trial  as  suggested  on  page  4.  After  such  land  has  been  broken 
and  cropped  a few  years  it  is  quite  probable  that  lime  at  the  rate 
suggested  for  the  upland  will  be  found  profitable.  This  applies  es- 
pecially to  marsh  lands  lying  west  of  the  Wisconsin  river. 

No.  4 — Heavy  Silt  Loams — While  these  soils  are  very  acid  they  still 
have  a large  supply  of  available  lime,  making  further  application  on  new 
land  unnecessary  in  order  to  secure  good  yields  of  most  of  our  staple 
crops.  Experiments  at  the  Marshfield  Experiment  Station  indicate 
that  a light  application  of  1 y2  to  2 tons  per  acre  is  profitable  for  the 
staple  crops  including  oats,  corn,  and  clover  on  all  land  which  has  been 
under  crop  from  15  to  25  years.  For  alfalfa  in  this  section  three  tons 
per  acre  should  be  applied  when  first  seeded  and  1 x/2  to  2 tons  when- 
ever the  same  land  is  reseeded  to  this  crop.  Good  drainage  is  just 


Liming  Wisconsin  Soils 


9 


as  necessary  as  lime  for  alfalfa  on  this  soil.  The  marsh  soils  of  this 
region  are  lower  in  lime  than  the  upland  and  will  be  benefited  by  liming 
in  most  cases. 

No.  5. — Glaciated  Granite  Soils — These  soils  are  similar  to  the  heavy 
silt  loams  in  their  lime  requirements  and  the  same  rates  of  application 
should  be  used.  The  marsh  soils  of  this  area  are  also  similar  to  those 
in  the  area  of  heavy  silt  loams. 

.No.  6. — Red  Clay — This  soil  was  deposited  as  sediment  in  a former 
extension  of  the  Great  Lakes  during  the  glacial  period  and  is  well 
supplied  with  lime.  Only  on  a few  hill  tops  where  crops  have  been 
grown  a considerable  number  of  years  is  the  use  of  lime  necessary  even 
for  alfalfa  but  good  drainage  is  always  essential  for  that  crop. 

What  Liming  Does 

Space  will  not  permit  the  recording  of  the  results  of  all  field  trials 
where  lime  has  been  used.  The  beneficial  effect  of  lime  on  acid  soils  is 
illustrated  by  the  results  of  only  a few  field  tests  which  follow.  At 
Ellis  Junction,  Marinette  county,  two  plots  of  alfalfa  were  seeded  in  the 
same  field  of  acid  sandy  soil  without  a nurse  crop.  One  plot  received 
an  application  of  air-slaked  lime  at  the  rate  of  one  ton  per  acre.  The 
other  plot  received  no  lime.  Both  were  manured  at  the  rate  of  6 loads 
per  acre  and  inoculated.  The  following  year  2,080  pounds  (from  two 
cuttings)  of  alfalfa  hay  were  cut  per  acre  on  the  limed  plot,  and  only 
1,340  pounds  per  acre  on  the  unlimed.  This  shows  a gain  of  55.2  per 
cent  in  favor  of  lime. 

In  another  field  at  the  same  place  two  other  plots  were  seeded  to  al- 
falfa the  same  year.  One  plot  was  limed  and  the  other  received  no  lime. 
Two  cuttings  were  made  on  each  plot.  Exactly  2,780  pounds  of  hay 
per  acre  tvere  taken  off  the  limed  plot  and  1,940  pounds  per  acre  from 
the  unlimed.  This  represents  a 43.3  per  cent  increase  due  to  lime.  The 
quality  of  the  hay  was  also  improved  as  about  20  per  cent  of  the  hay 
cut  on  the  unlimed  plot  was  June  grass  while  the  crop  on  the  limed  plot 
was  good  alfalfa  hay. 

At  the  Sparta  substation  two  plots  of  acid  sandy  soil  were  seeded  to 
mammoth  clover  without  a nurse  crop.  One  plot  was  treated  with 
ground  limestone  at  the  rate  of  one  ton  per  acre  before  seeding,  and 
the  other  received  no  lime.  The  following  year  1,906  pounds  of  clover 
hay  were  cut  per  acre  from  the  limed  plot  while  the  crop  on  the  un- 
limed plot  was  a failure. 

Mammoth  clover  growing  on  acid  sandy  soil  treated  with  lime  and 
manure  gave  a yield  of  5,063  pounds  of  hay  per  acre  while  on  land  treat- 
ed with  manure  alone  the  yield  was  3,566  pounds.  This  shows  a gain 
of  nearly  42  per  cent  in  favor  of  lime. 

Soybeans  on  limed  soil  produced  6.96  tons  of  green  crop  per  acre. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  361 


Only  2.27  tons  were  cut  per  acre  where  no  lime  was  applied.  In  this 
case  the  lime  more  than  doubled  the  yield.  The  following  year  the 
yields  on  limed  plots  were  66.6  and  77.8  per  cent  greater  than  on  un- 
limed soil. 

When  three  tons  of  pulverized  limestone  were  applied  to  an  acre  of 
silt  loam  soil  on  a farm  near  Barron,  Wisconsin,  the  barley  crop  was 
increased  from  35  to  50  bushels  per  acre.  This  is  an  increase  of  over 
42  per  cent  of  grain.  Additional  returns  for  the  limestone  were  also 
received  due  to  the  increase  in  the  alfalfa  crop  that  followed. 

On  the  Green  county  farm  at  Monroe,  Wisconsin,  a 4 ton  application 
of  pulverized  limestone  resulted  in  a yield  of  16,200  pounds  of  green 
alfalfa  on  an  acre,  while  the  unlimed  area  produced  only  11,200  pounds 
of  green  alfalfa.  This  is  a 30.8  per  cent  increase  due  to  an  application 
of  limestone. 

Liming  Materials  That  May  Be  Used 

Since  there  are  so  many  different  “limes”  upon  the  market  that  may  be 
used  for  soil  improvement,  the  farmer  naturally  becomes  puzzled  as  to 
which  is  the  best  form  to  use.  The  action  of  all  these  limes  in  the 
soil  is  practically  the  same ; the  only  difference  there  may  be  is  in  their 
quickness  of  action.  Burnt  lime,  for  example,  has  a quicker  action 
upon  the  soil  than  ground  limestone  because  of  its  caustic  properties ; 
while  marl  when  evenly  spread  produces  quicker  results  than  ground 
limestone  because  it  is  a much  more  friable  and  finely  divided  material. 

Just  what  choice  is  to  be  made  depends  largely  upon  the  initial  cost, 
freight,  distance  to  be  hauled,  time  and  labor  required  to  get  it  spread 
upon  the  field,  and  the  kind  of  soil.  Concentration  and  fineness  should, 
in  a large  measure,  determine  the  real  value  of  any  form  of  agricultural 
lime.  Too  high  a water  content  will  make  even  ground  limestone  a 
very  expensive  material.  It  is  very  important  that  the  farmer  know 
the  water  content  of  any  form  of  lime  before  buying,  so  that  he  may  be 
able  to  get  the  greatest  amount  of  carbonates  for  his  money. 

Pulverized  Limestone  Used 

Pulverized  limestone  is  the  main  form  of  lime  now  used  in  this  state. 
Fortunately  Wisconsin  is  supplied  with  unlimited  quantities  of  high 
quality  limestone  suitable  to  be  crushed  and  pulverized  for  agricultural  use 
(See  map  on  page  13.)  The  quarries  are  fairly  evenly  distributed  over 
southern  and  eastern  Wisconsin,  but  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the 
state  they  are  rather  scattered  and  not  very  numerous.  The  sandy 
central  portion  of  the  state  as  well  as  most  of  the  northern  part  has 
practically  no  limestone  deposits  of  value. 

Practically  all  of  the  limestone  in  Wisconsin  is  known  as  “dolomite.” 
It  contains  a mixture  of  calcium  and  magnesium  carbonates.  The  mag- 
nesium carbonates  often  make  up  45  per  cent  of  the  mixture.  It  was 


Liming  Wisconsin  Soils 


11 


formerly  thought  that  the  magnesium  was  injurious  to  plant  growth, 
but  recent  experiments  and  field  trials  show  that  the  dolomitic  car- 
bonates have  no  detrimental  effect. 


Fig.  4.— A LOCAL  SOURCE  OF  LIME 


There  are  hundreds  of  limestone  quarries  in 
Wisconsin  that  can  supply  the  stone  for 
the  portable  limestone  grinding  machines. 
In  many  quarries  the  limestone  is  loosely 
laid  in  thinner  layers  than  is  the  case  in 
this  quarry.  The  cost  of  quarrying  the 
stone  is  much  less  where  it  is  found  in  thin 
layers. 


Dolomitic  limestones  are 
just  as  valuable  for  farm- 
ing as  limestone  containing 
nothing  but  calcium  car- 
bonates. However,  not  all 
the  limestone  deposits  in 
the  state  are  suitable  for 
agricultural  use.  A lime- 
stone should  have  at 
least  90  per  cent  calcium 
and  magnesium  carbonates 
to  warrant  its  use.  Lime- 
stone often  contains  rather 
large  amounts  of  flint  and 
sand  as  impurities.  The 
only  accurate  way  to  find 
out  the  true  value  of  a 
limestone  is  by  a chemical 
analysis.  Samples  carefully 
taken  so  as  to  represent 
the  quarries  from  which 
they  come  will  be  analyzed 
free  for  the  citizens  of 
Wisconsin  by  the  Soils  De- 
partment, College  of  Agri- 
culture. 


Portable  Grinding  Machine  Succeeds 

Fifteen  years  ago  many  people  questioned  the  success  of  the  small 
portable  lime  grinding  machines.  They  did  not  believe  that  machines 
could  be  built  strong  enough  to  stand  the  strain  of  rock  grinding.  The 
experience  of  the  operators  of  these  machines  has  now  proven  that  it 
is  a practical  method  of  preparing  agricultural  limestone.  Accurate 
figures  as  to  the  amount  of  limestone  pulverized  by  these  machines  in 
Wisconsin  are  not  available  but  it  has  been  estimated  that  up-to-date 
they  have  produced  about  50,000  tons.  If  all  this  limestone  was  to  be 
loaded  on  cars  holding  50  tons  each,  it  would  make  a long  train  of 
1000  freight  cars.  Only  a start  has  been  made,  however,  for  if  all  of 
this  50,000  tons  were  to  be  applied  to  all  the  land  surface  in  a regular 
township  there  would  not  be  enough  to  make  even  a two  ton  application, 
to  each  acre.  There  should  be  many  more  machines  operating  in  Wis- 
consin right  now  for  there  is  much  work  for  them  to  do. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  361 


The  Portable  Grinder  Eliminates  Long  Haul — Farmers  have  question- 
ed the  wisdom  and  economy  ol  hauling  limestone  more  than  three  or 
four  miles  over  steep  hills  and  rough  roads  from  their  nearest  railroad 

station  to  the  farm.  No  doubt,  many  farmers  were  justified  in  not 

using  lime  when  the  farm  was  iocated  more  than  four  miles  from  the 
railway  station.  Fortunately,  thousands  of  farmers  in  Wisconsin  have 
limestone  quarries  within  four  miles  or  even  closer  to  their  farms. 
These  farmers  are  the  ones  who  receive  the  greatest  service  from  the 
lime  grinder.  They  can  haul  their  lime  from  the  quarry  when  their 
time  permits  and  when  the  roads  are  best.  They  need  not  worry  about 

demurrage  charges  on  cars  that  have  not  been  unloaded  by  a speci- 

fied time.  Agricultural  limestone  is  really  worth  more  to  farmers  when 
piled  up  for  them  in  a near-by  quarry  than  it  is  in  the  freight  car  at  the 
railway  station. 


Fig.  5.— A LIME  GRINDER  IN  ACTION 

The  pioneer  farmers  in  Green  Lake  County  built  their  fences  of  limestone. 
Today  the  limestone  in  these  old  fences  is  being  pulverized  and  applied  to  the 
fields  to  make  the  conditions  right  for  the  alfalfa  crop. 

Field  for  the  Lime  Grinder — The  portable  lime  grinding  machine  can 
be  of  greatest  service  to  farmers  only  in  communities  that  are  fortunate 
enough  to  have  quarries  containing  high  analysis  limestone ; and  these 
quarries  should  be  evenly  distributed  over  the  area,  so  farmers  will  not 


Liming  Wisconsin  Soils 


13 


be  obliged  to  haul  their  limestone  more  than  four  miles.  The  lime 
grinding  in  the  past  has  been  done  largely  in  Rock,  Green,  Iowa,  Green 
Lake,  La  Fayette,  Dane,  Grant  and  Walworth  counties.  These  areas 
have  a rather  wide  and  even  distribution  of  good  limestone  quarries 
that  are  also  very  accessible.  To  be  sure  the  portable  lime  grinder  will 


aAYritLO 


SAWYER 


jPPEWAl 


EAU  CLAIRE 


• Marl  pits  used  v£ 

".'63'  > 

n Marl  excavations  P 


x Portable  limestone 

GRINDERS  £ 

? Dealers  and  1 

MANUFACTURERS 
OF  AGRICULTURAL  W 
LIME 


worn  jpofr 

tASC'-* 

U;  □ 
_X/  □ 

Fig.  6.— LOCATION  OF  THE  MAIN  SOURCES  OF  LIME  IN  WISCONSIN 


The  main  source  of  lime  in  Wisconsin  is  pulverized  limestone  which  is 
produced  by  commercial  companies  and  by  portable  lime  grinding  machines. 
The  marl  deposits  are  proving  to  be  a valuable  source  of  lime  in  areas  not 
supplied  with  limestone. 


operate  in  Door,  Outagamie,  Columbia,  Sauk,  Crawford,  Vernon,  Mon- 
roe, La  Crosse  and  Buffalo  counties  as  well  as  other  counties  where 
good  limestone  quarries  are  not  so  numerous  and  also  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  many  of  them  are  rather  inaccessible. 

Limestone  Should  Be  Tested — A lime  grinder  should  not  operate  in  a 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  361 


quarry  until  the  limestone  has  been  analyzed  and  found  to  be  of  high 
quality  . When  a farmer  pays  out  hard  earned  cash  for  limestone  and 
spends  much  time  and  labor  applying  it  to  his  fields  he  certainly  should 
know  that  he  is  buying  high  analysis  limestone.  Therefore  before  any 
limestone  quarry  is  operated  one  or  more  samples  should  be  taken 
from  the  quarry  and  mailed  to  the  Soils  Department,  College  of  Agri- 
culture, Madison,  Wisconsin,  for  analysis. 

How  to  Collect  a Sample  for  Analysis — In  taking  samples  of  lime- 
stone to  examine  it  for  its  fitness  for  agricultural  use,  the  following 
points  should  be  observed : 

(1)  If  the  bed  or  quarry  shows  strata,  or  layers  of  different  degrees 
of  hardness,  or  layers  containing  different  amounts  of  chert  or  flint,  then 


Fig.  7.— A LOCAL  SUPPLY  OF  LIMESTONE 

A.  H.  Douglas,  Brodhead,  Wisconsin,  pulverized  these  piles  of  limestone 
with  his  portable  lime  grinder  for  individual  farmers  in  Green  County.  The 
machine  was  equipped  with  a weigher  taken  from  a grain  separator  and 
the  limestone  in  these  piles  was  actually  weighed  for  each  farmer  as  it  was 
being  produced. 

a separate  sample  should  be  taken  of  each  stratum  or  bed.  Often  there 
is  a two  or  three  foot  layer  which  is  much  softer  than  the  others,  and 
relatively  free  from  chert  or  flint.  This  can  be  ground  with  much  less 
expense,  provided  it  has  a sufficient  degree  of  purity. 

(2)  In  collecting  each  sample  take  a large  number  of  small  chips  an 
inch  or  so  in  diameter  from  different  places  in  the  bed  or  stratum  so  as 
to  get  an  average  sample.  Take  enough  to  make  a quart. 

(3)  The  sample  should  be  accompanied  by  a statement  describing  the 
bed  or  exposure,  giving  its  depth,  width,  and  the  lay  of  the  land,  which 


Liming  Wisconsin  Soils 


15 


would  affect  the  readiness  with  which  the  rock  could  be  gotten  out, 
and  the  mill  placed  for  grinding. 

County  Lime  Grinding  Successful — The  county  agent  knows  the  need 
for  lime  and  can  become  an  active  director  of  the  lime  grinding  work. 
Splendid  examples  of  this  kind  of  work  have  been  done  in  Rock. 
Green,  Iowa,  Green  Lake  and  a few  other  counties.  The  county  agent 
calls  meetings  where  farmers  sign  con- 
tracts that  keep  the  lime  grinding  ma- 
chine busy.  He  prefers  to  have  the  ma- 
chine operated  by  a man  who  is  mak- 
ing a business  of  grinding  limestone.  He 
knows  that  there  are  a great  many  ma- 
chines purchased  by  groups  of  farmers 


Fig.  8.— A COMBINATION  CRUSHER  AND  PULVERIZER 

This  shows  the  jaw  principle  for  crushing  and  the 
swing  hammer  principle  for  pulverizing.  This  combina- 
tion is  very  desirable  for  hard,  thick-bedded  limestone. 
A small  pulverizer  alone  mounted  on  a truck  is  con- 
venient for  farm  or  community  pulverizing  when  the 
limestone  is  thin  bedded. 


that  stand  idle 
part  of  the 
time ; and  that 
a man  who 
grinds  lime  for 
a living  will  get 
more  lime 
ground  than  a 
group  of  farm- 
ers who  gener- 
ally have  about 
all  the  work 
they  can  do  to 
keep  things 
running  on 
their  farms. 


No  doubt  a number  of  cooperatively  and  individually  owned  machines 
will  produce  lime  for  the  owners  of  farms  as  well  as  for  a few  of  the 
neighbors.  All  of  these  methods  of  machine  ownership  and  operation 
are  going  to  help  Wisconsin  farmers  get  lime  on  their  fields,  but 
progress  of  a lime  program  in  any  county  will  be  slow  without  a county 
agent  to  direct  it,  and  without  some  hard-working,  efficient  man  who 
makes  a business  of  grinding  lime  for  farmers  at  a definite  price  per  ton. 

Making  Lime  Grinding  a Business — It  is  essential  to  purchase  a ma- 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  361 


chine  with  not  less  than  30  tons  capacity  for  a ten  hour  working  day. 
Machines  equipped  with  both  crusher  and  pulverizer  are  giving  satis- 
faction generally. 

To  operate  these  machines  at  full  capacity  it  is  necessary  to  have 
plenty  of  power.  Machines  that  have  a capacity  of  30  tons  for  a ten 
hour  day  give  best  results  when  operated  with  a 15-30  gas  tractor.  It 
is  an  advantage  to  have  surplus  power.  The  man  who  operates  a lime 
grinder  should  understand  machinery  for  his  financial  success  depends 
a great  deal  on  keeping  the  machinery  operating  continuously.  It  will 
also  depend  on  his  ability  to  place  his  machinery  so  that  the  limestone 
can  be  brought  to  the  machine  most  cheaply.  The  machine  must  be 
pulverizing  limestone  all  the  time  that  it  is  in  operation  in  order  to 
produce  tonnage  enough  to  make  the  enterprise  a financial  success.  A 
platform  should  be  built  up  nearly  level  with  the  mouth  of  the  pul- 
verizer, on  which  the  rock  can  be  dumped  and  from  which  it  can 
be  easily  fed  to  the  machine.  Ordinarily  a crew  of  four  men  is  used  to 
operate  to  the  best  advantage,  but  the  number  required  depends  on  the 
ease  or  difficulty  of  getting  the  rock  out  of  the  quarry  and  to  the  ma- 
chine. 


Fig.  9— ROCK  COUNTY  GRINDS  LIME 

Many  piles  similar  to  this  200  ton  pile  of 
pulverized  limestone  may  be  seen  in  Rock 
county.  George  K.  Nelson  operates  this 
machine  which  has  pulverized  5,000  tons  of 
limestone  for  Rock  county  farmers  during  the 
past  three  years. 


machines  in  quarries  of  this  kind  must 
finished  limestone  than  is  necessary  in 
loose,  in  thin  layers,  and  easy  to  take 
Wisconsin  farmers  are  paying  all  the  way 


Cost  of  Lime  Grinding — 

Figures  as  to  the  actual  cost 
of  lime  grinding  are  almost 
impossible  to  get  because  of 
the  wide  variety  of  condi- 
tions. Some  quarries  can 
be  opened  up  easily  and 
cheaply  while  others  re- 
quire considerable  strip- 
ping away  of  earth.  Some 
limestone  is  soft  and  more 
brittle  than  other  stone. 
The  soft  brittle  stone  will 
generally  go  through  the 
machine  much  more  rapid- 
ly than  hard  stone.  In  some 
quarries  the  stone  is  found 
in  thick  layers  and  it  can 
easily  be  seen  that  much 
labor  is  required  to  get  the 
stone  loose  as  well  as  to 
break  it  up  small  enough  for 
the  machine.  Men  operating 
get  more  per  ton  for  their 
quarries  where  the  stone  is 
out  and  break.  At  present, 
from  $2  to  $3  per  ton  depend- 


Liming  Wisconsin  Soils 


17 


ing  on  local  conditions.  Any  farmer  ought  to  be  willing  to  pay  at  least 
as  much  for  limestone  pulverized  locally  as  he  would  have  to  pay  for 
“shipped  in”  limestone  of  equal  quality.  Some  farmers  have  made  ar- 
rangements to  haul  their  limestone  directly  from  the  machine  as  it  is 
produced  and  thus  the  charges  for  grinding  can  be  reduced  a little  be- 
cause it  is  not  necessary  to  shovel  the  limestone  away  from  the  ma- 
chine. It  also  saves  the  farmer  the  labor  of  handling  it  once.  The 
labor  cost  is  one  of  the  big  factors  in  the  entire  liming  proposition  and 
anything  that  will  reduce  it  should  certainly  be  done. 

In  many  communities  the  farmer  furnishes  the  stone  free  to  his 
neighbors  but  the  usual  charge  is  10  cents  per  ton  for  the  raw  stone. 
No  doubt,  the  owner  of  the  quarry  is  entitled  to  this  small  charge  be- 
cause farmers  are  driving  across  his  land  and  there  may  be  some  wear 
and  tear  on  gates. 

# 

Use  of  Mine  Tailings 

Tailings  are  a by-product  of  the  lead  and  zinc  mines  in  southwestern 
Wisconsin.  Near  some  of  the  mines  are  piles  containing  thousands  of 
tons  of  these  tailings.  In  the  past,  this  material  was  used  largely  for 
road  building  but  it  may  be  used  as  a source  of  agricultural  lime.  The 
lime  content  may  vary  from  50  to  90  per  cent,  so  it  is  advisable  to  have 
samples  of  tailings  analyzed  in  order  to  determine  their  true  value 
before  use. 

The  degree  of  fineness  of  the  tailings  varies  at  different  mines,  but 
as  a rule  the  material  is  rather  coarse.  It  is  advisable  to  use  from 
50  per  cent  to  75  per  cent  more  tailings  than  would  be  needed  of  finely 
pulverized  limestone.  They  should,  if  possible,  be  applied  a year  or 
two  in  advance  of  the  time  of  seeding  the  alfalfa  crop.  When  used  in 
this  way,  the  coarse  particles  will  have  more  time  to  react  with  the 
soil.  Farmers  living  near  these  mine  tailing  piles  will  do  well  to  haul 
them  on  their  fields  in  order  to  get  the  land  in  condition  to  grow  alfalfa. 
A few  farmers  have  already  established  splendid  alfalfa  fields  with  the 
aid  of  tailings,  but  their  use  can  become  much  more  general. 

Tailings  may  contain  small  amounts  of  lead  and  zinc  compounds 
which  might  prove  poisonous  to  plants.  Farmers  who  plan  to  apply 
tailings  to  their  fields  in  the  future  should  avoid  the  use  of  tailings 
from  the  parts  of  the  piles  that  contain  much  lead  and  zinc.  The  number 
of  farmers  who  report  unfavorable  results  from  the  use  of  tailings 
is  very  small  as  compared  with  the  great  number  that  have  had  good 
results.  More  field  experimental  work  needs  to  be  done  to  determine 
more  definitely  the  true  value  of  tailings  for  soil  improvement  work. 

Marl  Found  in  State 

Marl  is  a form  of  carbonate  of  lime  that  has  been  deposited  from 
water.  Pure  marl  has  a chalky  white  color  but  ordinarily  marl  is  blue 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  361 


gray,  or  grayish  in  color,  intermixed  with  white  or  gray  colored  re- 
mains of  snail  shells,  clam  shells,  or  other  shell  fish.  Part  of  this  marl 
comes  from  the  remains  of  these  shell  fish,  other  parts  come  from  lime 
washed  out  of  the  soil  through  drainage  waters  and  secreted  by  plants. 
This  lime  is  carried  to  lakes  and  rivers  and  creeks  and  deposited  there. 

Blue  clay  often  resembles  marl  but  if  hydrochloric  acid  is  added  to 
marl  it  will  bubble  or  effervesce  while  with  clay  no  action  will  be  seen. 
The  purity  of  the  sample  is  determined  by  the  amount  of  marl  that 
disappears  in  the  acid  test.  Such  impurities,  as  sand  or  clay  will  re- 
main. Pure  marl  will  disappear  almost  entirely  if  sufficient  acid  is 
added. 

Most  of  the  marl  deposits  in  the  state  are  covered  with  water,  peat, 


Fig.  10— A MARL  DRYING  AND  PULVERIZING  PLANT 
Wisconsin  has  many  lakes  from  which  marl  may  be  dredged.  Thousands 
of  tons  of  marl  have  been  dredged  out  of  lake  bottoms  this  year.  It  is  put 
in  big  piles  on  the  shores  of  lakes  and  after  it  has  air-dried,  farmers  haul 
it  to  their  farms.  This,  however,  is  the  only  marl  drying  and  pulverizing 
plant  in  operation  at  present  in  Wisconsin. 

or  muck  soils  which  means  that  marl  is  saturated  with  water.  This 
fac+,  together  with  the  difficulty  of  getting  the  marl  has  limited  its 
use  up  to  the  present. 


Liming  Wisconsin  Soils 


19 


Value  of  Marl — Pure  marl  is  just  as  valuable  as  the  best  limestone 
on  the  market,  providing  both  are  equally  dry.  Marl  has  been  used 
in  agriculture  both  here  and  in  Europe  with  very  good  results.  Farm- 
ers near  marl  beds  have  used  small  quantities  on  their  legume  crops 
with  good  success ; and  its  use  has  passed  beyond  the  experimental 
stage. 

Marl  Excavators  Obtainable — Small  portable  cableway  marl  exca- 
vators have  been  invented  recently  to  dredge  or  move  marl  to  places 
where  it  can  be  air  dried,  loaded  on  wagons,  and  hauled  away  to  farm- 
ers. This  excavator  costs  between  $800  to  $900  set  up.  Power  in  the 
form  of  an  ordinary  tractor  or  12  to  15  horsepower  stationary  engine 
is  not  included  and  must  be  supplied  extra  by  the  purchaser. 

The  actual  cost  of  getting  out  a yard  of  marl  is  not  over  50  cents  and 
is  usually  less.  Adding  to  this  the  cost  of  marl,  overhead,  and  other 
charges  plus  profit,  means  that  the  total  cost  per  cubic  yard  should  us- 
ually not  be  over  a dollar. 

Before  buying  and  installing  a marl  dredge  these  points  should  be 
considered : 

1.  The  quality  of  the  marl. 

2.  The  demand  for  marl.  Get  signed  requests.  Does  soil  need  it? 

3.  Supply  of  marl  available  or  obtainable  in  the  marl  bed. 

4.  Efficiency  of  operator. 

5.  Reasonable  charges. 

6.  Convenient  placing  of  marl  for  hauling. 

A number  of  these  marl  excavators  will  be  used  in  central  Wiscon- 
sin in  the  near  future.  Further  data  can  be  secured  from  the  Soils 
Department,  College  of  Agriculture,  Madison,  Wisconsin. 

Shell  Dust  Useful — Small  amounts  of  ground  shells  may  be  had  from 
button  factories  along  the  Mississippi  River.  After  the  clam  shells 
have  been  bored  for  “blanks”  they  are  run  through  a pulverizing  ma- 
chine. Dry  shell  dust  will  contain  about  95  per  cent  lime  carbonate.  A 
very  limited  amount  of  this  material  is  available ; probably  only  a 
few  hundred  tons  are  produced  yearly. 

Burned  Lime  or  Quick  Lime — “Burned  lime”  is  ordinary  lime  prepared 
by  burning  lumps  of  limestone  to  a red  heat  in  kilns.  The  terms 
“quicklime,”  “caustic  lime”  “lump  lime,”  aad  “builder’s  lime”  are  also 
given  to  it.  This  is  the  most  concentrated  and  caustic  form  in  which 
lime  is  supplied.  One  ton  of  burned  lime  is  equal  to  two  tons  of  pul- 
verized limestone;  hence  this  form  of  lime  may  be  used  to  advantage 
by  a farmer  who  lives  a long  distance  from  a railroad  for  the  hauling 
expense  will  be  reduced  one-half.  It  must  be  air  or  water  slaked  to  a 
dry,  powdered  condition  before  spreading. 

Air  Slacked  Lime — This  is  formed  when  ‘burned  lime”  is  exposed  to 
air  and  moisture  for  some  time.  The  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air  is 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  361 


absorbed  and  converted  into  carbonate  of  lime.  It  is  finely  divided 
and  may  be  applied  directly  to  the  land.  It  has  the  same  composition 
and  value  as  ground  limestone.  Sometimes  large  quantities  of  air 
slacked  lime,  known  as  “damaged  lime”  or  “refuse  lime”  may  be 
bought  at  a very  low  figure,  or  for  the  mere  cost  of  loading  and  freight, 
from  lime  dealers,  kilns,  or  users  of  large  quantities  of  burned  lime. 
Farmers  living  near  have  a very  cheap  source  of  lime. 

Lime  from  Beet-Sugar  Factories — Two  forms  of  lime  may  be  had 

from  beet-sugar  factories.  One  is  refuse  lime  from  the  kilns  and  slack- 
ing tanks,  and  the  other  is  lime  carbonates  from  the  filter  presses. 
These  materials  are  thrown  into  dumps  where,  on  exposure  to  the  air, 
they  pass  over  into  a material  consisting  of  air  and  water-slacked 
lime.  This  may  contain  from  30  to  60  per  cent  water  so  it  is  impracti- 
cable to  pay  freight  on  it  any  great  distance  unless  it  is  at  least  par- 
tially dried.  Farmers  living  near  beet-sugar  factories  find  this  a very 
cheap  source  of  lime.  It  can  be  spread  only  by  hand  or  with  a manure 
spreader. 

The  lime  carbonate  from  the  presses  may  be  applied  to  soils  after 
it  has  been  allowed  to  air-dry  in  the  dumps.  It  contains  in  addition  to 
lime  carbonate,  traces  of  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium  absorbed 
from  the  beet  juices.  When  dry  this  material  is  a very  pure  form  of 
lime. 

Waste  Lime  from  Paper  Mills — Central  Wisconsin  has  a number  of 
paper  mills  that  use  pure  burnt  lime  in  their  purifying  processes.  This 
lime,  after  use,  is  dumped  in  their  yards.  A number  of  Wisconsin 
farmers  have  used  this  lime  with  good  results.  This  grade  of  lime 
can  be  recommended  safely  for  farms  near  these  paper  mills.  There 
are  mills  at  Mosinee,  Stevens  Point,  Nekoosa,  Kaukauna,  Peshtigo  and 
other  places.  Each  of  these  mills  has  a large  supply  of  waste  lime 
on  hand.  Some  of  them  have  given  a permit  to  farmers  to  haul  the 
lime  away  without  cost  and  many  are  using  this  lime  at  present. 

When  and  How  to  Apply  Lime 

Any  form  of  lime  should  be  applied  previous  to  the  crops  which  give 
the  greatest  response  to  lime.  In  Wisconsin,  lime  is  used  mainly  to 
prepare  the  soil  for  the  clover  and  alfalfa  crops.  Whenever  possible  it 
may  be  applied  a year  in  advance  of  the  time  of  seeding  these  crops.  In 
order  to  prevent  losses  from  leaching,  it  is  advisable  to  apply  it  to 
plowed  land  and  mix  it  with  the  soil  by  harrowing.  Fall,  winter  or 
spring  applications  may  be  made  on  clay  soils,  but  on  light  sandy  soils 
spring  applications  are  preferable  so  as  to  prevent  leaching. 

Spreading  Lime  From  the  Wagon. — Any  form  of  lime  which  is  damp 
enough  to  prevent  blowing  can  be  spread  very  well  with  a shovel 
directly  from  the  wagon.  A little  skill  in  handling  the  shovel  will  enable 
the  operator  to  spread  it  both  quickly  and  evenly. 


Liming  Wisconsin  Soils 


21 


Fertilizer  Distributers  and  Lime  Spreaders. — Any  form  of  lime  that  is 
dry  and  pulverized  finely  enough  to  pass  a one-fourth  inch  screen  can 
be  applied  very  evenly  with  a two-wheeled,  drill  type  fertilizer  and 
lime  distributor.  The  machine  should  be  equipped  with  two  agitators. 
These  are  necessary  to  work  the  material  down  to  the  bottom  of  the 
hopper  so  it  will  feed  through  evenly  and  constantly.  These  machines 
spread  the  material  very  evenly  and  do  fairly  good  work  even  when  it 
is  quite  windy.  They  will  not  handle  satisfactorily  pulverized  lime- 
stone that  has  been  piled  in  the  field  and  become  wet. 

The  best  machine  to  use  for  handling  wet  pulverized  limestone  is 


Fig.ll.- — A DRILL  TYPE  LIME  AND  FERTILIZER  SOWER 

This  type  of  machine  will  give  very  even  distribution  of  dry  pulverized 
limestone  of  all  kinds.  There  is  some  limestone  in  Wisconsin,  howTever, 
that  will  not  feed  down  and  through  these  machines  when  it  becomes  wet. 

an  end-gate  spreader  that  may  be  attached  to  the  rear  of  a wagon  box. 
This  machine  requires  one  man  to  shovel  the  lime  into  the  hopper 
from  the  wagon  box  and  another  to  drive  the  team.  This  machine  will 
not  give  even  distribution  of  dry  fine  material  on  a windy  day.  With 
this  machine  a farmer  can  equip  one  rear  wheel  of  two  or  more  wagons 
with  driving  sprockets  and  the  machine  is  light  enough  so  that  it  may 
be  transferred  from  one  wagon  to  another.  This  method  saves  handling 
the  lime,  for  it  may  be  hauled  directly  from  the  railroad  and  spread  on 
the  land  at  once. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  361 


Spreading  Lime  by  Using  a Manure  Spreader. — Sometimes  a manure 
spreader  may  be  used  to  spread  lime.  The  spreader  is  set  at  its  lowest 
gear,  a few  inches  of  fine  manure  spread  over  the  bottom  of  the  box  to 
hold  the  lime  in,  and  the  lime  distributed  evenly  on  top  of  this  thin 
layer  of  manure.  If  three  tons  of  refuse  lime  are  to  be  applied  per 
acre,  and  the  machine  is  set  at  four  loads  per  acre,  as  on  lowest  gear, 
then  each  load  must  contain  at  least  1500  pounds  of  lime. 

Hints  on  Applying  Quicklime. — If  quicklime  is  to  be  used,  it  can  be 
hauled  to  the  field  and  placed  in  little  piles  on  the  plowed  land.  Fifty 


Fig.  12.— A GOOD  LIME  AND  FERTILIZER  SOWER 


The  end-gate  lime  and  fertilizer  sower  will  distribute  wet  limestone 
satisfactorily.  The  limestone  is  spread  over  a strip  16  feet  wide.  This 
type  of  machine  saves  one  handling  of  the  limestone,  but  a boy  is  needed 
to  drive  the  team  while  a man  shovels  the  limestone  from  the  wagon  box 
into  the  machine. 

pounds  in  each  pile  and  the  piles  placed  two  rods  apart  each  way,  will 
give  an  application  of  one  ton  per  acre.  This  lime  may  be  slacked 
either  by  pouring  a pailful  of  water  on  each  pile  or  covering  each  with 
moist  soil.  As  soon  as  the  lime  becomes  slaked,  the  finely  divided 
material  should  be  carefully  spread,  the  contents  of  each  pile  to  be 
spread  over  four  square  rods.  When  this  is  done,  the  field  is  harrowed 
to  work  the  lime  well  into  the  soil  where  it  must  be  to  do  its  work  in 
correcting  the  acidity. 

Under  no  consideration  should  quicklime  ever  be  applied  as  a top 
dressing  on  young  clover  or  alfalfa,  for  the  caustic  properties  of  this 
.form  of  lime  will  kill  the  young  plants. 


Liming  Wisconsin  Soils 


23 


Applying  Lime  as  a Top  Dressing. — Applying  lime  as  a top  dressing  on 
young  clover  or  alfalfa  growing  on  sandy  soils  may  prove  very  satis- 
factory if  kiln-dried  marl  or  finely  ground  limestone  are  used,  though 
better  results  are  obtained  by  liming  the  plowed  field  before  seeding. 
The  openness  of  a sandy  soil  enables  the  fine  lime  particles  to  work 
their  way  down  into  the  soil.  Top  dressings  on  heavy  clay  loam  or 
silt  loam  have  not  given  very  satisfactory  results,  for  these  soils  will 
not  permit  the  easy  entrance  of  the  lime  particles  as  in  case  of  sand. 

Sometimes,  however,  after  harvest  or  in  the  fall,  a farmer  wishes  to 
lime  his  spring  seeding  of  clover  or  alfalfa  on  clay  loam,  for  example, 
in  order  to  increase  the  yield  of  hay  the  next  year,  if  possible.  In 
such  a case,  partially  air-slacked  or  water-slacked  lime  applied  at  the 
rate  of  a ton  or  a ton  and  a half  per  acre  early  next  spring  before  the 
frost  is  out,  may  be  beneficial.  Such  an  application  should  never  be 
made  after  the  young  plants  have  started  their  new  year’s  growth, 
because  there  may  be  sufficient  caustic  lime  in  the  material  applied  to 
kill  them.  A sandy  soil  may  be  treated  in  the  same  way. 

Mixing  Lime  with  Manure. — It  is  not  good  practice  to  mix  burnt 
lime,  incompletely  air-slaked  or  water-slaked  lime  with  manure.  The 
caustic  properties  of  these  forms  of  lime  give  them  the  ability  to  hasten 
the  destruction  of  organic  matter,  hence  mixing  them  with  manure  will 
cause  excessive  losses  of  the  fertility,  especially  of  the  nitrogen  con- 
tained in  the  manure.  Ground  limestone,  marl,  and  ground  shells,  on 
the  other  hand,  may  be  mixed  and  applied  with  the  manure  with  no 
appreciable  harm. 

Most  farmers  apply  manure  on  land  to  be  cropped  to  corn  and  po- 
tatoes. Where  a manure  spreader  is  used,  it  is  convenient  to  apply 
ground  limestone  or  marl  at  the  same  time  by  spreading  it  evenly  on 
top  of  the  spreader  load.  If  eight  spreader  loads  of  manure  are  applied 
per  acre,  and  two  tons  of  pulverized  limestone  are  to  be  added,  then 
on  each  load  there  must  be  spread  500  pounds  of  limestone.  It  is  not 
considered  good  practice,  however,  to  lime  land  to  be  cropped  to  pota- 
toes, for  lime  favors  the  development  of  scab. 

Since  lime  is  applied  to  the  soil  to  benefit  the  growth  of  certain  le- 
gumes, the  effect  of  the  lime  applied  in  this  way  is  to  be  looked  for  in 
the  clover  and  alfalfa  following  the  corn  crop.  If  it  is  not  the  intention 
of  the  farmer  to  follow  the  corn  immediately  with  clover  or  alfalfa, 
(grain  may  be  the  nurse  crop),  it  would  be  better  to  withhold  the  lime 
application  until  directly  before  seeding  the  clover  or  alfalfa. 

Applying  limestone  or  marl  with  manure  on  corn  land  before  seed- 
ing to  clover  or  alfalfa  is  not  to  be  recommended  on  sandy  soil,  be- 
cause considerable  lime  may  leach  out  of  this  soil  and  become  lost 
before  the  clover  crop,  which  is  to  receive  the  benefit  of  the  liming,  is 
seeded. 

Handling  Lime. — Handling  burnt  lime,  dry  air-slaked  lime,  or  kiln- 
dried  marl  may  be  very  disagreeable  on  account  of  the  dust  inhaled. 
Wearing  a moist  sponge  under  the  nose  makes  the  dust  less  objection- 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  361 


able.  The  dust  collected  in  the  sponge  should  be  washed  out  now  and 
then  by  rinsing  it  in  a pail  of  water. 

Ground  limestone,  marl,  air-slaked  lime,  ground  shells,  and  lime 
carbonate  refuse  do  not  change  or  lose  any  of  their  power  to  correct 
acidity  on  exposure  to  the  weather.  Burnt  lime  and  water-slaked 
lime  gradually  change  over  into  carbonate  of  lime,  but  this  change  does 
not  lessen  their  value  for  neutralizing  acidity  in  soils. 

Lime  Alone  Cannot  Restore  Worn  Out  Land 

A soil  depleted  of  its  original  fertility  by  constant  cropping  and  which 
will  no  longer  produce  crops  at  a profit  without  fertilization,  is  con- 
sidered a ‘worn  out”  soil.  Such  a soil  may  have  lost  its  available  lime  and 
will  then  require  lime  as  the  first  step  in  its  improvement.  Lime  alone  how- 
ever, can  never  restore  that  soil  to  its  original  state  of  fertility.  Usually 
nitrogen  and  phosphorus  must  also  be  added, — the  nitrogen  best 
through  legumes,  the  phosphorus  in  some  form  of  phosphate  fertilizer. 

It  must  be  understood  that  lime  is  not  a panacea  for  all  soil  ail- 
ments, as  one  is  lead  to  believe  in  statements  such  as  the  following : 

“We  handle  no  other  fertilizer,  and  after  you  use  this  (meaning 
lime)  you  will  never  buy  any  other.” 

Statements  have  even  been  made  by  those  having  lime  to  sell  that  the 
Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  “has  quit  recommending  commercial 
fertilizer  to  any  one.”  This  is  far  from  the  truth.  For  example,  marsh 
soils  are  generally  deficient  in  potassium,  and  only  a potassium  fertiliz- 
er or  manure  can  supply  this  necessary  element.  Again,  it  is  recommend- 
ed that  soils  which  show  by  field  tests  a lack  of  phosphorus,  should  be 
treated  with  phosphorus  fertilizers. 

The  Value  of  Ashes 

Unleached  wood  ashes,  which  usually  contain  about  5 per  cent  po- 
tassium in  form  of  carbonates,  50  per  cent  carbonate  of  lime  and  about 
one-half  of  one  per  cent  of  phq^phorus,  are  especially  valuable  in  that 
they  not  only  act  as  neutralizers,  but  as  fertilizers  as  well.  Two  tons 
per  acre  would  add  to  the  soil  an  amount  of  lime  equal  to  about  one  ton 
of  air-slaked  lime,  potassium  equal  to  about  400  pounds  of  muriate  of 
potash,  and  phosphorus  equal  to  that  contained  in  about  300  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate.  One  ton  of  unleached  wood  ashes  per  acre  is  a good  ap- 
plication on  marsh  soils.  Ashes  are  especially  valuable  for  use  on 
marsh  soils  on  account  of  the  potash  they  contain  but  also  give  good 
results  on  sandy  soils  since  these  usually  need  both  lime  and  potash. 

Leached  wood  ashes  usually  contain  less  than  one  per  cent  of  potas- 
sium and  rather  more  lime  than  unleached  ashes.  Frequently  they  may 
be  obtained  from  dumps  in  a wet  condition,  which,  of  course,  lowers 
the  amount  of  actual  lime  contained  in  a ton.  The  usual  application  is 
from  two  to  three  tons  per  acre.  They  can  best  be  used  on  marsh  soils. 

Coal  ashes  have  no  value  as  a fertilizer  and  no  value  as  a source  of 
lime. 


;; 


illetin  362  March,  1924 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 

IF  I SHOULD  attempt  to  speak  of  the  progress  of  agricul- 
tural service  during  the  last  forty  years  I should  empha- 
size the  great  change  in  its  point  of  view — a change  largely 
brought  about  by  the  agricultural  experiment  stations. 

The  work  of  the  stations  in  earlier  days  was  in  large  meas- 
ure empirical — trying  out  and  correcting  traditional  ideas  and 
methods  of  agricultural  practice.  Its  methods  have  now  be- 
come those  of  applied  science — applying  and  testing  in  agri- 
culture the  results  of  scientific  investigation.  Such  new  de- 
partments as  genetics  and  plant  pathology,  with  their  new 
methods,  are  evidence  of  the  altered  situation.  From  these 
new  methods  have  come  results  even  more  fundamental  in  the 
altered  way  of  looking  at  the  facts  and  processes  of  agricul- 
ture. The  soil,  for  instance,  is  no  longer  thought  of  merely 
as  a receptacle  for  the  seed  or  even  as  a sort  of  chemical 
laboratory  where  sun  and  rain  are  constantly  at  work,  for 
the  benefit  or  injury  of  our  crops.  It  is  rather  an  aggregate 
of  living  organisms,  many  and  diverse  in  kind  and  infinitely 
numerous,  among  which  we  plant  the  seed  in  the  hope  of  in- 
troducing the  cultivated  plant  as  a sort  of  immigrant  into  a 
region  already  densely  populated. 

Such  a change  as  this  is  not  merely  a “new  fact;”  it  is  a 
new  outlook  into  nature — one  of  those  views  which  disclose 
the  possibilities  of  unlimited  progress  for  agriculture.  And 
the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station,  which  has  served  the  state  ' 
for  forty  years,  will  continue  to  be  an  indispensable  and  influ- 
ential leader  of  that  progress. 


E.  A.  BIRGE,  President. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Looking  Backward  5 

Introduction  12 

Limestone  and  Marl  to  Lower  Wisconsin  Feed  Bills 13 

Farmers  Use  Service  of  Soils  Laboratory 15 

New  Tests  for  Soils 15 

Activated  Sludge  Conserves  City  Waste  for  Fertilizer 17 

Fertilizers  Bring  Good  Results  on  Peat 20 

Tillage  Trials  at  Marshfield 21 

Tillage  Trials  at  Ashland 21 

Fertilizer  Trials  on  Light  Sandy  Loams  (Spooner) 22 

Fertilizer  Experiments  at  the  Marshfield  Station 23 

Fertilizer  Trials  on  Red  Clays  (Ashland) 24 

Drainage  Results  on  Colby  Silt  Loam  (Marshfield) 25 

Alfalfa  Resists  Drouth  on  “Blow”  Sands  at  Hancock 26 

Alfalfa  Increases  in  Importance  on  Wisconsin  Farms 26 

Home  Grown  Alfalfa  Seed  for  Wisconsin.. 30 

Sweet  Clover  as  a Forage  Crop 30 

Soybeans  Increasing  in  Wisconsin 31 

Emergency  Hay  Crops  Useful  in  Wisconsin 33 

Is  Drilling  Grain  Superior  to  Broadcasting? 34 

Demand  for  Cold  Reistant  Corn  Increases 35 

Improved  Strains  of  Sweet  Corn  Give  Good  Results. 36 

Flax  Growing  May  Develop  in  Wisconsin. 37 

The  Hemp  Situation  Unsatisfactory.. 38 

Marketing  Wisconsin  Pedigree  Seeds 39 

Winter  Wheat  for  Wisconsin. 39 

Companion  Crops  with  Corn 40 

Breeding  Disease-Free  Barley 41 

Cost  of  Producing  Silage  Studied 41 

New  Varieties  of  Oats  Continue  Successful 41 

Horal,  a Successful  CanningV  Pea... 42 

Studies  on  Nature  of  DiseaseTtesistance  in  Cereals. 43 

Chemical  Studies  of  Hosts  in  Relation  to  Disease  Development 45 

Refined  Control  Methods  Answer  Fruit  Disease  Problems.. 46 

The  Relation  of  Environment  to  Health  and  Disease  in  Plants 47 

Absolute  Control  of  Environmental  Conditions 50 

Potato  Strains  Fail  to  Resist  Mosaic — 51 

Nitrogen  Fertilization  Affects  Off-Year  Production  of  Wealthy 

Apple  Trees 52 

Does  Light  Affect  the  Fertilizer  Requirements  of  Plants? 52 

Influence  of  Curing  Conditions  on  Quality  of  Tobacco 55 

Tobacco  Wildfire  Studies  in  Wisconsin 56 

Cheap  Formula  Controls  Grasshoppers nrrrrr 

Bees  Require  Winter  Protection 59 

Colony  Temperatures  Affect  Early  Brood  Rearing  of  Bees 60 

Foulbrood  in  Bees  Yields  to  Sodium  Hypochlorite 61 

Studies  in  Pea  Aphis  Control 61 

Dusting  Versus  Spraying  for  Controlling  Potato  Leaf  Hopper 64 

Running  Silage  Cutters  at  High  Speed  Does  Not  Pay 64 


4 Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 

Page 

Soil  and  Quality  Determine  Life  of  Drain  Tile 65 

Sodatol,  a New  Explosive  Mixture 67 

Farmers’  Condition  Improved  in  1922 69 

What  Form  of  Cooperative  Organization  is  Best? 70 

Farm  Ownership  in  Wisconsin 71 

Rural  Life  Studies 72 

It  Pays  to  Inoculate  Canning  Peas 75 

Experiments  with  Silage 75 

A New  Test  to  Separate  Strains  of  Legume  Bacteria 77 

Experiments  with  Soybean  Inoculation 77 

Stinker  Swiss  Cheese . 79 

The  Role  of  Bacteria  in  Curdling  Evaporated  Milk 79 

Studies  in  Heat  Coagulation  of  Milk 80 

New  Butter  Test  Developed 81 

Careful  Scoring  May  Raise  Quality  of  Wisconsin  Butter 84 

Mineral  Metabolism  of  Cows 85 

Effect  of  Mineral  Supplement  to  Good  and  Poor  Roughages 85 

Effect  of  Method  of  Curing  Hays  on  Availability  of  Calcium 86 

Effect  of  Roughages  Grown  on  Acid  Soils  on  Rreproduction 87 

Prevention  of  Rickets  in  Swine 88 

Do  Cooking  Methods  Affect  Yitamine  Content  of  Peas? 89 

Direct  Sunlight — A Factor  in  Animal  Growth 91 

Leg  Weakness  in  Chickens 94 

Growth  of  Chicks  Affected  by  Ration  of  Hens... 94 

Color  of  Egg  Yolk  Affected  by  Feed  of  Hens 96 

Feeding  Thyroid  Affects  Plumage  of  Fowls 96 

Raising  Dairy  Calves  Economically 96 

Soybean  Hay  for  Milk  Production 99 

Alfalfa  Versus  Clover  Hay  for  Fattening  Cattle 100 

Increasing  the  Efficiency  of  Swine  Rations 101 

Rations  for  Brood  Sows 102 

Do  Brood  Sows  Fed  Good  Rations  Need  Mineral  Supplements? 103 

Swine  Abortion  Studies .....105 

Hernias  in  Swine 106 

Tuberculosis  in  Cattle  and  Swine 106 

Johne’s  Disease  Spreading  in  Wisconsin 107 

Control  of  Contagious  Abortion  in  Cattle 107 

WhLe  Diarrhea  in  Poultry 109 

Inheritance  of  a Pollen  Character  in  Corn 109 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


Looking  Backward 

(Historical  Summary  1903-1923) 
by 

H.  L.  Russell 


S ONE  GROWS  older,  birthdays  become  gradually  less  important, 


but  decades  are  not  sufficiently  numerous  to  be  so  easily  ig- 


nored. This  year  marks  the  fortieth  milestone  in  the  history 
of  the  Wisconsin  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  for  this  institution 
was  founded  in  1883,  four  years  before  the  passage  of  the  Hatch  Act, 
under  which  Federal  support  was  granted  to  the  several  states  to  per- 
mit of  the  establishment  of  the  agricultural  experiment  stations.  The 
tenth  and  twentieth  annual  reports  of  this  Station  have  embraced  a 
resume  of  the  work  of  the  preceding  decades.  In  the  early  days  of 
the  station,  all  of  the  activities  were  incorporated  in  either  the  annual 
reports  or  the  bulletins;  but  with  the  rapid  expansion  that  occurred 
in  staff  personnel  in  the  first  decade  of  the  present  century,  the  policy 
of  publishing  much  of  the  highly  technical  work  in  scientific  journals 
was  authorized,  and  the  issuance  of  bound  volumes  of  the  annual  re- 
ports as  such  was  stopped.  This  resulted  in  a saving  in  printing  of 
from  $1,000  to  $1,500  yearly,  and  made  possible  the  wider  use  of  these 
funds  for  the  increased  farmer  mailing  lists  of  later  years. 

\ The  magnitude  and  scope  of  the  work  of  the  Experiment  Station  is 
now  so  great  that  a resume  of  the  activities  of  an  entire  decade  would 
be  not  only  disproportionately  large,  but  in  these  days  of  more  rapid 
dissemination  of  results,  perhaps  too  out-of-date  to  serve  a worth-while 
purpose.  We  shall,  therefore,  limit  our  backward  look  to  some  of  the 
general  features  of  an  historical  importance  that  seem,  perhaps, 
worthy  of  record  in  connection  with  the  celebration  of  this,  the  fortieth 
anniversary. 

Staff  Continuity  Essential  to  Permanent  Station  Policy 

Increase  in  physical  facilities  is  usually  regarded  as  of  most  signifi- 
cance in  comparing  events  of  a chronological  character,  but  of  much 
greater  value  I feel  is  continuity  in  the  time  of  service  of  t'he  staff. 
For  after  all,  research  results  of  the  highest  value  are  very  often 
dependent  upon  a continuance  of  definite  lines  of  work  that  are  car- 
ried through  to  completion,  and  this  condition  can  in  large  measure 
be  attributed  to  long  periods  of  continuous  service. 

When  this  characteristic  of  the  staff  of  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station  is  considered,  this  very  unusual  condition  is  to  be  noted. 
Seven  of  the  existing  departments  of  the  College  still  have  the  same 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


department  head  that  was  chosen  at  the  time  the  department  was  or- 
ganized. The  shortest  period  of  service  is  ten  years.  Two  depart- 
ments have  each  been  under  continuous  control  for  twenty-nine  and 
thirty  years  respectively,  at  which  time  they  were  started.  The  av- 
erage for  this  group  of  seven  departments  is  nearly  eighteen  and  a 
half  years.  Six  other  departments  have  had  only  one  change  in  the 
chairman  of  the  department  and  are  now  officered  with  staff  members 
who  range  from  nine  to  twenty-five  years  of  institutional  service. 
Four  departments  have  had  three  changes  in  administration,  and  only 
one  department  has  had  four  different  chairmen  in  the  twenty  years 
since  its  organization.  This  record  is  really  unique  and,  it  is  believed, 
is  not  duplicated  by  another  existing  experiment  station,  although 
data  have  not  been  collected  from  other  institutions  to  prove  this 
point  definitely. 


Continuance  in  Projects  for  Investigation 

Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  fact  that  long-continued 
projects  are  likely  to  be  correlated  with  longevity  in  departmental 
administration.  Many  of  the  major  lines  of  experimental  effort  have 
been  under  investigation  for  many  years.  Naturally  these  projects 
are  matters  of  gradual  growth,  but  it  almost  invariably  follows  that 
a major  line  of  inquiry  of  any  department  will  open  up  without  fail 
subsidiary  and  cognate  lines  of  research  that  make  it  highly  desirable 
for  further  investigation  to  be  made.  One  problem  inevitably  leads 
to  another.  Some  of  the  most  important  work  of  the  Experiment 
Station  has  been  of  this  long-continued  class. 

The  discovery  of  the  vitamines  and  their  relation  to  nutrition  has 
opened  up  a veritable  mine  that  has  completely  modified  the  science 
of  both  human  and  animal  nutrition.  In  the  eyes  of  the  public  the  # 
Babcock  test  is  always  referred  to  as  one,  if  not  the  most  outstand- 
ing contribution  that  has  been  made  by  the  Station  to  dairy  science. 
If  significance  is  placed  wholly  on  immediate  application,  undoubtedly 
this  is  true,  for  the  foundation  of  dairy  cattle  improvement  in  large 
measure  dates  from  the  perfection  of  this  instrument  for  measuring 
correctly  and  easily  dairy  cattle  performance.  The  why  of  many  a 
knotty  problem  is  often  of  more  importance  than  the  how,  especially 
from  the  fundamental  standpoint  of  a more  exact  and  correct  under- 
standing of  the  science  of  nutrition.  The  physiological  researches  of 
McCullom,  Hart,  Steenbock,  and  their  several  colleagues  constitute 
one  of  the  crowning  pieces  of  scientific  investigation  in  the  current 
century  and  they  will  long  stand  among  the  great  achievements  of  the 
Wisconsin  Experiment  Station. 

The  influence  of  environmental  factors  such  as  temperature,  hu- 
midity, soil  moisture,  and  the  like  have  developed  a new  point  of  at- 
tack in  plant  disease  research  that  was  started  in  the  realm  of 
abnormal  physiology,  i.  e.,  the  pathology  of  plant  diseases  by  L.  R. 
Jones  and  his  staff.  So  important  has  this  field  of  investigation  be- 
come that  special  equipment  under  accurately  controlled  greenhouse 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


7 


conditions  has  now  been  provided  which  is  of  the  highest  importance, 
not  only  to  the  Plant  Pathology  staff,  but  to  the  workers  in  normal 
plant  physiology,  botany  and  plant  nutrition,  and  agricultural  chem- 
istry as  well.  Weather  is  now  produced  at  order,  and  its  effects  on 
the  incidence  of  disease  as  well  as  on  the  well-being  of  the  host  plant 
are  readily  tested.  By  this  accurate  experimental  control,  positive 
results  can  be  definitely  secured  in  a comparatively  short  time  when 
compared  with  the  tedious  observational  method  that  required  the 
piling  up  of  a large  amount  of  data  over  a period  of  years  before  the 
underlying  law  could  be  detected,  if  it  could  be  determined  at  all. 

Cases  could  be  multiplied  in  large  number  which  would  illustrate 
the  importance  and  value  of  long-continued  projects.  Years  of  effort 
have  been  put  on  the  study  of  the  alfalfa  problem  to  adapt  this  im- 
portant forage  plant  to  our  system  of  production.  The  correlation  of 
this  investigation  to  the  physiology  of  the  plant,  the  supplying  of 
suitable  soil  conditions  by  amending  the  soil  through  the  application 
of  available  lime,  the  inoculation  of  the  seed  to  fix  the  nitrogen  of 
the  air,  the  selection  of  proper  varieties  and  nurse  crops,  and  the 
proper  times  for  cutting  and  harvesting  the  crop  as  well  as  methods 
of  curing  have  been  worked  out. 

The  work  of  R.  A.  Moore  in  producing  the  well-known  Wisconsin 
strains  of  corn,  barley,  and  oats  has  caused  a world-wide  dissemina- 
tion of  these  Wisconsin  seeds  and  at  the  same  time  lengthened  the 
crop  list  of  the  state  as  well  as  greatly  increased  the  per  acre  pro- 
duction of  these  important  grains. 

The  work  of  King,  Whitson,  Truog,  and  others  has  shown  how  better 
to  utilize  the  fertility  in  our  soils  by  proper  cultural  practices,  and  the 
balancing  of  the  ingredients  through  the  addition  of  the  various  forms 
of  lime  locally  available  and  the  use  of  specific  fertilizers  that  fit  in 
with  the  Wisconsin  farming  systems. 

Tuberculosis  eradication  of  cattle  was  advocated  in  Wisconsin  in 
advance  of  any  state  west  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  to  it  in 
considerable  measure  can  be  attributed  the  splendid  reputation  now 
enjoyed  by  dairy  cattle  from  our  state.  Further  cases  might  be  cited 
in  large  numbers  if  space  permitted. 

Continuity  in  Administration 

The  history  of  the  Wisconsin  Station  has  also  been  very  unusual 
in  that  there  has  been  only  one  change  in  administration  in  the  forty 
years  of  service.  Prof.  W.  A.  Henry,  when  first  appointed  in  the 
University  of  Wisconsin,  was  made  Professor  of  Botany  and  Agri- 
culture in  June,  1880.  The  first  appropriation  by  the  State  for  ex- 
perimental work  was  in  1881  when  $4,000  was  given  Professor  Henry 
for  experiments  in  making  sugar  from  amber  cane.  It  was  in  1883 
that  the  State  organized  a State  Experiment  Station.  Already  the 
experimental  station  idea  had  begun  to  take  root  in  other  states  as  well, 
Connecticut  having  organized  the  first  in  1875,  and  four  or  five  others 
had  been  established  in  the  East. 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


While  the  Station  was  started  in  1883  with  three  professors  making 
up  the  staff,  it  was  not  until  1886  that  Professor  Henry  was  actually 
made  Director  of  the  Station,  which  position  be  continued  to  fill  as 
well  as  that  of  Dean  of  the  College  from  1889  until  he  laid  down  his 
duties  as  an  administrator  in  1907  after  a period  of  service  to  the 
University  and  the  State  of  twenty-seven  years.  It  was  during  this 
long,  uninterrupted  service  that  the  foundations  of  the  experimental 
work  in  most  of  the  basic  departments  were  organized. 

Up  to  1907,  the  year  that  Professor  Henry  resigned  as  Director,  nine 
departments  had  been  established  in  the  Agricultural  College. 

In  that  year  H.  L.  Russell  was  made  Dean  and  Director  and  he  has 
been  continued  in  that  position  from  that  time  to  the  present.  These 
two  successive  administrators  of  twenty-four  and  sixteen  years  suc- 
cessively are  exceedingly  unusual  in  the  history  of  any  single  experi- 
ment station. 

Departmental  Development  in  Last  Two  Decades 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  present  administration  seven  new  de- 
partments have  been  organized  and  two  reorganized.  Most  of  this 
expansion  took  place  between  the  years  1908  and  1913  when  there 
was  a very  rapid  growth  in  the  number  of  students  in  the  Agricul- 
tural College  as  well  as  a marked  expansion  in  the  scope  of  the  work 
for  the  State  at  large.  The  very  close  connection  between  the  work 
for  the  students  and  that  associated  with  the  experimental  work 
makes  it  impossible  to  separate  the  departmental  organizations.  The 
informational  service  of  the  College  was  first  put  on  a definite  de- 
partmental basis  in  1908  by  the  establishment  of  an  agricultuial 
editor  and  the  organization  of  agricultural  journalism  courses  for 
students.  In  the  same  year  a department  of  education  was  founded 
to  supervise  the  training  of  teachers  who  were  then  entering  the 
high  school  system  in  large  numbers  as  teachers  of  agriculture.  It 
was  also  in  1908  that  the  foundation  was  laid  for  the  development 
of  the  extension  service  which  has  coordinated  the  efforts  of  the 
College  to  carry  the  results  of  research  work  of  all  types  to  the  entire 
State.  Prof.  K.  L.  Hatch  was  made  Assistant  Director  of  this  service 
in  1909.  Wisconsin  was  in  the  lead  in  the  development  of  this  state- 
wide service  on  a definite  foundation  several  years  before  the  prob- 
lem was  taken  up  nationally  under  the  Smith-Lever  law,  just  as  she 
had  organized  her  agricultural  experiment  station  before  the  nation- 
wide movement  took  effect. 

In  1909  the  department  of  Home  Economics  was  transferred  by  the 
Board  of  Regents  from  the  College  of  Letters  and  Science  to  the 
College  of  Agriculture  and  the  department  completely  reorganized.  Of 
late  years  this  department  has  been  assigned  research  funds  to  enable 
definite  experimental  work  to  be  undertaken  in  this  important  field  of 
human  service. 

In  1909  the  departments  of  Plant  Pathology,  Poultry,  and  Agricul- 
tural Economics  were  established.  Wisconsin  was  one  of  the  first 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


9 


institutions  in  the  country  to  recognize  the  necessity  of  definite  eco- 
nomic research,  long  before  this  movement  assumed  the  proportions 
which  it  has  more  recently  acquired  in  the  public  mind.  In  1910  the 
department  of  Veterinary  Science  was  reorganized  and  its  work  put 
on  a laboratory  basis  the  same  as  Bacteriological  and  Pathological 
work.  Economic  Entomology  was  started  in  1911  and  the  field  of 
Genetics  (first  called  Experimental  Breeding)  in  1913. 

For  the  past  ten  years  no  further  departmental  additions  have  been 
made.  In  1915  work  in  Land  Clearing  was  organized  but  was  assigned 
to  the  department  of  Agricultural  Engineering  which  at  this  time  also 
included  the  subject  of  drainage.  There  is  but  little  probability  that 
any  further  differentiation  in  agricultural  activities  will  need  to  be 
made,  as  the  obvious  field  of  inquiry  has  now  been  well  developed. 

Coordination  of  Research  and  Extension  Activities 

The  Wisconsin  College  of  Agriculture  early  developed  a differen- 
tiation between  research  work  at  the  Station  and  that  of  the  Exten- 
sion service,  which  was  carried  on  throughout  the  State.  In  many 
colleges  the  extension  work  was  developed  as  a separate  organiza- 
tion or  department,  independent,  more  or  less,  of  other  existing  de- 
partments so  far  as  the  field  control  of  staff  personnel  was  concerned. 

The  Wisconsin  policy  was  from  the  outset  developed  on  a different 
principle.  The  departmental  unit  constituted  an  organization  in  a 
particular  field  of  endeavor,  and  as  a department  of  thought  should,  it 
was  felt,  concern  itself  with  all  three  aspects  of  work — teaching  of 
resident  students  at  the  College,  experimental  research,  and  the  ex- 
tension of  such  research  to  the  residents  of  the  state. 

At  the  outset,  however,  it  must  be  realized  that  the  work  of  some  de- 
partments would  concern  itself  in  particular  with  one  or  at  least  two 
of  these  lines.  Thus,  the  Home  Economics  Department  for  many 
years  was  engaged  primarily  with  teaching;  then  it  undertook  ex- 
tension and  now  research  activities.  Agricultural  Chemistry  and 
Genetics,  however,  have  little  opportunity  to  engage  in  extension  work. 
But  even  some  of  the  laboratory  types  of  sciences  that  normally  would 
not  have  found  a wide-spread  contact  in  the  field  of  extension  have 
been  remarkably  successful  in  cultivating  these  external  relations  as 
Bacteriology  has  through  its  distribution  of  legume  cultures  which  is 
now  expanding  so  rapidly. 

Branch  Experiment  Station  Policy 

Research  work  is  often  broken  up  and  carried  on  at  several  places 
in  the  State.  Manifestly,  there  are  many  problems  that  are  peculiar 
to  certain  regions  and  can  not  therefore  be  conducted  at  any  one 
point,  and  in  disposing  of  them  regional  work  is  required.  Some- 
times, however,  political  influence,  especially  local  politics,  divides 
the  work  over  as  many  regions  as  possible. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


To  render  the  necessary  regional  service,  five  branch  stations  have 
been  established  in  areas  of  the  State  differing  widely  in  soil  or  cli- 
matic conditions.  These  are  located  at  Ashland  (heavy  red  clay), 
Spooner  (light  sandy  loam  or  jack  pine  soil),  Marshfield  (fine- 
grained silt  loam),  Hancock-Coddington  (very  light  sand  .and  also 
peat),  and  Sturgeon  Bay,  where  the  fruit  problems  as  well  as  the 
peculiar  farm  needs  of  the  Door  Peninsula  are  considered.  Naturally 
it  costs  more  to  split  up  the  work  in  this  manner  and  workers  usually 
cannot  accomplish  as  much  when  divided  as  when  working  as  a unit 
on  the  home  station  at  Madison.  But  the  results  which  have  been 
obtained  on  these  stations  have  amply  justified  their  establishment 
and  could  not  have  been  carried  out  at  the  Central  Station  at  Madison. 

While  these  branch  stations  are  representative  of  the  main  types 
of  farming  found  in  the  State,  and  while  they  are  necessarily  far  apart, 
they  are,  nevertheless,  regarded  as  subsidiary  parts  of  the  home 
organization  at  Madison  and  are  so  administered.  Different  College 
departments  may  carry  on  work  on  any  of  these  locations,  though  soils, 
field  crops  and  live  stock  have  been  the  mainstay  of  these  operations. 
The  department  specialist  in  charge  of  the  predominating  type  of 
work  commonly  acts  as  executive  representing  directly  the  Director 
of  the  Home  Station.  This  plan  has  been  one  of  economy  and  by  it 
excellent  results  have  been  attained  at  a minimum  cost. 

Development  of  the  Agricultural  Library- 

Recognizing  the  importance  of  an  agricultural  library,  Dean  Henry 
began  early  to  lay  the  foundations  for  one  at  this  College.  He  was 
an  enthusiastic  collector  of  books  who  searched  diligently  in  the 
shops  of  both  America  and  Europe.  Even  today  he  brings  to  our 
attention  lists  of  rare  books  which  he  finds  in  book  shops  as  he 
travels.  From  the  modest  beginning  in  South  Hall,  the  Wisconsin 
agricultural  collection  gradually  grew  until  it  became  one  of  the  very 
best  in  the  country.  The  Library  is  particularly  strong  in  nutritional 
and  biochemical  material.  Excellent  collections  have  also  been  made 
in  the  newer  fields  of  plant  pathology,  agricultural  economics,  and 
also  in  entomology,  by  virtue  of  the  Miller  Memorial  Library,  greatly 
increasing  thereby  the  size  of  the  Agricultural  Library.  Nearly  a 
mile  of  shelving  is  required  for  the  23,000  bound  volumes  and  18,000 
pamphlets  in  the  collection  now  housed  in  the  agricultural  archives. 

Development  of  County  Agent  System 

The  results  of  experimental  research,  unless  actually  carried  into 
the  field  and  put  into  practical  use  by  the  farmers  of  the  State,  are 
without  avail.  It  is,  therefore,  important  to  recognize  the  close  re- 
lationship which  exists  between  the  work  of  the  Experiment  Station 
and  that  of  the  Extension  Service,  more  particularly  that  phase  which 
is  concerned  with  the  development  of  the  County  Agent  system.  The 
idea  of  establishing  a resident  representative  of  the  University  in 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


11 


the  several  counties  of  the  state,  in  which  the  teachings  of  the  Agri- 
cultural College  could  be  put  into  more  direct  use,  was  drawn  from 
the  experience  of  Canada,  where  this  system  was  in  operation  for 
several  years  prior  to  its  installation  in  Wisconsin  in  1912.  From 
the  very  beginning  it  was  felt  that  the  development  of  this  work 
should  rest  upon  legislation  in  which  the  support  of  the  system  was 
from  general  taxation.  At  that  time  there  were  numerous  proposi- 
tions to  support  similar  agencies  by  special  organizations  of  farmers, 
such  as  railroads,  chambers  of  commerce,  bankers  and  other  finan- 
cial groups.  If  the  system  was  worth  while  to  develop  in  a perma- 
nent way,  it  was  felt  that  the  support  should  be  by  public  taxation. 
The  establishment  of  the  first  county  agent  (first  known  as  county 
agricultural  representative)  was  made  in  Oneida  County  in  the  fall 
of  1912.  The  growth  of  this  work  was  slow  but  steady,  first  expand- 
ing in  the  new  North  where  new  ideas  of  this  sort  seem  to  lodge 
more  readily. 

A marked  impetus  in  the  development  of  the  work  occurred  when 
the  Federal  law  known  as  the  Smith-Lever  Act  was  passed  which  ap- 
propriated funds  from  the  Federal  Treasury  to  supplement  those  of 
the  state  in  a wider  introduction  of  this  system.  During  the  war  the 
work  was  still  farther  expanded  owing  to  the  necessity  of  every  pos- 
sible effort  being  directed  in  the  matter  of  food  production.  In  this 
expansion  of  the  work  caused  by  the  war  it  was  the  purpose  of  the 
College  to  keep  the  emergency  work  on  such  a basis  that  the  counties 
would  have  full  option  to  act  for  themselves  and  not  to  be  forced  to 
continue  the  county  agents  unless  they  found  it  was  worth  while. 
As  the  law  establishing  this  work  made  the  development  of  these 
agencies  simply  permissive  rather  than  mandatory  upon  the  county, 
the  work  has  grown  in  extent  and  importance  only  so  fast  as  the 
counties  themselves  realized  that  it  was  an  economic  advantage  for 
them  to  install  such  representatives. 

The  Smith-Lever  Act  also  permits  the  establishment  of  home  dem- 
onstration agents  that  do  for  the  rural  home  a work  somewhat  com- 
parable to  that  which  the  county  agent  accomplished  for  the  farm.  In 
Wisconsin  this  work  has  never  made  the  headway  that  it  has  in  other 
states,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  development  of  the  system  of  county 
nurses,  which  was  made  mandatory  in  the  original  act,  practically  pre- 
cluded the  development  of  the  home  demonstration  agent  idea. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 

H.  L.  Russell  and  F.  B.  Morrison 

IN  THE  READJUSTMENT  that  Wisconsin  agriculture  must  make 
in  adapting  itself  to  changing  economic  conditions,  there  stands 
out  with  startling  clearness  the  one  fundamental  fact  that  the 
most  feasible  way  for  us  to  lower  our  production  costs — say,  in  pro- 
ducing milk  (live  stock  and  live  stock  products  now  make  up  over 
80  per  cent  of  our  farm  income) — is  to  grow  as  much  as  possible  of 
the  necessary  feed  that  should  be  used  with  our  stock  to  secure  most 
profitable  returns.  Certain  concentrates  we  must  purchase  from  out- 
side, but  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  continue  purchasing  large  quantities 
of  coarse  forage,  such  as  hay,  and  bring  it  into  the  state  over  a long 
rail  haul,  and  expect  that  profits  can  be  maintained.  Wisconsin  has 
now  2,800,000  dairy  animals  and  we  could  use  to  good  advantage  two 
million  acres  or  more  of -leguminous  hay  crops. 

Many  hundreds  of  thousands — and  in  all  probability  millions  of  dol- 
lars— go  out  of  the  state  annually  for  such  feed  expenditures.  Cheap 


FIG.  1.— WISCONSIN  FARMERS  CAN  GROW  ALFALFA  CHEAPER 
THAN  THEY  CAN  BUY  IT 

We  annually  spend  vast  sums  for  alfalfa  hay  from  the  West.  Much 
of  this  cost  is  due  to  the  long  freight  haul. 

alfalfa  from  the  West,  plus  heavy  freight  rates  (often  more  than  the 
alfalfa  originally  costs)  means  high-priced  forage  when  delivered  here. 

Energetic  efforts  must  be  made  to  increase  our  legume  production. 
For  alfalfa  the  soil  must  be  in  a proper  condition.  Alfalfa  is  a lime- 
loving  legume  and  only  grows  luxuriantly  when  there  is  an  abundance 
of  available  lime.  Thousands  of  square  miles  of  even  our  most  excel- 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


13 


lent  soils  are  often  too  deficient  in  this  material  to  meet  the  needs  of 
this  particular  crop,  although  they  may  be  successfully  used  for  less 
sensitive  legumes.  A thorough  and  complete  understanding  on  the 
part  of  our  farmers  with  reference  to  their  soil  needs  is  basic  to  the 
most  successful  type  of  agriculture. 

Limestone  and  Marl  Lower  Feed  Bills 

HAT  VARIOUS  forms  of  lime  are  helpful  to  many  soils  has  been 
| known  in  the  past,  but  it  was  often  difficult  to  get  suitable  ma- 
**•  terial.  The  cost  of  shipping  lime,  or  frequently  the  team  haul 
from  the  point  of  shipment  to  the  farm,  made  it  difficult  for  farmers 
to  use  sufficient  lime  in  sections  where  it  was  needed  most. 

Recent  developments  in  using  Wisconsin’s  numerous  marl  fields, 
however,  have  greatly  altered  the  situation.  Nature  has  endowed  Wis- 
consin with  lime  deposits  in  the  form  of  marl  that  are  often  easily 
available  and  located  where  they  are  most  needed  to  remedy  soil 
acidity. 


(A)  Marl 
dredge  emerg- 
ing from  the 
lake  with  its 
load  of  “white 
gold.’* 


(B)  The  marl  dump  which 
makes  it  possible  to  elevate 
the  material  to  a place  where 
it  can  be  loaded  onto  the 
farmers’  wagons. 


FIG.  2.— DREDGING  MARL  FROM  THE  BOTTOM  OF  A WISCONSIN 

LAKE 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Already  many  thousand  tons  of  this  material  have  been  excavated 
by  the  eight  machines  now  operating  in  the  state,  according  to  the 
Soils  Department.  In  some  sections  the  marl  is  in  sloughs  and  valleys 
so  well  drained  that  it  can  be  loaded  directly  upon  wagons.  Excavating 
machinery  is,  however,  required  when  the  marl  is  taken  from  lakes  or 
rivers.  Homemade  dredges  are  operated  successfully  by  groups  of 
farmers,  but  large  excavators  are  used  where  a great  deal  of  excavat- 
ing is  done  in  one  place. 

These  marl  deposits  often  exist  in  enormous  amounts  in  many  of  the 
old  lake  beds  and  can  usually  be  made  available  more  easily  than 
other  forms  of  lime.  Hundreds  of  these  marl  deposits  have  been  defi- 
nitely located  by  prospectors  from  the  Department  of  Soils  and  others 
who  have  been  working  on  them  during  the  past  year,  and  it  is  prob- 
able that  many  new  deposits  will  be  found  in  the  numerous  old  lake 
beds  existing  in  Wisconsin. 

The  theory  is  that  the  lime  in  these  marl  deposits  was  originally 
washed  out  of  the  soil  by  surface  waters  and  carried  down  the  valleys 
into  the  lakes  where  it  was  precipitated  possibly  because  of  the  pres- 
ence of  certain  plants,  particularly  a species  of  algae  known  as 
“Chara.”  Frequently  veins  of  iron  ore  are  found  deposited  with  the 
marl,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  presence  of  iron  in  the  water  may  have 
had  something  to  do  with  the  lime  precipitation. 

Local  Grinding  Supplied  70,000  Tons.  The  lime  rock  outcrops  found 
in  many  sections  of  southeastern  Wisconsin,  as  well  as  in  some  parts 
of  the  driftless  region  to  the  southwest,  are  another  source  of  agricul- 
tural lime  that  has  been  but  little  used.  Since  1918,  however,  the 
many  limestone  grinding  machines  in  Wisconsin  farm  communities 
have  ground  over  70,000  tons  of  limestone. 

In  growing  a high-class  dairy  ration  and  in  cancelling  the  large  feed 
bills  to  which  many  of  our  dairymen  have  been  subjected  in  the  past, 
lime  will  play  a leading  part.  The  material  can  be  applied  by  lime- 
spreading machines,  ordinary  manure  spreaders,  or  the  end-gate 
seeder  type  of  spreader.  Distribution  by  hand  from  the  wagon  is  also 
common. 

The  excellent  results  from  liming  in  recent  years  are  generally 
known.  On  the  several  fields  where  the  results  of  marl  have  been  ob- 
served, similarly  good  results  were  obtained.  John  Rogers,  of  Oxford, 
tried  to  grow  alfalfa  for  ten  years,  and  although  he  spent  considerable 
time  and  money,  he  was  not  successful  until  he  used  marl.  He  now 
has  splendid  fields  of  alfalfa  and  was  able  to  grow  good  hay  this  past 
year  while  most  of  his  neighbors  had  none.  Emil  Johnson,  Grants- 
burg,  tried  alfalfa  twice  and  it  failed  to  grow.  Then  he  put  marl  on 
the  soil  and  he  now  raises  four  tons  of  hay  per  acre.  He  raised  about 
120  tons  of  alfalfa  hay  this  past  year  and  is  well  supplied,  while  others 
are  looking  elsewhere  for  hay.  Last  year  Mr.  Johnson  also  raised 
three  bushels  of  Grimm  alfalfa  seed  per  acre,  which  netted  a return 
of  about  $70  per  acre. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


15 


Soils  Laboratory  Serves  Farmers 


ABORATORY  TESTS  which  substitute  definite  knowledge  for 


guesswork  in  the  matter  of  soil  conditions  have  a distinct  com- 


munity value  and  the  reports  thereof  have  also  been  frequently 
found  useful  to  farm  owners  in  determining  land  values.  The  records 
of  the  State  Soils  Laboratory  show  that  in  the  past  year,  during  which 
a total  of  313  farms  were  examined,  a more  extensive  service  was  ren- 
dered to  the  farmers  of  the  state  than  in  any  previous  year.  Detailed 
surveys  and  chemical  analyses  were  made,  as  well  as  complete  re- 
ports to  each  individual  farm  owner. 

Analyses  of  over  1,800  soil  samples  were  made  by  C.  J.  Chapman, 
R.  P.  Bartholomew  and  E.  J.  Graul  (Soils)  incident  to  the  examination 
of  farms  for  the  determinations  of  total  nitrogen,  total  phosphorus,  lime 
requirement,  and  total  potash.  The  department  was  also  called  upon 
to  render  over  750  limestone  analyses  and  between  500  and  600  acidity 
tests,  all  on  miscellaneous  samples. 

Since  it  is  necessary  that  a small  fee  be  charged  to  cover  a part  of 
the  expense  involved  in  this  work,  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  tie 
up  the  work  of  the  State  Soils  Laboratory  and  the  Soils  Survey  so  that 
the  service  can  be  rendered  more  cheaply  to  a number  of  farmers  in 
the  same  county  or  community  who  may  request  the  soil  analysis  at 
the  same  time.  Such  an  arrangement  was  made  in  Pierce  county  with 
very  gratifying  results. 


OWING  TO  THE  growing  demand  by  county  agents  and  exten- 
sion workers  for  a simpler  test  for  soil  acidity  than  the  Truog 
test,  which  is  now  commonly  used,  a study  has  been  made  on 
the  subject  during  the  past  year  by  E.  Truog  (Soils).  As  a result,  a 
new  test  has  been  devised  which  gives  promise  of  filling  the  needs. 

Soil  Acidity  Test.  In  this  new  test  a measured  amount  of  soil  is 
treated  with  a little  water  and  calcium  carbonate.  If  the  soil  is  acid, 
carbon  dioxide  is  evolved  in  proportion  to  the  degree  of  acidity.  A 
small  pocket  apparatus  has  been  devised  for  conducting  the  process 
and  measuring  the  carbon  dioxide  evolved.  The  test  makes  possible 
the  differentiation  of  soils  into  fifteen  degrees  of  acidity  and  the  re- 
sults thus  far  correlate  very  well  with  greenhouse  and  field  results  on 
the  use  of  lime.  If  this  device  continues  to  prove  successful,  it  will 
probably  find  wide  use  as  a simple  field  test  and  also  as  a laboratory 
test. 

Analyzing  Soil  for  Potassium.  During  the  past  year,  considerable 
attention  has  also  been  given  to  the  development  and  perfection  of  a 
rapid  method  of  potassium  determination  by  Mr.  Truog.  The  methods 
ordinarily  used  at  present  are  long  and  time  consuming,  for  which 
reason  the  extent  of  their  use  becomes  limited;  there  seems  to  be  a 
considerable  demand  for  a short  practical  method  for  determining  the 
potassium  content  of  soils. 


New  Tests  for  Soils 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


The  method  under  investigation  makes  use  of  the  well-known  color 
reaction  for  potassium.  This  element,  when  heated  in  a flame,  gives 
a very  distinct  and  characteristic  violet  color.  The  amount  of  color  is 
dependent  upon  the  amount  of  potassium  present.  In  the  new  method 
the  soil  solution  of  unknown  potassium  content  is  compared  with 
standard  solutions  as  regards  the  amount  of  color  produced.  A special 
apparatus  has  been  devised  for  making  this  determination,  and  the  re- 
sults thus  far  indicate  that  it  is  going  to  be  workable. 

The  method  is  very  short:  the  soil  is  simply  extracted  with  water, 
filtered,  and  then  a drop  of  the  extract  is  evaporated  on  a platinum 
loop  along  with  a drop  of  standard  solution  on  another  loop,  and  the 
two  are  then  simultaneously  placed  in  the  flame  and  the  comparison 
made.  Work  done  on  this  method  so  far  indicates  that  its  practical 
application  is  highly  probable. 

Determining  Nitrates  and  Ammonia  in  Soils.  In  order  to  provide  an 
improved  method  for  the  determination  of  nitrates  and  ammonia  in 
soils,  H.  J.  Harper,  working  under  Mr.  Truog,  has  been  working  on  the 
problem.  A new  method  which  gives  promise  of  much  practical  value 
has  been  worked  out. 

In  the  method  for  determining  nitrates,  the  soil  solution  is  clarified 
by  treatment  with  a combination  of  copper  sulphate,  calcium  hydroxide, 
and  magnesium  carbonate.  It  is  essential  that  all  the  suspended  color- 
ing matter  be  removed  from  the  soil  solution  without  loss  of  nitrates 
and  this  treatment  accomplishes  this  more  perfectly  than  any  other 
known  procedure. 

The  determination  of  ammonia  in  soil  has  never  been  very  satisfac- 
tory. In  former  methods,  the  soil  suspension  was  distilled  w’ith  a 
weak  alkaline  material  and  the  ammonia  driven  out.  This  usually  re- 
sulted in  the  formation  of  ammonia  from  organic  matter  of  the  soil 
and  hence  gives  high  results.  In  another  method,  the  ammonia  was 
liberated  by  aeration  with  sodium  carbonate,  but  this  method  has  been 
found  too  long  and  tedious.  In  the  newer  methods  recently  devised  in 
the  Soils  Laboratory  of  this  station,  the  ammonia  is  first  extracted 
from  the  soil  with  a strong  solution  of  potassium  chloride.  This  dis- 
places the  ammonia  from  the  various  compounds  of  the  soil.  Mag- 
nesium oxide  is  then  added  to  the  soil  extract  and  the  ammonia  ex- 
pelled by  distillation  and  then  measured  by  titration.  The  method 
has  been  tried  on  soils  of  known  ammonia  content  and  has  given  sat- 
isfactory results.  It  is,  therefore,  probable  that  the  improved  method 
of  determining  both  nitrates  and  ammonia  in  soils  will  become  valu- 
able in  the  making  of  practical  determinations. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


17 


Activated  Sludge  Conserves  City  Waste  for  Fertilizer 

THE  AMOUNT  of  fertilizing  material  which  has  in  the  past  been 
wasted  in  the  disposal  of  city  sewerage  is  enormous.  Peo- 
ple interested  in  agriculture  and  in  conservation  measures  have 
long  been  concerned  with  the  problem  of  conserving  the  wastes  which, 
if  they  could  be  measured  in  money,  would  doubtless  run  into  many 


PIG.  3. — COMPARISON  OF  SLUDGE  MIXTURES  AND  MIXTURES  CON- 
TAINING DRY  BLOOD 

This  fertilizer  was  applied  in  the  hill.  Sludge  applications  were  at  the 
rate  of  200  pounds  per  acre  and  dry  blood  mixture  at  120  pounds  per 
acre.  Note  the  excellent  showing  made  by  the  sludge. 

millions  of  dollars  annually.  Moreover,  the  dumping  of  these  mate- 
rials into  our  rivers  and  lakes  by  our  cities  has  so  contaminated  these 
places  as  to  make  them  dangerous  sources  of  water  supply  and  even 
rendered  them  undesirable  for  use  by  bathers  in  the  summer. 

In  1913  the  Wisconsin  legislature  passed  an  act  authorizing  the  city 
of  Milwaukee  to  create  a sewerage  commission  to  study  this  problem, 
and  out  of  this  action  has  grown  a far-reaching  work  which  has  re- 
sulted in  the  making  of  preliminary  studies  on  the  newly  discovered 
activated  sludge  process  beginning  in  1915. 

After  several  years  of  trials,  the  Milwaukee  Sewerage  Commission 
recommended  the  adoption  of  the  activated  sludge  process  to  solve 
the  sewage  problem  of  Milwaukee  and  its  suburbs  covering  an  area  of 
96,800  acres  and  containing  a population  of  about  575,000  people.  This 
area  has  a dry  weather  sewerage  flow  of  about  75,000,000  gallons  per 
day,  which  has  up  to  now  been  very  largely  dumped  into  the  Menom- 
inee, Kinnickinnic  and  Milwaukee  rivers,  and  Lake  Michigan,  the 
source  of  Milwaukee’s  water  supply. 

The  Activated  Sludge  Process.  Briefly,  the  activated  sludge  process 
provides  for  the  removal  of  coarse  material  from  the  raw  sewage  by 
means  of  bar  screens,  after  which  the  liquid  flows  through  sedimenta- 
tion chambers  where  the  mineral  matter  settles  out.  From  the  sedi- 
mentation chambers  the  sewage  passes  through  a process  of  aeration, 
in  which  it  is  mixed  with  a little  of  the  already  activated  sludge  which 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


acts  as  a starter  and  then  a large  amount  of  air  is  forced  through  it 
from  below,  to  aid  in  the  oxidation  process  and  in  the  development  of 
bacterial  action.  After  six  hours  of  this  aeration  and  contact  with 
activated  sludge,  about  95  per  cent  of  the  organic  matter  in  the  raw 
sewage  is  precipitated  to  the  bottom,  leaving  nearly  clear  water  on 
top.  After  a little  more  settling,  the  liquid  on  the  surface  is  dis- 
charged into  the  lake  practically  clear  and  colorless  and  showing  an 
average  reduction  of  98  per  cent'  in  bacteria  and  97  per  cent  of  sus- 
pended matter.  The  remaining  precipitated  material  or  sludge  then 


FIG.  4.— SLUDGE  IS  A CONVENIENT  SOURCE  OF  ORGANIC  NITROGEN 


Sludge  was  applied  at  the  rate  of  1,000  pounds  per  acre.  All  cultures 
were  supplied  with  soluble  phosphorus  and  potassium. 

19 — No  nitrogen 

21 — Sodium  nitrate 

26 — Regular  sludge 

30 — Spent  acid  sludge 

32 — Regular  Sludge  with  lime 

enters  the  plant  for  further  reduction.  At  this  point  it  has  already 
been  reduced  to  15,000  gallons  per  1,000,000  gallons  of  original  sewage, 
but  further  dewatering  is  necessary.  This  is  accomplished  by  con- 
tinuous vacuum  filters  and  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid  or  alum.  The 
result  of  the  process  is  a dry  fertilizer  material,  dark  in  color,  con- 
taining 6 or  7 per  cent  of  organic  nitrogen  and  2 y2  per  cent  of  phos- 
phoric acid. 

In  order  to  study  the  practical  value  of  the  sludge  material  as  a 
fertilizer,  the  Milwaukee  Sewerage  Commission  established  a fellow- 
ship at  the  College  of  Agriculture,  and  O.  J.  Noer,  under  E.  Truog 
(Soils),  has  been  working  on  the  problem.  Since  about  $25,000,000  are 
to  be  expended  by  the  city  of  Milwaukee  and  surrounding  centers  of 
population  in  the  building  of  a plant  and  the  necessary  sewers  which 
will  produce  in  the  aggregate  about  100  tons  of  activated  sludge  each 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


19 


day,  the  problem  of  using  this  material  available  for  fertilizer  to  best 
advantage  is  one  of  considerable  economic  interest  in  agriculture  as 
well  as  to  the  city  of  Milwaukee  and  all  other  cities  facing  a similar 
problem  in  the  disposal  of  their  sewerage. 

Research  on  the  subject  has  shown  that  this  fertilizer  compares  very 
favorably  with  other  forms  of  fertilizer  that  have  been  in  common  use 
and,  since  there  is  very  little  odor  connected  with  it,  the  material  in 
itself  is  not  nearly  so  offensive  in  handling  as  other  fertilizers  of 
organic  origin.  .Excellent  results  have  been  obtained  by  using  this 
material  in  connection  with  such  fertilizing  constituents  as  rock  phos- 
phate and  acid  phosphate,  and  it  is  probable  that  it  will  find  a very 
considerable  market  for  use  with  mixed  fertilizers  by  virtue  of  its 
large  percentage  of  organic  nitrogen  and  good  handling  qualities.  It 
seems  also  to  be  particularly  adapted  for  use  on  lawns  and  golf 
courses,  for  which  purpose  there  is  a considerable  fertilizer  demand 
at  the  present  time.  Sheep  manure  which  has  been  used  extensively 


FIG.  5.— SUDAN  GRASS  GROWING  IN  QUARTZ  CULTURES  WITH 
DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  NITROGEN 


Sludge  1,000  pounds  per  acre  and  others  giving  equivalent  amounts 
of  nitrogen.  Soluble  phosphorus  and  potassium  were  supplied  in  all 
cases.  The  sludge  was  superior  to  sheep  manure.. 

87 — No  nitrogen  9 7 — Tankage 

89 — Ammonium  sulphate  99 — Blood  meal 

91— Sludge  (H„SO,)  1 01— Cottonseed  meal 

93 — Sludge  (Alum)  103 — Fish  scrap 

95 — Sheep  manure 


in  this  work  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  activated  sludge,  according  to 
the  experimental  workers.  Trials  on  golf  courses  at  Madison  and  Mil- 
waukee indicate  that  this  material  can  be  applied  in  large  quantities 
without  injury  to  the  grass  and  with  excellent  response  in  plant  growth. 

Results  with  other  crops  indicate  that  sludge  has  a very  definite 
fertilizing  value  and  is  well  adapted  to  the  use  of  crops  having  .a  long 
growing  season,  as  corn  and  potatoes,  especially  on  light-textured 
soils  such  as  the  sandy  loams.  An  activated  sludge  with  an  estimated 
value  of  perhaps  $20  per  ton  should  prove  an  efficient  and  economical 
fertilizer  with  a wide  range  of  application  in  Wisconsin’s  farming  sys- 
tem and  at  the  same  time  prove  an  efficient  way  of  conserving  the 
wastes  hitherto  dumped  into  lakes  and  rivers  by  cities. 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Fertilizers  Bring  Good  Results  on  Peat 

TRIALS  AT  Coddington  Station  during  the  past  year  were  con- 
siderably affected  by  drouth,  and  in  addition  frosts  did  damage 
as  late  as  June  29  and  as  early  as  August  22.  The  freeze  on 
September  13,  killed  practically  all  of  the  summer  crops,  the  tempera- 
ture going  as  low  as  21°  F.  for  two  consecutive  nights. 

One  of  the  problems  in  the  development  of  these  peat  areas  is  the 
selection  of  crops  adaptable  to  the  soil  and  climatic  conditions.  With 
this  purpose  in  mind  a number  of  trials  were  undertaken  with  forage 
crops,  potatoes,  and  parsnips  to  determine  their  response  to  fertilizer 
treatment.  See  Table  I. 

Table  I — Results  Following  Uniform  Treatments  of  400  Pounds  of  0-8-24 


Crop 


Yield  per  acre 


Fertilized 


Unfertilized 


Cat  and  pea  hay  (average  of  4 plots) 

Soybean  hay  (21-inch  rows  Av.  of  Manchu)  (Black  Eyebrow  and  Ito  San) . 

Soybean  hay  (Solid  drills) 

M illet  hay 

Sunflower  silage 

Potatoes  (Early  Ohio  Av.  of  2) 

Potatoes  (Rurals,  1 plot) 

Potatoes  (Triumphs,  Av.  of  2) 

Parsnips 


4,600  lbs. 
3,286  lbs. 
4,233  lbs. 
4,760  lbs. 
27,400  lbs. 

136  bu. 
151.4  bu. 
79.9  bu. 
16,870.0  lbs. 


1,650.  Olbs. 

1.182.0  lbs. 

1.422.0  lbs. 

2.647.0  lbs. 

3.960.0  lbs. 
32.3  bu. 
31.6  bu. 
28.0  bu. 

Not  harvested 


FIG.  6.— PROPER  FERTILIZERS  BRING  RESULTS  WITH  POTATOES 

ON  PEAT 

Peat  is  recognized  as  splendid  potato  soil,  and  high  yields  are  obtained 
when  soil  deficiencies  are  supplied.  Results  are  from  Price  County. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


21 


On  the  fertility  plots,  potash  continues  to  give  the  most  pronounced 
results  whether  supplied  in  manure  or  in  the  commercial  form.  In 
trials  with  clover  it  was  found  that,  where  $4.50  worth  of  potash  alone 
was  expended  per  acre  in  1920,  the  return  from  the  fertilizer  in  this 
past  year  was  677  pounds  or  $6.77  worth  of  hay  per  acre,  or  $2.27  more 
than  the  cost  of  the  fertilizer  applied  over  three  years  ago.  In  other 
words  the  fourth  crop  grown  after  the  application  of  the  potash  still 
more  than  pays  for  the  fertilizer  in  one  year.  However,  the  difficulty 
will  generally  obtain  that  farmers  on  this  hazardous  soil  type  will  not 
generally  be  in  a financial  condition  which  will  enable  them  to  buy 
fertilizers  for  which  a direct  cash  outlay  has  to  be  made. 


ILLAGE  trials  have  been  among  the  first  experiments  under- 


taken at  this  branch  station;  and  while  the  work  over  a series 


of  years  indicates  quite  clearly  that  deep  tillage  and  subsoiling 
do  not  pay  on  the  staple  crops  the  following  conclusions  may  be 
drawn  from  the  work  to  date: 

1.  Deep  plowing  and  subsoiling  have  not  been  found  profitable. 

2.  Corn  on  a five-year  average  has  given  the  best  yields  on  spring 
plowed  land  followed  by  ordinary  fall  plowing  to  a depth  of  6 to  7 
inches. 

3.  Deep  tilling  has  given  the  lowest  yields. 

4.  With  oats,  nine-year  tests  have  shown  a trifle  higher  yield  on 
spring  plowed  than  on  ordinary  fall  plowed  land;  likewise  deep  tilling 
gave  the  lowest  yield.  In  clover  and  timothy  the  results  are  variable. 


ORK  ON  the  plots  devoted  to  tillage  has  been  continued  on 


the  Superior  red  clay  soil  at  Ashland  in  the  past  year.  The 


results  generally  agree  with  those  of  recent  trials.  These 
points  summarize  the  results  and  conclusions: 

1.  The  use  of  the  deep  tilling  machine  is  unprofitable;  in  fact,  the 
yields  are  on  the  whole  practically  the  same  as  those  from  ordinary 
plowing.  In  some  cases  they  are  even  less. 

2.  The  use  of  the  subsoil  plow  shows  some  improvement  over  6-inch 
fall  plowing.  This  is  especially  noticeable  on  the  rutabagas.  For  root 
crops,  therefore,  deep  stirring  of  the  soil  seems  to  be  beneficial  but 
since  this  crop  occupies  such  a relatively  small  proportion  of  the 
plowed  land  it  hardly  seems  advisable  to  urge  subsoiling. 

3.  Shallow  plowing  is  poor  practice. 

4.  In  general,  plowing  to  a depth  of  about  7 to  7%  inches  in  the 
fall  is  recommended  to  red  clay  farmers. 


Tillage  Trials  at  Marshfield 


Tillage  Trials  at  Ashland 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Fertilizer  Trials  on  Light  Sandy  Loams  (Spooner) 

HANGES  have  been  made  in  the  fertilizer  treatment  of  potatoes 


at  the  Spooner  Branch  Station  the  past  year.  Various  fertilizer 


treatments  distributed  over  23  plots  have  been  applied  to  po- 
tatoes in  a rotation  of  potatoes,  oats  and  clover. 

Since  the  work  has  been  started  only  in  the  past  year,  no  detailed 
results  are  available.  During  the  first  year,  however,  the  best  results 
were  obtained  when  two-thirds  of  the  fertilizer  was  applied  in  the  hill 
and  one-third  broadcasted.  By  this  method  the  fertilization  of  suc- 
ceeding crops,  such  as  grain  and  clover,  is  considerably  benefited. 

Green  Manuring  Experiment.  For  a number  of  years  green  manur- 
ing trials  have  been  conducted  at  Spooner  to  determine  the  effect  of 
the  incorporation  of  organic  matter  upon  the  growth  of  oats,  corn, 
potatoes,  and  clover.  No  stable  manure  or  commercial  fertilizers  are 
used  and  green  manure  crops  are  plowed  under  at  two  different  times 
in  the  rotation.  They  are  utilized  by  alternating  soybeans  and  lupines 
with  the  corn  and  seeding  clover  and  rye  on  the  potato  plots  after 
the  crop  is  harvested. 

The  results  so  far  indicate  that  the  oat  crop  shows  about  a 50  per 
cent  increase  where  green  manuring  crops  of  various  kinds  are  plowed 
under.  Corn  silage  yields  have  been  highest  on  unmanured  lands  for 
the  reason  that  the  green  manuring  crops  have  been  grown  in  alter- 
nate rows  at  the  same  tihie  as  the  corn. 

On  a four-year  average  the  potato  yields  run  from  12  to  14  bushels 
per  acre  higher  on  plots  where  green  manuring  was  done  than  on  the 
check  plots,  but  very  little  variation  was  shown  during  the  past  year. 
There  was  considerable  increase,  however,  in  the  clover  crops  grown 
on  the  green  manure  areas,  the  difference  obtained  in  favor  of  ma- 
nured plots  was  from  25  to  30  per  cent. 

Top  Dressing  Better  than  Plowing  Under  of  Manure  at  Spooner. 
Trials  conducted  for  several  years  on  the  rate  and  the  method  of  ap- 
plication of  manure  show  in  general  that  the  top  dressing  method  is 
more  satisfactory  than  plowing  under  though  the  difference  is  not 
very  large. 

On  the  sandy  soils  of  this  region  the  use  of  400  pounds  of  gypsum 
per  acre  in  addition  to  4 y2  tons  of  top  dressed  manure  was  also  tried, 
but  the  results  indicate  that  it  is  not  justified  upon  this  type  of  soil. 

The  trials  just  completed  also  indicate  that  small  applications  of 
manure  and  the  covering  of  more  land  is  a desirable  practice.  The 
results,  when  distributed  over  a three-year  period,  are  distinctly  in 
favor  of  smaller  applications  when  applications  of  4 y2  and  9 tons  per 
acre  are  compared. 

Crops  Respond  to  Lime  at  Spooner.  While  the  past  year  was  ex- 
ceedingly dry  and  the  hay  crop  in  general  was  short  in  the  region 
of  the  Spooner  branch  station,  the  first  crop  showed  an  increase  of 
7 per  cent  on  fields  that  had  had  a two-ton  application  of  lime  per 
acre.  On  the  second  crop  these  same  fields  indicated  an  increase  of 
17  per  cent  in  favor  of  the  lime  application. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


23 


Fertilizer  Experiments  at  the  Marshfield  Station 

C OMPARISONS  of  fertilizers  such  as  rock  phosphate  and  acid 
phosphate  supplementing  stable  manure,  the  use  of  ground 
lime  stone,  the  use  of  gypsum  and  potash,  and  others,  have  been 
continued  at  Marshfield  by  P.  L.  Musbach.  The  following  table  sum- 
marizes the  results  of  the  more  important  work. 


Table  II — Results  of  Fertilizer  Experimental  Work  at  Marshfield 


Plots 

Treatment 

Clover 

Oats 

Barley 

1 

Crop  residues,  800  lbs.  rock  phosphate,  lime 

Lbs. 

2,310.3 

Bu. 

57.92 

Bu. 

25.55 

2 

Untreated 

1,196.2 

47.46 

17.04 

3 

VlYi  tons  manure,  lime 

2,055.9 

56.71 

31.19 

4 

10  tons  manure,  lime,  800  lbs.  rock  phosphate 

2,123.5 

62.75 

29.69 

5 

10  tons  manure,  lime,  400  lbs.  acid  phosphate 

1,930.5 

56.61 

33.03 

6 

10  tons  manure,  lime,  800  lbs.  rock  phosphate,  gypsum  450  lbs. . 

2,080.6 

62.23 

22.79 

7 

10  tons  manure,  lime 

2,232.4 

54.37 

19.57 

8 

10  tons  manure,  800  lbs.  rock  phosphate,  lime 

2,135.1 

54.71 

25.44 

9 

10  tons  manure,  400  lbs.  acid  phosphate,  200  lbs.  KCL,  lime. . . . 

1,849.6 

59.13 

30.96 

Rock  phosphate  is  making  a better  showing  in  trials  on  the  Colby 
silt  loam  than  formerly  owing  to  the  growing  amount  of  organic  mat- 
ter in  the  soil.  Apparently  the  larger  amounts  of  organic  matter  are 
helpful  in  making  the  rock  phosphate  more  available  as  a plant  food. 
With  oats,  rock  phosphate  gives  better  results  than  acid  phosphate; 
but  with  barley  the  acid  phosphate  seems  to  be  the  better. 

Because  of  the  constant  propaganda  favoring  the  use  of  gypsum  on 
dairy  farms,  considerable  interest  is  attached  to  the  results  obtained 
from  a use  of  this  material.  Gypsum  has  been  applied  to  the  top 
dressing  on  the  new  seeding  and  so  far  has  shown  no  beneficial  effects 
on  clover  and  no  notable  differences  on  other  crops  in  the  rotation. 
The  conclusion  is  warranted  that  the  use  of  gypsum  in  the  growing 
of  clover  or  other  crops  does  not  pay. 

Potash  fertilizer  applied  with  stable  manure  has  not  given  any  sat- 
isfactory results  during  the  past  two  years.  While  slight  increases 
were  obtained  in  oats,  potash  has  on  the  whole  not  given  any  profit- 
able yield  increases. 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Fertilizer  Trials  on  Red  Clays  (Ashland) 

XPERIMENTAL  work  with  fertilizers  has  been  continued  on  the 
clay  soils  of  Ashland  on  a number  of  plots  during  the  past  year 
with  a rotation  consisting  of  corn,  barley,  oats,  and  clover. 


Table  III — Results  of  Various  Fertilizer  Treatment  on  Barley  for  1923 
and  on  Corn  for  1922 


Plot 

Treatment 

Barley 

Corn-1922 

1 

Manure  and  rock  phosphate 

Bu 

21.42 

Bu. 

19.10 

2 

Manure  and  acid  phosphate 

24.76 

21.82 

3 

Manure  only 

17.18 

19.19 

L 4 

Residues  and  rock  phosphate 

16.56 

20.19 

5 

Untreated 

9.53 

11.65 

6 

160  lbs.  acid  phosphate,  50  lbs.  potash,  and  75  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda,  for 

corn,  oats,  and  barley 

24.58 

15.79 

7 

10  tons  manure,  125  lbs.  acid  phosphate  and  50  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda  for 
corn  and  125  lbs.  acid  phosphate  and  50  lbs.  nitrate  of  soda  on  barley 

% 

25.39 

18.86 

The  field  on  which  this  fertilizer  work  was  done  has  been  cropped 
for  twleve  years,  at  which  time  it  was  first  broken  up.  The  table 
indicates  that  even  in  so  short  a cropping  period  the  yield  of  farm 
products  becomes  unprofitably  low  unless  fertility  is  maintained  by  a 
well-planned  fertilizer  treatment.  Applying  manure  at  the  rate  of  ten 
tons  once  in  four  years  has  practically  doubled  the  yield  of  barley 
and  increased  the  yield  of  corn  nearly  75  per  cent.  Supplementing 
stable  manure  with  acid  phosphate  increased  the  yield  over  manure 
only  by  44  per  cent  in  the  case  of  barley  and  15  per  cent  in  the  case 
of  corn.  Results  with  phosphates  supplementing  manure  have  given 
consistently  good  returns  and  this  practice  can  be  recommended  upon 
the  red  clay  soil  of  the  Superior  region. 


fig  7.— fertilization  increases  barley  yields  on  superior 

RED  CLAY 

The  heavy  clay  bordering  Lake  Superior  shows  response  to  proper 
fertilization.  Barley  yields  of  1923  at  the  Ashland  Station:  Check — 3 bu. 
per  acre;  10  T.  manure — 17.5  bu.  per  acre;  160  lbs.  acid  phosphate  and  7o 
lbs.  sodium  nitrate — 19.4  bu.  per  acre;  and  10  T.  manure  and  500  lbs.  acid 
phosphate — 25.6  bu.  per  acre. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


25 


While  under  our  system  of  farming,  the  use  of  commercial  fertilizer 
in  supplanting  stable  manure  is  not  recommended,  the  results  at  Ash- 
land indicate  that  satisfactory  yields  may  be  derived  by  following 
good  rotations  and  depending  only  upon  commercial  fertilizers.  The 
following  general  fertilizer  program  for  the  red  clay  soils  seems  to  be 
a practical  one  in  the  light  of  experimental  work: 

1.  Careful  conservation  of  stable  manure  produced  on  the  farm. 

2.  Supplementing  manure  with  soluble  phosphates  to  the  extent  of 
300  to  350  pounds  per  acre. 

3.  Distributing  the  phosphates  over  two  crops  if  possible;  i.  e.,  half 
to  be  mixed  with  the  manure  at  the  time  of  spreading;  the  other  half 
broadcasted  with  the  small  grain  with  which  clover  or  other  legume 
seed  is  sown. 

Drainage  Results  on  Colby  Silt  Loam  (Marshfield) 

THE  RESULTS  of  drainage  work  at  Marshfield  have  been  ob- 
served by  Mr.  Musbach  for  a period  of  years. 


Table  IV — Data  on  Alfalfa  Over  a Period  of  Three  Years 


Potatoes 

Alfalfa 

Third  year 

Seoond  year 

First  year 

1st  Crop 

2d  Crop 

1st  Crop 

2d  Crop 

1st  Crop 

4 rods  from  tile 

3 rods  from  tile 

2 rods  from  tile 

1 rod  from  tile 

Bu. 

154.15 

152.73 

143.73 
142.82 

Lbs. 

2,710.9 

3.012.5 

3.265.6 
3,537.5 

Lbs. 

853  1 

1.034.3 

1.109.3 
1,226.56 

Lbs. 

2.271.8 

2.160.9 
2,145.3 
2,220.2 

Lbs. 

495.3 

476.5 

454.6 
485.9 

Lbs. 

2,349.9 

2,270.2 

2,290.6 

2,287.4 

During  the  first  years  after  seeding  of  the  alfalfa  the  crop  was  heav- 
iest farthest  away  from  the  tile.  The  same  was  true  during  the  sec- 
ond year,  but  in  the  third  year  a reversal  took  place  and  the  crop 
was  notably  heavier  where  close  to  the  tile.  Observations  with  po- 
tatoes also  show  that  during  the  last  years  this  crop  is  appreciably 
better  at  a greater  distance  from  the  tile  than  close  to  the  drainage 
lines. 

The  alfalfa  yield  of  the  third  years  was  appreciably  higher  than 
those  of  the  previous  two  years.  This  applies  especially  to  the  second 
cutting  of  the  season.  A study  of  the  root  system  of  the  alfalfa  indi- 
cates that  during  the  third  year  this  crop  had  rooted  to  a depth  of 
seven  feet  through  the  “hard  pan”  subsoil  which  is  quite  generally 
found  in  the  Colby  silt  loam  region.  The  second  year  alfalfa  had  pene- 
trated only  to  one-half  that  depth,  and  the  first  year  it  extended  down 
to  a depth  of  only  about  two  feet.  The  increase  in  yield  of  this  crop 
as  well  as  its  reversal  in  reaction  to  the  tile  drainage  may  be  the  re- 
sult of  this  difference  in  depth  of  root  development,  though  the  ex- 
ceedingly dry  season  of  the  past  year  may  have  had  something  to 
do  with  it. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Alfalfa  Resists  Drouth  on  “Blow”  Sands  at  Hancock 

IN  SPITE  of  extremely  dry  weather  alfalfa  made  an  excellent 
showing  on  the  light  sand  at  the  Hancock  Station  during  1923. 
From  April  1 to  September  1 only  11.97  inches  of  rain  fell  and  of 
this  only  7.68  inches  came  in  showers  exceeding  % inch  at  a time. 
Clover,  which  had  been  a good  stand  in  1922,  suffered  so  severely 
from  the  drouth  that  only  about  a quarter  of  a crop  was  harvested. 
The  alfalfa  averaged  1.3  tons  of  hay  per  acre  for  the  season. 

Alfalfa  has  been  tried  previously  over  a wide  range  of  sandy  loams 
and  the  dark  colored  sands,  but  this  is  probably  the  first  demonstra- 
tion which  shows  that  this  crop  can  be  grown  successfully  on  Plain- 
field  sand,  which  is  practically  a blow  sand  and  common  in  sections 
of  central  Wisconsin.  The  four-year  average  of  alfalfa  at  Hancock 
is  now  1.5  tons  per  acre  of  hay  per  year,  which  in  many  cases  is 
equivalent  to  the  value  of  the  land  itself. 

In  order  to  grow  alfalfa  on  these  worn  out  sandy  soils,  liming  and 
inoculation  are  always  essential.  Top  dressing  with  manure  and  seed- 
ing without  a nurse  crop  seems  to  be  preferable  as  a cultural  practice. 
The  best  time  for  seeding  the  crop  is  dependent  upon  the  rainfall, 
though  early  seedings  as  a rule  have  the  best  chance  of  success  and 
permit  of  a reseeding  of  the  crop  in  June,  or  later,  in  case  the  earlier 
seeding  dries  out. 

Examination  has  shown  that  in  these  sandy  fields  certain  individual 
plants  of  alfalfa  were  less  affected  by  drouth  than  others,  and  a care- 
ful study  of  these  proved  the  reason  to  be  the  deeper  rooting  of  these 
particular  plants.  Seed  was  gathered  from  these  more  hardy  plants 
with  the  intention  of  reproducing  them  in  larger  numbers. 

Soybeans  and  Corn  on  Hancock  Sand.  The  yield  of  corn  at  Han- 
cock for  the  past  year  was  3.5  tons  of  silage  per  acre,  and  soybeans 
on  unfertilized  land  produced  from  1,000  to  1,500  pounds  of  hay  per 
acre  when  the  earlier  varieties  were  used. 

While  liming  and  inoculation  are  very  important  in  the  culture  of 
leguminous  crops  on  this  sand,  the  results  show  that  success  with 
clover  cannot  always  be  obtained  without  fertilizer  treatment.  While 
during  the  extreme  dry  weather  of  the  past  season,  fertilizer  trials 
in  general  did  not  show  up  well,  some  striking  differences  were  noticed 
between  fertilized  and  unfertilized  fields  of  red  clover.  Areas  receiv- 
ing both  manure  and  rock  phosphate  as  a top  dressing  in  addition  to 
the  lime  were  decidedly  superior  to  those  which  received  lime  only. 

Alfalfa  Increases  in  Importance  on  Wisconsin  Farms 

SINCE  WISCONSIN  has  become  the  leading  dairy  state,  the  need 
for  home-grown  feeds  that  will  make  a suitable  ration  for  dairy 
cattle  has  become  increasingly  important.  It  has  been  clearly 
demonstrated  in  certain  sections  that  much  can  be  done  to  reduce 
our  annual  feed  bill  by  the  growing  of  certain  crops  which  hereto- 
fore have  not  been  very  prominent  in  our  agricultural  system.  Of 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


27 


these,  alfalfa  is  undoubtedly  first  in  importance  and  it  has  been 
shown  by  the  use  of  proper  cultural  practices  that  this  crop  can  be 
grown  in  most  parts  of  the  state  in  a very  satisfactory  way. 

So  far,  only  about  150,000  of  the  2,800,000  acres  of  Wisconsin 
land  which  are  in  tame  hay  are  given  over  to  the  growing  of  clover  and 
alfalfa;  timothy  and  mixed  hay  still  make  up  by  far  the  largest  part  of 


FIG.  8.— ALFALFA  CAN  PENETRATE  THE  HEAVY  SUBSOIL  UNDER- 
LYING COLBY  SILT  LOAM 

These  roots  are  from  a third  year  alfalfa  field  at  the  Marshfield  Branch 
Station  and  measure  nearly  7 feet. 

the  crop.  In  many  of  the  older  sections  soils  are  becoming  deficient 
in  lime,  and  it  is  becoming  more  and  more  difficult  to  grow  the  ordi- 
nary clovers.  Information,  gathered  as  the  result  of  experimental 
work,  shows  that  alfalfa  is  one  of  the  safest  and  most  profitable  hay 
crops  that  can  be  grown  in  the  older  farming  areas  of  the  state. 

Alfalfa  Succeeds  Where  Clover  Fails.  Observations  at  this  station 
indicate  that  alfalfa  seedings  survive  drouth  conditions  better  than 


28 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


those  of  clover  and  timothy.  In  May  and  June  of  1923,  when  the  rail- 
fall  was  36  per  cent  below  normal  at  Madison,  excellent  results  were 
obtained  with  alfalfa,  whereas  it  was  difficult  to  get  a satisfactory 
stand  of  timothy  and  clovers  in  this  section.  The  vigorous  root  sys- 
tem and  deep  soil  penetration  of  the  alfalfa  give  this  crop  a peculiar 
advantage  over  the  more  shallow  rooted  hay  crops  in  times  of  drouth. 

Factors  in  Alfalfa  Success.  Growers  of  alfalfa  are  coming  to  realize 
that  lime  inoculation,  good  drainage,  and  reasonable  fertility  should  be 
characteristic  of  the  soil  on  which  they  expect  to  make  the  crop  a suc- 
cess. Hardy  seed  and  the  use  of  early  removed  nurse  crops  are  also 
essential.  Winterkilling  can  be  largely  overcome  by  the  use  of  hardy 
varieties  and  the  avoidance  of  late  fall  cuttings.  With  the  establish- 
ment of  a two-crop  cutting  system,  the  crop  usually  goes  into  the  win- 
ter with  sufficient  protection  and  reserve  strength  to  survive  even  ex- 
ceedingly severe  climatic  conditions. 

More  Hay  From  Two  Crops  Than  From  Three.  That  early  cuttings 
weaken  alfalfa,  thin  the  stand,  and  permit  weed  and  blue  grass  en- 
croachments is  evident  in  the  third  year  of  the  cutting  trials  on  the 
Station  Farms  at  Madison.  In  1920  plots  of  Grimm,  imported  Tur- 
kestan, and  common  Kansas-grown  seed  were  sown,  and  a series  of 
plots  of  each  variety  were  cut  at  the  following  stages : Bud  state  (just 

before  blossoming),  tenth  bloom  or  early  blossom  period,  and  full 
bloom.  Three  crops  were  taken  annually  from  the  bud  and  early 
bloom  plots,  while  only  two  were  taken  from  the  full-bloom  plots.  In 
the  1923  season  the  early  cut  plots  showed  much  weed  and  blue  grass 
infestation  which  resulted  in  a thin  stand  and  slow  growth,  while  the 
full  bloom  plots  were  thick,  vigorous,  and  practically  free  from  weeds. 
The  three-year  average  of  these  trials  is  as  follows: 

Bud  stage  3 cuts  1.8  tons  an  acre 
Tenth  bloom  3 cuts  2.7  “ 

Full  bloom  2 cuts  3.5  “ “ 

While  the  quality  of  the  hay,  especially  the  first  crop,  is  not  so  good 
in  the  full  bloom  period  as  in  the  earlier  stages,  there  is  a difference 
in  yield  of  nearly  a ton  in  favor  of  the  later  cutting.  In  the  first  crop 
of  one-year-old  alfalfa  or  in  the  second  cutting  for  the  year,  hay  cut 
in  full  bloom  is  usually  of  satisfactory  quality.  Where  the  largest 
yields  and  the  greatest  permanence  of  stand  are  desired,  the  best 
guide  to  follow  in  cutting  alfalfa  is  to  cut  only  two  crops  a year  and 
at  as  late  a stage  as  possible  without  getting  the  hay  too  coarse. 

Late  Summer  Seeding  Gives  Low  Yields.  On  experimental  plots 
which  had  previously  been  cultivated  to  kill  the  weeds,  seedings  of 
alfalfa  were  made  on  July  17  and  on  August  18  in  order  to  determine 
whether  seeding  at  these  dates  would  produce  satisfactory  stands. 
The  results  of  the  trial  indicate  that,  while  a perfect  stand  may  be 
obtained  from  the  July  seeding  and  sufficient  growth  made  in  the  fall 
to  withstand  the  winter,  the  probability  of  obtaining  good  results  from 
the  August  seeding  is  small.  In  this  particular  trial  the  late  seeding 
suffered  an  estimated  loss  of  50  per  cent  through  winterkilling  besides 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


29 


being  slow  in  growth  and  permitting  heavy  weed  encroachments  dur- 
ing the  summer.  The  July  seeded  plot  yielded  1.3  tons  per  acre,  while 
that  seeded  in  August  yielded  only  .66  ton. 

In  these  plots  seeded  in  August,  the  alfalfa  made  less  than  three 
inches  of  fall  growth.  One-half  of  the  area  was  covered  with  a thin 
coating  of  straw  in  November,  the  ground  had  frozen  slightly,  and  in 
it  winterkilling  was  hardly  noticeable.  While  a good  stand  was  ob- 
tained, the  growth  was  slow  and  the  yield  was  low  the  following  sea- 
son. It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  covered  portion  of  the  plot 
yielded  1.2  tons  of  hay  per  acre,  as  compared  with  the  .66  ton  for  the 
uncovered  portion.  On  account  of  the  dry  weather  the  second  growth 
on  this  plot  did  not  warrant  cutting. 

This  indicates  that,  on  many  fields  of  alfalfa  which  are  sown  in 
August  and  because  of  climatic  conditions  make  but  a scant  fall 
growth,  an  application  of  straw  or  evenly  distributed  barnyard  manure 
may  help  to  prevent  the  winterkilling  of  the  seedlings.  But,  in  gen- 
eral, late  August  seeding  is  not  advisable  in  Wisconsin,  because  our 
seasons  seldom  permit  sufficient  top  growth  for  winter  protection  and 
for  enough  root  development  to  provide  for  vigorous  growth  and  large 
yields  of  hay  the  following  year.  Seedings  before  the  first  week  in 
August  are  usually  much  safer  than  later  ones. 


FIG.  9.— ROOT  SYSTEMS  OF  DIFFERENT  CLOVER  SPECIES  VARY 

Left  to  right:  (1)  Hubam  sweet  clover  seeded  alone;  (2)  biennial  sweet 

seeded  alone;  (3)  Hubam  sweet  clover  seeded  in  winter  wheat;  (4)  bien- 
nial sweet  clover  seeded  in  winter  wheat;  (5)  common  red  clover  seeded  in 
winter  wheat.  Note  the  difference  between  the  roots  of  the  Hubam  and 
the  biennial  sweet  clover. 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Home  Grown  Alfalfa  Seed  for  Wisconsin 

MORE  AND  MORE  Wisconsin  is  coming  to  produce  at  least  a 
portion  of  her  own  alfalfa  seed.  For  several  years  this  has 
been  increasing  and  it  is  estimated  that  the  1923  crop  of  al- 
falfa seed  in  Wisconsin  will  he  around  3,000  bushels.  Much  of  this 
is  of  the  Grimm  variety. 

The  second  crop  is  generally  taken  for  seed,  and  if  there  is  dry 
weather  during  the  blossoming  period,  yields  of  from  two  to  four  bush- 
els an  acre  have  been  obtained.  A 25-acre  field  of  Grimm  on  the 
Cornfalfa  Farms  at  Waukesha  produced  71  bushels  of  seed.  Seven 
acres  grown  by  Neil  Quotsoe,  of  De  Pere,  produced  45  bushels. 
Though  these  yields  are  quite  exceptional,  it  is  apparent  that  growing 
alfalfa  seed  at  present  prices  can  be  made  profitable. 

Whenever  dry  weather  prevents  a big  crop  of  hay,  conditions  are 
usually  good  for  seed  production.  If  heavy  rains  occur  and  the  alfalfa 
blooms  sparsely,  it  is  best  to  cut  it  for  hay,  for  unless  the  weather  is 
dry  the  seed  crop  is  likely  to  be  disappointing.  In  handling  the  crop 
for  seed,  it  is  treated  exactly  like  red  clover. 

Sweet  Clover  As  a Forage  Crop 

SWEET  CLOVER  as  a pasture  crop  is  being  emphasized  in  Wis- 
consin. Trials  over  a period  of  years  have  shown  that  sweet 
clover  will  produce  excellent  pastures  and  will  probably  carry 
stock  through  the  dry  period  of  the  summer  better  than  many  other 
pasture  plants.  It  is  likely  that  this  crop  will  be  used  more  and  more 
by  the  dairy  farmers  who  find  it  difficult  to  provide  succulent  forage 
for  their  herds  in  late  summer  or  early  fall. 

On  the  natural  lime  soils  of  the  state  this  crop  grows  without  diffi- 
culty. In  the  northern  and  western  sections,  however,  good  catches 
are  not  obtained  as  a rule  unless  the  land  is  limed.  For  this  reason 
the  expansion  of  this  crop  throughout  the  state  has  not  been  as  rapid 
as  it  would  otherwise  be.  Experimental  work  to  determine  the  best 
conditions  under  which  to  grow  sweet  clover  is  being  continued  by 
H.  W.  Albertz  (Agronomy). 

Hubam  Clover.  The  annual  or  Hubam  sweet  clover  which  has  been 
strongly  advocated  in  some  states  has  been  tried  in  Wisconsin  for  sev- 
eral years.  The  experimental  work  so  far  indicates  that  it  is  inferior 
to  the  biennial  white-blossomed  sweet  clover  which  is  commonly 
grown.  Results  also  show  that,  aside  from  its  value  as  a honey  plant 
and  as  a seed  crop,  while  the  price  remains  fairly  high,  this  clover 
does  not  have  a prominent  place  in  Wisconsin’s  farming  system.  The 
work  shows,  too,  that  while  these  plants  make  a very  rank  growth 
when  grown  in  cultivated  rows,  they  do  not  successfully  compete  with 
weeds  or  other  plants  when  sown  alone  or  with  nurse  crops.  In  this 
particular,  the  biennial  white-blossomed  sweet  clover  has  been  found 
far  more  satisfactory. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


31 


Canadian  Albotrae  Sweet  Clover.  The  Canadian  Albotrae  or  yellow 
sweet  clover  which  was  obtained  several  years  ago  by  R.  A.  Moore 
(Agronomy)  has  proven  very  satisfactory.  This  plant  is  fine  stemmed 
and  has  an  abundance  of  leaves,  which  makes  it  more  desirable  for 
hay  than  the  ordinary  biennial  white-blossomed  sweet  clover.  Trials 
indicate  that  this  crop  produces  an  excellent  quality  of  hay,  and,  when 
grown  for  seed,  yields  as  much  as  10  or  12  bushels  per  acre.  Enough 
seed  has  been  produced  for  its  general  dissemination  the  coming 
year,  and  it  is  felt  that  when  once  the  crop  becomes  widespread  it 
will  be  largely  used  for  pasture  and  seed. 


FIG.  10.— HUBAM  IS  TALLER  BUT  LESS  BUSHY  THAN  COMMON 
SWEET  CLOVERS 

Hubam  sweet  clover  will  grow  tall  and  vigorous  in  cultivated  rows  but 
has  failed  to  compete  with  the  biennial  varieties  as  a field  crop.  The  tall 
row  in  the  illustration  is  Hubam  and  the  other  three  rows  are  biennial 
sweet  clover. 


Soybeans  Increasing  in  Wisconsin 

ALTHOUGH  the  soybean  has  come  into  general  use  on  our  farms, 
it  is  only  in  recent  years  that  it  has  been  widely  adopted  in 
Wisconsin  agriculture.  This  plant  is  especially  adapted  to  the 
light  sandy  soils  of  the  northern  and  central  parts  of  the  state,  and 
its  largest  acreage  may  be  found  there.  Over  18,000  acres  of  this  crop 
were  grown  for  seed  or  hay  in  1922  and  probably  several  times  that 
amount  was  grown  in  mixtures  with  other  crops.  For  the  year  1923 
there  has  undoubtedly  been  a large  increase. 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Several  new  varieties  have  been  recently  introduced  and  work  was 
undertaken  by  the  departments  of  Agronomy  and  Genetics  to  study 
the  problem  of  mottled  seed  which  has  been  appearing  in  some  of  the 
pure  line  selections. 

New  Varieties  for  the  North.  According  to  E.  J.  Delwiche  (Agron- 
omy) a new  soybean,  pedigree  No.  19507  or  Mandarin,  which  has  been 
developed  at  the  northern  branch  stations  is  probably  the  best  strain 
that  has  been  bred  up  in  recent  years.  This  new  yellow  seeded  strain 
has  the  advantages  of  rapid  growth  and  early  maturity.  The  fact  that 
it  grows  more  upright  than  most  beans  makes  it  possible  to  harvest 
with  a binder  without  much  waste.  It  is  a heavier  yielder  of  seed  and 
gives  promise  of  becoming  one  of  the  leading  varieties  in  central  and 
northern  Wisconsin.  Some  seed  will  be  available  for  dissemination 
in  1924. 

Other  pure  line  strains  of  soybeans  derived  from  such  parent  stock 
as  the  Manchu,  Ito  San,  and  Black  Eyebrow  are  on  test  at  the  Spooner 
Branch  Station  and  at  Marshfield.  These  give  promise  of  displacing 
the  parent  stock  by  virtue  of  their  superior  qualities. 

A new  problem  has  arisen  this  last  year  in  that  some  of  the  pure  line 
selections  have  shown  a mottling  of  the  seed  coat  that  has  caused 
much  loss  to  growers  of  certified  seed.  It  is  a question  whether  this 
is  due  to  cross  fertilization  or  to  environment. 


FIG.  11 — SOYBEANS  “HOODED”  FOR  SELF-POLLINATION 

In  this  way  self-pollination  is  assured  without  danger  of  crossing. 
Of  late  “mottling”  of  many  registered  seed  stocks  has  been  a serious 
problem. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


33 


Emergency  Hay  Crops  Useful 

EVERY  YEAR  many  Wisconsin  farmers  find  it  necessary  to  bol- 
ster up  their  feed  supply  by  seeding  emergency  bay  crops.  Ex- 
periments over  a number  of  years  have  shown  that  such  mix- 
tures as  oats  and  field  peas,  Sudan  grass  and  soybeans — or  Sudan 
grass  and  soybeans  alone— can  be  used  to  good  advantage.  During 
the  past  year,  trials  with  emergency  hay  crops  were  continued  by  G. 
B.  Mortimer  (Agronomy)  to  determine  more  definitely  the  relative 
value  of  these  various  crops  and  mixtures. 


FIG.  12 — SUDAN  GRASS  AND  SOYBEANS  ARE  EXCELLENT 
EMERGENCY  HAY 

This  combination  yielded  between  three  and  four  tons  of  hay  per  acre  at 
the  cutting-  stage.  One-third  of  the  total  weight  was  soybean  hay. 

Several  varieties  of  soybeans  were  sown  with  Sudan  grass  for  late 
seeded  emergency  hay  crop  combinations.  While  all  of  them  gave 
satisfactory  yields,  the  Hollybrook  varieties  and  the  Medium  Green 
retained  their  lower  leaves  up  to  the  cutting  period  better  than  the 
Manchu  variety.  In  trials  at  the  Spooner  Branch  Station,  Sudan  grass 
and  soybeans  separately  yielded  2.5  tons  each  per  acre  while  a mix- 
ture of  the  two  yielded  2.4  tons. 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Yields  on  other  plots  showed  that  about  3.5  tons  of  air-dried  hay 
were  produced  per  acre  and  about  one-third  of  the  crop  was  soybean 
hay.  From  the  standpoint  of  the  dairyman,  it  is  especially  desirable 
to  interpret  these  yields  in  digestible  protein  as  well  as  in  total 
gross  tonnage.  When  the  yields  were  computed  according  to  the 
Henry-Morrison  standards,  the  introduction  of  the  soybeans  yielding 
one-third  of  the  hay  increased  the  digestible  protein  yield  per  acre  of 
the  mixed  crop  over  Sudan  grass  about  66  per  cent.  It  was  also  found 
that,  when  soybeans  and  Sudan  grass  are  grown  together  as  a hay 
mixture,  the  hay  is  more  readily  cured  than  soybeans  alone  because  of 
the  better  circulations  of  air  made  possible  in  the  hay  cocks  or  wind- 
rows by  the  Sudan  grass  stems.  This  combination  has  the  added 
advantage  of  producing  a larger  yield  of  hay  per  acre  than  the  soy- 
beans alone;  and  upon  the  sandy  sections  of  the  state,  this  is  very 
desirable.  The  most  satisfactory  rate  of  seeding  this  mixed  hay  crop 
seems  to  be  about  10  pounds  of  Sudan  grass  and  from  1 bushel  to  1.5 
bushels  of  soybeans  per  acre. 

Other  Soybean  Trials.  Soybeans  were  tested  out  with  field  peas, 
oats,  and  foxtail  millet  as  possible  emergency  hay  combinations.  None 
of  these  were  found  satisfactory,  however,  though  the  soybean-foxtail- 
millet  combination  yielded  a fair  crop. 

Sudan  Grass  as  a Seed  Crop.  Enormous  quantities  of  Sudan  grass 
were  used  by  Wisconsin  farmers  in  recent  years.  Much  of  this  seed 
has  been  imported  from  other  states  but  trials  during  the  past  year  , 
indicate  that  yields  of  900  pounds  or  more  of  uncleaned  seed  and  about 
650  pounds  of  cleaned  seed  can  he  produced  per  acre.  A development 
of  a Sudan  grass  seed  industry  which  will  supply  the  needs  of  our 
local  trade  is  entirely  probable,  as  the  seed  grown  in  Wisconsin  so 
far  has  proven  to  be  of  excellent  quality. 

Drilling  Grain  or  Broadcasting? 

AN  ACTUAL  TEST  as  to  the  merits  of  drilling  seed  grains  over 
the  older  and  more  common  method  of  broadcasting  was  con- 
ducted by  B.  D.  Leith  (Agronomy).  Results  show  that  on  the 
Miami  silt  loam  there  is  no  appreciable  difference  between  these  two 
methods. 

In  trials  conducted  over  nine  years  on  the  Hill  Farm  the  yields  of 
broadcasted  grain  are  equal  to  those  of  the  drilled  grain.  This  is 
especially  true  when  the  crops  are  planted  under  favorable  growing 
conditions. 

In  a sandy  soil  where  the  seed  may  not  work  in  readily  and  where 
there  is  more  danger  of  drying  out,  the  drill  is  a better  implement 
than  a broadcast  seeder.  Furthermore,  when  winter  grains  are  planted 
late  in  the  fall,  the  kernels  dropped  into  the  bottom  of  the  drilled  fur- 
row where  the  ground  is  moist  and  the  conditions  more  uniform  have 
a better  chance  of  growing  and  surviving  the  winter  than  broadcasted 
grains  which  are  much  more  likely  to  remain  near  the  surface. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


35 


The  claim  has  often  been  made  that  when  grain  is  sown  by  means 
of  a drill,  less  seed  is  required  than  in  broadcasting.  Experiments, 
however,  do  not  bear  out  this  statement  and  indicate  that  equally 
good  results  are  obtained  by  using  the  same  amount  of  seed  broad- 
casted as  when  drilled. 

Demand  for  Cold  Resistant  Corn  Increases 

FROM  MOST  of  the  tier  of  states  along  the  Canadian  border  as 
well  as  from  Canadian  provinces,  calls  continue  to  come  for  Wis- 
consin cold  resistant  corn.  From  the  time  of  its  early  develop- 
ment in  ice  box  germination  tests  by  B.  D.  Leith,  a widespread  inter- 
est has  been  shown  in  this  strain.  Its  general  dissemination  shows 
that  it  is  meeting  a distinct  need  in  the  northern  sections. 

The  fact  that  this  corn  is  more  resistant  to  low  temperature  com- 
monly makes  planting  possible  at  an  earlier  date;  and  as  much  as  a 
week  or  ten  days  may  be  gained  in  this  way.  Frosts  in  the  early  part 
of  the  growing  season  which  are  usually  disastrous  to  ordinary  corn 


FIG.  13 — COLD-RESISTANT  CORN  WITHSTANDS  NORTHERN 
WISCONSIN  CLIMATE 

R.  A.  Moore,  inspecting-  a field  of  cold-resistant  corn  on  July  29th  in 
Florence  county.  This  three-acre  field  filled  a 50-ton  silo  and  there  was 
some  left  over.  An  insistent  call  for  this  seed  continues  to  come  from 
many  northern  states. 


36 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


have  been  less  serious  with  the  cold  resistant  variety  and,  when  it  is 
frosted,  recovery  has  been  more  rapid  than  with  other  varieties.  Its 
early  maturity  usually  enables  it  to  escape  the  autumn  frosts. 

Improved  Strains  of  Sweet  Corn  Give  Good  Results 

IMPROVED  strains  of  sweet  corn  developed  at  the  Wisconsin  Ex- 
periment Station  are  finding  favor  with  Wisconsin  canners.  This 
work  has  been  continued  the  past  year  by  E.  D.  Holden  (Agron- 
omy). Promoting  the  use  of  home-grown  seed  by  the  canning  fac- 
tories and  improvement  by  selection  and  breeding  the  best  varieties 


are  features  of  the  work.  Since  these  studies  were  begun  several 


FIG.  14.— CANNING  SWEET  CORN  IS  A GROWING  WISCONSIN 

INDUSTRY 

This  factory  is  curing  its  own  supply  of  Golden  Bantam  seed. 


years  ago,  the  number  of  companies  raising  their  own  seed  in  this 
state  has  doubled,  and  it  has  been  found  that  the  home-grown  seed 
produces  a larger  yield  and  more  profitable  crops. 

There  are  two  advantages  in  using  home-grown  seed:  (1)  Even 

well-bred  varieties  lose  greatly  in  productiveness  when  grown  in  un- 
accustomed regions  and  under  different  conditions.  For  this  reason 
strains  which  are  grown  for  several  years  in  the  locality  where  they 
are  to  be  used  have  an  advantage  over  even  highly  bred  strains 
brought  in  from  a distance.  (2)  Growing  their  own  seed  enables  the 
canners  to  select  only  good  ears  which  show  the  desirable  character- 
istics and,  by  repeated  selections,  in  a few  years  they  can  bring  their 
strains  to  the  highest  productivity. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


37 


Breeding  and  selection  has  been  stressed  by  certain  canners  so 
that  they  now  have  excellent  types  of  such  popular  varieties  as  the 
Early  Evergreen  and  Country  Gentleman.  Because  of  its  excellent 
qualities,  the  Golden  Bantam  variety  has  been  the  object  of  much 
experimentation.  Usually  this  corn  is  so  low  in  yield  that  it  is  un- 
profitable, but  the  demand  for  fancy  corn  makes  it  desirable  to  im- 
prove this  variety  and  work  on  it  will  be  continued, 

Wisconsin  Flax  Growing  May  Develop 

T HROUGH  the  decrease  of  the  flax  acreage  in  the  western  states, 
the  oil  industry  has  seemingly  begun  to  suffer  from  a shortage 
of  flax  seed.  To  determine  whether  the  crop  could  be  grown 
to  advantage  on  Wisconsin  farms,  A.  H.  Wright  (Agronomy),  in  co- 
operation with  the  Flax  Development  Committee  of  the  American  Lin- 
seed Manufacturers’  Association,  has  undertaken  a series  of  trials. 
It  is  possible  that  a cash  crop  of  considerable  value  may  be  developed. 
The  work  done  in  1923  indicates  that  flax  can  be  successfully  grown 


FIG.  15— FLAX  AND  OATS  MAKE  A GOOD  GRAIN  MIXTURE 

These  two  crops  together  are  easier  to  handle  than  flax  alone.  A 
fanning  mill  separates  them  readily  after  threshing. 

with  several  of  our  small  grain  crops.  A number  of  trials  were  con- 
ducted with  mixtures  of  flax  and  oats,  flax  and  barley,  ana  flax  and 
wheat.  Of  these,  spring  wheat  and  oats  were  found  to  be  the  most 
satisfactory  grains  with  which  to  produce  flax  as  a cash  crop.  Barley 
was  found  less  satisfactory  because  it  matures  so  much  earlier  than 
the  flax  as  to  make  it  impracticable.  The  late  varieties  of  oats  are 
more  satisfactory  than  the  early  ones  with  which  are  encountered 
the  same  difficulties  as  with  barley.  Of  the  numerous  trials  made  in 
twelve  sections  of  Wisconsin,  it  appears  that  the  most  promising  com- 
binations of  growing  flax  in  mixed  grain  crops  are: 


38 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


(1)  Flax  28  pounds — oats  48  pounds 

(2)  Flax  28  pounds — oats  40  pounds. 

(3)  Flax  35  pounds — oats  32  pounds. 

The  advantages  of  growing  a mixture  of  oats  and  flax  are:  (1) 

Flax  is  a good  cash  crop  and  cannot  generally  be  grown  on  the  old 
lands  of  Wisconsin  on  account  of  weeds,  a problem  which  is  over- 
come when  mixed  with  oats;  (2)  flax  should  normally  be  sown  early, 
and  when  grown  as  a mixture  with  oats,  early  planting  is  assured; 
(3)  a mixture  of  flax  and  oats  is  easily  harvested  and  threshed, 
whereas  flax  alone  is  often  exceedingly  difficult  to  handle;  and  (4) 
the  two  crops  can  readily  be  separated  from  each  other  after  thresh- 
ing by  means  of  an  ordinary  fanning  mill. 

Flax  on  Marsh  Land.  The  result  of  three  years  of  experimentation 
indicates  that  the  flax  will  produce  a satisfactory  crop  for  the  first 
year  on  fresh  sod  marshes,  provided  the  land  is  properly  drained  and 
the  sod  covering  complete.  Drained  peats  which  have  little  or  no 
sod  covering  are  not  suitable  for  seed  flax.  Peat  soils  which  have 
been  previously  cultivated  are  usually  unsatisfactory  for  seed  flax  by 
reason  of  weed  infestation  to  the  extent  that  this  crop  cannot  be  grown 
to  advantage.  Flax  grown  on  such  land  is  usually  weedy  and  of  low 
quality. 


Hemp  Situation  Unsatisfactory 

BECAUSE  of  adverse  economic  conditions,  the  hemp  industry  has 
declined  steadily  for  the  last  three  years.  The  acreage  in  Wis- 
consin has  been  reduced  from  8,000  to  approximately  900  and 
only  a few  mills  in  the  state  are  now  in  operation.  The  entire  acreage 
in  the  United  States  has  been  reduced  from  41,000  in  1917  to  1,700 
this  year.  This  is  primarily  due  to  foreign  competition,  principally 
from  Italy,  and  an  insufficient  tariff  to  prevent  ruinous  competition. 
However,  it  is  desirable  to  know  under  what  conditions  this  crop  can 
best  be  grown  as  this  information  may  be  needed  when  conditions 
are  again  normal. 

Hemp  Production  on  Marsh  Soils  Possible.  For  several  years  ef- 
forts have  been  made  to  grow  hemp  on  the  various  marshes  of  the 
state,  and  it  has  been  shown  that  these  soils  differ  considerably  in 
their  response.  Numerous  plots  tried  on  the  University  marsh  indi- 
cate that  fertilizer  treatments  are  usually  not  helpful  in  producing 
a satisfactory  fiber  on  this  soil.  On  the  Horicon  marsh  near  Waupun 
considerable  increase  in  growth  was  attained  by  fertilizers  especially 
those  complete  fertilizers  (including  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potas- 
sium). It  appears  that  a satisfactory  hemp  can  be  grown  on  this 
marsh  by  the  use  of  a limited  amount  of  fertilizer  containing  both 
potash  and  phosphates.  Seemingly  favorable  results  were  also  ob- 
tained in  the  marshes  at  Coddington,  though  no  mill  tests  have  as 
yet  been  made  on  this  material  to  determine  the  quality  of  its  fiber. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


39 


Marketing  Pedigree  Seeds 


FTER  outstanding  varieties  of  pedigree  seeds  and  grains  have 


been  produced,  it  is  important  that  they  be  widely  distributed. 


In  order  to  promote  a more  extended  use  of  high  quality  seeds 
in  the  state,  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Association  and  the  depart- 
ment of  Agronomy  have  for  many  years  been  rendering  a special  serv- 
ice to  farmers  who  had  seed  for  sale.  Marketing  seed  as  effectively 
as  possible  may  be  made  a considerable  item  in  the  success  of  the 


Besides  furnishing  the  members  of  the  Experiment  Association  with 
shipping  tags,  envelopes,  letter  heads,  and  specially  trademarked  bags 
for  their  product,  special  marketing  booths  were  also  set  up  at  the 
various  shows  and  expositions  in  the  state  during  the  past  year.  Seeds 
were  shown  in  bulk  lots  and  offered  for  sale.  These  features  attracted 
wide  attention  and  were  a considerable  stimulus  to  grain  growers. 
It  is  quite  as  important  that  the  experimental  results  find  their  way 
into  actual  use  as  it  is  that  they  be  actually  developed. 


FIG.  16— MARKETING  BOOTH  AT  STATE  GRAIN  SHOW,  JANUARY,  1923 

Displays  such  as  this  can  he  made  a distinct  educational  factor  in 
agriculture  and  a stimulus  to  the  pure-bred  seed  industry. 


WHILE  THE  total  wheat  area  in  Wisconsin  has  been  declining 
for  several  years,  the  acreage  of  winter  wheat  grown  in  the 
state  has  in  the  last  few  years  remained  fairly  constant.  Win- 
ter wheat  is  in  greater  favor  with  the  farmers  of  Wisconsin  than 
spring  wheat  and  about  95,000  acres  of  winter  wheat  were  grown  in 
the  state  last  year. 

Carrying  the  crop  through  the  winter  without  winterkilling  is  one 
of  the  chief  problems  of  the  wheat  grower.  B.  D.  Leith  has  experi- 


business. 


Winter  Wheat  Versus  Spring  Wheat 


40 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


mented  to  determine  what  factors  influence  winterkilling.  His  work 
shows,  on  the  basis  of  five-year  averages,  that  higher  yields  have  been 
obtained  when  the  crop  was  sown  during  the  latter  part  of  September. 
Some  excellent  crops  have  been  grown  by  seeding  in  October  or  early 
September  and  even  late  in  August;  but,  as  a general  rule,  wheat 
seeded  along  in  October  does  not  make  sufficient  growth  to  survive 
the  winter  in  good  condition  and  that  sown  before  the  middle  of  Sep- 
tember makes  so  rank  a growth  as  to  multiply  many  times  the  chances 
of  winter  injury.  Seasonal  conditions,  of  course,  determine  very 
largely  the  success  obtained  from  a seeding  on  any  particular  date. 

Rate  of  Seeding  Winter  Wheat.  From  a series  of  trials  over  five 
years,  Mr.  Leith  found  1.5  bushels  per  acre  the  most  satisfactory 
rate  for  the  seeding  of  winter  wheat.  Slight  gains  have  been  obtained’ 
by  seeding  as  high  as  two  bushels  per  acre,  but  these  are  seldom  suffi- 
cient to  warrant  the  higher  rate  of  seeding.  When  the  grain  is  sown 
thickly,  stooling  is  largely  prevented.  Where  there  is  a lighter  rate 
of  seeding  or  where  a part  of  the  plants  have  been  eliminated  by  win- 
terkilling, sufficient  stooling  occurs  to  take  up  practically  all  of  the 
unused  space. 

Pedigree  Varieties  Yield  Best.  The  pedigree  No.  2 (Turkey  Red) 
winter  wheat  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  strains  so  far  developed. 
Its  average  yield  for  13  consecutive  years  was  34.2  bushels  per  acre, 
and  it  excelled  Kanred,  one  of  its  competitors,  in  four  years  out  of  five. 

Companion  Crops  With  Corn 

IN  ORDER  TO  determine  which  crop,  if  any,  can  be  profitably  sown 
with  corn  at  the  time  of  last  cultivation  so  as  to  provide  a fall 
pasture  crop  on  Wisconsin  farms,  H.  W.  Albertz  carried  on  trials 
during  the  past  year. 

It  appears  that  such  crops  as  winter  vetch,  sweet  clover,  soybeans, 
alfalfa,  rape,  and  field  peas  may  be  sown  in  corn  to  advantage  at  the 
time  of  the  last  cultivation,  which  is  usually  early  in  July.  A favor- 
able season  with  uniform  distribution  of  rainfall  is,  of  course,  essential 
for  maximum  results.  The  experiments  indicate  that  where  corn  is 
grown  for  silage  it  suffers  very  little  from  the  competition  of  such 
crops,  for  the  secondary  crops  usually  make  their  greatest  growth 
after  the  corn  is  cut.  Good  quantities  of  pasturage  may  be  so  pro- 
duced in  favorable  seasons. 

Soybeans  in  Corn.  Experimental  work  was  done  to  determine  the 
best  rate  of  planting  soybeans  in  corn  and  also  which  varieties  are 
best  suited  to  combine  with  corn  for  silage.  It  appears  that  appre- 
ciable gains  may  be  obtained  if  heavy  plantings  of  soybeans  are  incor- 
porated with  the  corn.  Besides  the  additional  amount  of  silage  pro- 
vided, there  is  the  advantage  of  having  an  increased  amount  of  pro- 
tein in  the  silage.  On  the  lighter  soils  of  the  state  combinations  of 
this  sort  may  be  very  economical  in  providing  silage  of  high  quality 
on  dairy  farms. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


41 


Breeding  Disease-Free  Barley 

STUDIES  to  determine  whether  a stock  of  pedigreed  barley,  free 
from  infection  with  the  bacterial  stripes  disease,  can  he  devel- 
oped were  continued  this  year.  These  were  started  in  1919  in 


small  quantity  of  seed  harvested  this  year  will  he  planted  in  increased 
plots  next  year  to  propagate  this  disease-free  strain.  It  will  take  sev- 
eral years  before  this  type  is  sufficiently  abundant  for  general  dis- 
tribution. 


Cost  of  Producing  Silage  Studied 

TRIALS  with  different  kinds  of  silage  and  other  crops  grown 
to  furnish  succulent  winter  feed  in  the  north  have  been  con- 
ducted at  the  Ashland  Branch  Station  for  a number  of  years. 
Yields  during  the  past  season  were  excellent  and  the  labor  cost  of 
production  per  ton  of  silage  was  relatively  low,  as  shown  by  E.  J.  Del- 
wiche  in  the  following  table: 


Table  V — Cost  of  Producing  Various  Succulent  Crops,  Ashland  Branch 

Station — 1923 


Crop 

Tons 
per  acre 

Labor  cost 
per  acre 

Labor  cost 
per  ton 

Silage  corn 

12.3 

$40 . 00 

$3.27 

Sunflower 

17.7 

42.50 

2.40 

Corn  and  sunflower 

15.0 

40.50 

2.70 

That  rutabagas  make  a satisfactory  crop  for  producing  a large  quan- 
tity of  succulent  winter  feed  is  shown  by  trials  extending  over  a six- 
year  period.  During  that  time  this  crop  has  averaged  13.35  tons  per 
acre  at  labor  costs  of  $3.32  per  ton.  In  this  average  is  included  a low 
yield  made  during  the  past  year  due  to  adverse  weather  conditions. 

New  Varieties  of  Oats  Continue  Successful 

IN  ORDER  to  provide  new  and  higher  yielding  strains  of  oats,  work 
has  been  done  with  a large  number  of  varieties.  New  strains  have 
been  developed,  and  experimental  work  this  year  shows  that  some 
of  them  are  retaining  the  excellent  qualities  for  which  they  were  bred. 

Forward  Oats  a Good  Yielder.  At  the  Ashland  Branch  Station  “For- 
ward,” a new  high-yielding  variety  of  oats,  has  attained  a nine-year 
average  of  57.9  bushels  per  acre,  which  exceeds  its  nearest  competitor 
by  4.7  bushels.  During  the  past  year,  this  oat  was  also  one  of  the 
leaders  on  the  light  soils  of  the  Spooner  Station. 


42 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


White  Cross  Oats,  a Leading  Early  Variety.  During  the  past  year 
White  Cross  oats  was  superior  in  yield  at  Madison  as  an  early  variety 
and  produced  52  bushels  per  acre.  Some  of  the  late  varieties  such  as 
pedigree  No.  1 are  giving  larger  yields.  Pedigree  No.  1 oats  averaged 
58  bushels  per  acre  on  the  test  plots  during  the  past  year. 


HAT  THE  Horal  pea  is  a very  satisfactory  canning  variety  has 


been  demonstrated  by  another  year  of  trials  on  the  experiment 


stations,  as  well  as  by  tests  by  one  of  Wisconsin’s  leading  can- 
ners.  This  variety  has  been  developed  on  the  northern  branch  sta- 
tions and  may  mean  much  to  upper  Wisconsin.  The  quality  of  the 
Horal  pea  is  high  and  the  flavor  very  good.  This,  together  with  the 
uniform  green  color,  tender  skin,  and  high  percentages  of  small  sizes, 
makes  the  strain  an  excellent  one  for  canning. 

The  Wisconsin  Pea  Packers’  Association  has  recognized  the  value 
of  the  new  pea  and  is  planning  to  disseminate  the  variety.  They  pur- 
chased the  entire  stock  of  seed  that  could  be  spared  from  the  Experi- 
ment Station  and  now  propose  to  grow  it  under  their  control  and  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Experiment  Station  for  purposes  of  dissemina- 
tion. In  this  way  the  stock  will  be  kept  pure  and  the  seed  can  be  dis- 
tributed at  reasonable  prices. 

Though  1923  was  a crucial  year  for  the  pea  growers  by  virtue  of 
the  long  period  of  hot  dry  weather  in  the  growing  season,  the  Horal 
peas  survived  remarkably  well.  Reports  from  the  Ontario  Agricul- 
tural College  indicate  also  that  it  is  resistant  to  root  rot  to  a greater 
degree  than  are  the  standard  canning  varieties  such  as  Alaska  and 
Horsford,  from  which  the  Horal  was  produced. 

It  was  thought  at  one  time  that,  because  the  Horal  pea  does  not 
grow  rank  and  tall,  it  might  be  difficult  to  harvest,  but  results  have 
shown  that  this  is  not  the  case.  The  erect  growing  habits  and  the 
profuseness  of  its  tendrils  make  the  variety  rather  one  of  the  easiest 
to  handle. 

With  additional  canning  factories  being  built  in  the  Lake  Superior 
region  of  the  red  clay  soil  of  upper  Wisconsin,  the  value  of  this  indus- 
try in  the  northern  counties  assumes  a new  importance.  The  longer 
growing  season  of  this  section  gives  it  a peculiar  advantage  in  the  in- 
dustry, and  canners  appear  to  be  ready  to  take  advantage  of  that  fact. 
A highly  productive  canning  crop  such  as  the  pea  which  combines 
with  it  so  excellent  a livestock  food  as  pea  vine  silage,  is  certain  to 
become  a distinct  factor  in  the  development  of  sections  of  upper  Wis- 
consin. 

Seed  Pea  Stock  at  Peninsular  Branch  Station.  Tests  were  made 
with  five  new-  canning  pea  varieties  in  acre  lots  at  the  Peninsular 
branch  station  in  Door  County  to  find  out  whether  or  not  it  is  feasible 
to  grow  seed  peas  in  this  region  to  supply  the  canneries  of  the  state. 
Yields  from  9.4  to  16.6  bushels  per  acre  were  secured.  Early  strains 
of  Alaska  were  the  most  profitable. 


Horal,  a Successful  Canning  Pea 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


43 


Studies  on  Nature  of  Disease  Resistance  in  Cereals 

HE  SEEDLING  blight  of  wheat  and  other  cereals,  caused  by 


Gibberella,  sauMnettii  has  been  shown  by  J.  G.  Dickson  (Plant 


Pathology)  to  be  especially  well  adapted  to  a critical  study  of 
the  relation  of  environment  to  parasites  and  predisposition  to  disease. 
The  reason  is  that  the  same  parasite  is  able  not  only  to  attack  a num- 
ber of  different  host  plants,  but  also  that  they  vary  greatly  in  their 
responses  toward  soil  temperature. 

This  disease  is  manifest  on  both  wheat  and  corn  (1)  by  blighting 
before  germination  or  before  emergence,  which  results  in  a poor  stand, 
and  (2)  by  blighting  after  emergence  from  the  soil  which  is  evident 
by  the  yellowed  and  wilted  seedlings.  The  invaded  tissues  in  both 
hosts  become  reddish-brown  to  carmine  red,  depending  upon  environ- 
mental factors.  The  parasite  in  pure  culture  functions  normally  over 
a comparatively  wide  range  of  temperature,  namely,  from  37°F.  to 
90°F.  (3°C.  to  32°C.).  The  optimum  temperature  for  spore  germina- 
tion, vegetative  development,  and  spore  formation  is  about  75°F.  to 
82°F.  (24°€.  to  28°C.). 

The  wheat  plant  functions  best  in  all  stages  of  its  development  at 
relatively  low  soil  temperatures.  While  wheat  germinates  more  rap- 
idly at  soil  temperatures  of  75°F.  to  82°F.  (24°C.  to  28°C.),  the  ger- 
mination is  more  uniform  and  stronger  plants  are  produced  at  the 
lower  soil  temperatures — about  46°F.  to  82°F.  (8°C.  to  28°C.).  On  the 
other  hand,  corn  seedlings  develop  best  at  soil  temperatures  of  75°F. 
to  82°F.  (24° C.  to  28°C.).  Uniformity  of  germination  and  stand  dimin- 
ish rapidly  below  68°F.  (20°C.),  while  at  53°F.  (12°C.)  and  below,  all 
growth  processes  are  greatly  retarded. 

If  soil  temperature  is  a controlling  factor  in  the  development  of 
seedling  blight,  is  it  primarily  due  to  the  influence  of  temperature  on 
the  host  or  parasite?  If  dependent  upon  the  fungus,  then  blighting  of 
wheat  and  corn  alike  should  be  more  severe  at  the  relatively  high  soil 
temperatures  which  favor  development  of  the  fungus;  if  upon  the 
hosts,  then  the  reaction  of  wheat  should  be  different  from  that  of  corn. 

The  seedling  blight  of  wheat  develops  only  on  the  young  plants 
growing  at  the  higher  soil  temperatures.  The  plants  grown  in  the 
greenhouse  at  46°F.  (8°C.)  and  in  the  field  when  the  mean  soil  tem- 
perature is  below  50°F.  (10°C.)  do  not  blight.  Above  50°F.  (10°C.) 
blighting  appears  and  increases  rapidly  in  severity  with  rising  soil 
temperatures  up  to  about  68°F.  (20°C.)  which  is  the  maximum  tem- 
perature for  the  production  of  seedling  blight.  Thus  the  temperature 
curve  for  the  seedling  blight  of  wheat  seems  to  parallel  closely  that 
for  the  growth  of  the  fungus.  The  suggestion  therefore  is  that  the 
blight  is  caused  by  the  stimulating  influence  of  the  higher  soil  tem- 
peratures on  the  fungus.  On  the  other  hand,  the  experiments  show 
that  low  soil  temperatures  favor  wheat  development  at  all  stages  of 
growth,  whereas  the  high  soil  temperatures  produce  weak,  abnormal 
plants.  Therefore,  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  relation  of 


44 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


soil  temperature  to  disease  development  in  corn,  which  is  a relatively 
high  temperature  plant. 

The  seedling  blight  of  corn  develops  on  the  seedlings  growing  at 
the  low  soil  temperatures.  At  46°F.  (8°C.)  where  all  the  wheat  plants 
remain  disease  free,  all  of  the  corn  seedlings  blight.  The  disease  is 
severe  at  temperatures  from  52°F.  to  61°F.  (12°C.  to  16°C.)  and  milder 
at  those  from  61°F.  to  74°F.  (16°€.  to  24°C.)  at  which  it  is  checked 
entirely,  only  a few  root  lesions  resulting.  Thus  at  74°F.  (24°C.)  and 
above,  the  parasite  does  not  attack  corn  and  yet  at  these  soil  tem- 
peratures the  seedling  blight  of  wheat  is  very  severe.  These  results 
show  that  the  dominant  influence  of  soil  temperature  must  be  with 
the  hosts  rather  than  with  the  parasite.  This  is  further  shown  by  the 
soil  moisture  experiments. 

Soil  Moisture  as  a Factor.  Lowering  the  soil  moisture  to  a point 
where  normal  growth  of  the  seedling  is  inhibited  predisposes  both 


Vegetative 

Development 

GlB&E  RELLfy 
SAUBINETII 

Diameter 
Colon/es  Cm. 


t i 

0 O o o OO  ° 


Wheat  seedlings 
Inoculated  with 
G.  SAUBINETII 

Corn  seedlings 
Inoculated  with 
6.  s aubjnetii 


0©3(*J<J©0' 

•#®0©OOO 


Black  portion 

EQUALS  PER- 
CENTAGE BUCHT 


_J I I 1 I t I L_ 

46;4  53.6  60.6  66  75.2  &Z4  69.6  96.8 
Soil  temperature  Fahrenheit 


FIG.  17— TEMPERATURE  IMPORTANT  IN  SEEDLING  INFECTION 

A graphic  summary  of  the  vegetative  development  of  the  seedling 
blight  fungus  in  artificial  culture  and  the  comparative  quantities  of 
seedling  blight  of  wheat  and  corn  at  different  soil  temperatures.  The 
black  portion  of  the  circle  shows  the  average  percentage  of  blighted 
seedlings. 


wheat  and  corn  plants  to  attack  by  the  seedling  blight  organism.  The 
seedlings  of  both  wheat  and  corn  are  blighted  at  all  soil  temperatures 
when  the  moisture  content  of  the  soil  is  reduced  to  30  per  cent  of  the 
moisture-holding  capacity  of  the  soil  used.  Control  plants  growing  in 
sterilized  soil  are  equally  vigorous  at  the  low  and  at  the  high  soil 
moistures.  In  contrast,  the  plants  growing  in  the  disease-infested  soil 
blight  severely  with  low  soil  moisture  at  all  soil  temperatures.  In 
other  words,  with  low  soil  moisture,  wheat  seedlings  growing  at  46°F. 
(8°C.)  blight  severely  and  corn  seedlings  growing  at  74°F.  (24°C.) 
blight  badly. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


45 


Conditions  of  temperature  or  moisture  which  are  unfavorable  for  the 
best  development  of  the  cereal  seedling  seem  to  predispose  it  to  attack 
by  the  fungus.  The  inference  is  that  it  may  be  due  to  some  disturb- 
ance in  the  normal  functioning  .of  the  plant.  The  influence  of  light 
also  was  determined,  and  the  results  further  support  the  above  infer- 
ence. For  example,  at  a soil  temperature  of  50°F.  to  52°F.  (10°C.  to 
12 °C.)  which  is  about  the  critical  soil  temperature  for  the  production 
of  blight,  wheat  seedlings  grown  with  a low  light  intensity  blight 
badly,  whereas  seedlings  grown  with  a higher  light  intensity  and  with 
a longer  period  of  illumination  each  day  do  not  blight. 

Histological  Studies  of  Fungus  Penetration.  Studies  on  the  char- 
acter and  extent  of  the  fungus  penetration  of  the  host  under  these  dif- 
ferent environmental  conditions  show  an  important  relation  between 
host-tissue  composition  and  disease  development.  For  example,  in  the 
wheat  seedlings  growing  at  the  low  soil  temperatures,  the  fungus 
threads  slowly  penetrate  between  the  cell  walls  of  the  tissues,  whereas, 
at  the  high  soil  temperatures,  direct  and  rapid  cell  penetration  occurs. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  corn  seedlings  growing  at  the  low  soil  tem- 
peratures, direct  penetration  of  the  cell  walls  occurs,  in  contrast  with 
a slow  invasion  between  the  cell  walls  of  these  tissues  at  the  high  soil 
temperatures.  In  both  wheat  and  corn  seedlings  all  gradations  be- 
tween these  two  types  of  penetration  occur  at  the  intervening  soil  tem- 
peratures. 

These  experiments  indicate,  further,  that  soil  temperature  and  other 
environmental  factors  over  periods  of  considerable  time  are  more  in- 
fluential than  brief  exposures  to  extremes  in  determining  predisposi- 
tion to  disease.  Therefore,  fungus  penetration  and  disease  develop- 
ment, or  “blighting,”  probably  are  associated  with  the  growth  re- 
sponses of  the  hosts.  If  this  be  true,  the  nature  of  disease  resistance 
or  disease  susceptibility  can  best  be  determined  by  a study  of  the  in- 
fluence of  environment  upon  the  functions  of  the  plant.  The  growth 
processes  of  the  germinating  wheat  and  corn  seedlings  is  sufficiently 
different  at  the  various  soil  temperatures  to  explain  in  a large  part  the 
difference  in  response  of  the  two  plants. 

Chemical  Studies  of  Hosts  in  Relation  to  Disease  Development 

AT  THE  LOW  soil  temperatures,  the  starch  in  the  wheat  endo- 
sperm is  converted  into  soluble  form  (hydrolyzed)  much  more 
rapidly  than  the  protein.  At  the  end  of  seven  days  at  53°F. 
(12°C.),  nearly  all  the  starch  from  the  lower  flanks  of  the  grain  is 
changed.  There  is  much  sugar  in  the  embryo,  especially  in  the  grow- 
ing root.  The  storage  protein  in  the  endosperm  is  only  just  beginning 
to  be  changed  and  that  at  an  extremely  slow  rate.  There  is  a little 
peptone  in  the  endosperm,  but  no  amino  acids  can  be  detected.  The 
cell  walls  of  the  root  sheath  (coleorhiza)  are  of  cellulose  and  slightly 
lignified.  The  epidermis  of  the  germinating  shoot  (coleoptile)  is  cut- 
inized  (hardened). 


46 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Under  similar  conditions  of  light  and  moisture,  but  at  higher  soil 
temperatures,  77°F.  to  90°F.  (25°C.  to  32°C.),  both  starch  and  protein 
are  converted  into  soluble  form  very  rapidly.  At  the  end  of  two  days 
at  74°F.  (24°  C.),  much  of  the  starch  of  the  endosperm  is  changed  and 
also  all  of  the  protein  from  the  lower  half  of  the  grain.  The  embryo 
contains  some  glucose,  considerable  dextrin,  and  many  small  starch 
grains  in  the  cells  of  the  root  sheath  and  shoot.  Other  chemical  sub- 
stances occur.  No  cellulose  is  found  in  the  cell  walls  of  the  root 
sheath,  except  in  the  walls  of  the  root  hairs.  Neither  is  the  epidermal 
wall  of  the  developing  shoot  filled  with  woody  material  which  makes 
an  entrance  into  the  soft  interior  tissues  more  possible. 

This  study  of  the  cell  walls  of  the  germinating  wheat  embryo  indi- 
cates that  their  chemical  nature  depends  upon  the  kind  of  building 
materials  available  and  their  proportion  one  to  another.  In  the  very 
early  stages  of  growth  of  the  embryo  this  proportion  depends  largely 
upon  the  relative  rate  of  change  of  the  stored  starch  and  protein  into 
soluble  form  (hydrolysis)  at  any  specific  temperature.  Because  there 
is  an  abundance  of  sugar  and  extremely  little  available  protein  mate- 
rial in  the  embryo  during  the  first  ten  or  twelve  days  at  the  low  soil 
temperatures,  these  young  seedlings  are  practically  high-carbohydrate 
plants,  having  thicker  and  more  resistant  cell  walls,  while  at  high 
temperatures  the  embryos  are  relatively  high  in  protein,  even  at  the 
end  of  twenty-four  hours.  There  is  more  rapid  vegetative  growth, 
therefore,  and  less  of  the  carbohydrate  is  used  in  the  building,  thick- 
ening, and  hardening  of  the  cell  walls. 

Quantitative  chemical  analyses  agree  with  the  micro-chemical  study 
of  the  wheat  seedling  and  further  indicate  decided  differences  in  the 
physiology  of  the  corn  seedling.  At  the  low  temperatures,  the  wheat 
seedlings,  separated  from  the  endosperm,  are  high  in  sugars;  at  the 
low  soil  temperatures,  the  corn  seedlings,  separated  from  the  endo- 
sperm, are  low  in  sugars.  Likewise  the  dextrins  (the  gums)  in  the 
corn  seedling  are  lowest  at  the  low  temperatures. 

The  relatively  high  content  of  available  carbohydrates  in  the  wheat 
seedling  at  the  low  soil  temperatures  and  the  corn  seedling  at  the  high 
soil  temperatures  results  in  thickened  cellulose  walls  offering  resist- 
ance to  fungus  penetration.  Undoubtedly  this  difference  in  chemical 
composition  likewise  supplies  a different  medium  for  fungus  growth 
when  penetration  does  occur. 

Refined  Control  Methods  for  Fruit  Disease 

BY  MEANS  of  the  technical  control  described,  G.  W.  Keitt  and 
L.  K.  Jones  (Plant  Pathology)  have  been  able  to  discover  impor- 
tant steps  in  the  relation  of  apple  scab  fungus  to  time  of  infesta- 
tion of  fruit  and  leaves. 

Apple  Scab.  The  apple  scab  fungus  passes  the  winter  in  dead 
leaves  on  the  ground.  In  the  spring  it  develops  spores  which  are  shot 
into  the  air.  Some  of  these  lodge  upon  susceptible  parts  of  the  apple 
plant  (leaves  and  developing  fruit)  causing  infections  which  lead  to 
the  further  spread  of  the  disease. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


47 


Field  and  greenhouse  studies  of  apple  scab  have  shown  that  tem- 
perature and  moisture  cause  important  variations  in  (a)  the  develop- 
ment of  the  casual  fungus,  (b)  the  susceptibility  of  the  host  plant  at 
critical  periods,  (c)  the  inception  and  development  of  the  disease, 
and  (d)  the  action  of  fungicides.  Such  studies  can  be  definitely  stud- 
ied only  under  “controlled”  environment. 

Results  already  obtained  have  shown  that  in  Wisconsin  orchards 
the  spores  of  the  scab  fungus  mature  and  are  discharged  considerably 
earlier  in  the  spring  than  was  formerly  supposed.  Moisture  and  tem- 
perature appear  to  be  the  most  important  factors  limiting  their  ripen- 
ing and  natural  discharge.  The  addition  of  a “pre-pink”  application 
of  a suitable  spray  to  the  control  programs  previously  used  has  suc- 
cessfully checked  early  infections  and  led  to  satisfactory  control  under 
conditions  where  the  old  programs  failed. 

Cherry  Leaf-spot.  Similar  studies  of  cherry  leaf-spot  have  shown 
that  its  development  and  control  are  also  profoundly  modified  by  en- 
vironment. This  fungus,  like  that  of  apple  scab,  passes  the  winter  in 
the  old  leaves  on  the  ground,  and  in  the  spring  produces  spores,  which 
pass  through  the  air  to  the  cherry  trees  and  start  the  disease.  It  has 
been  found  that,  although  the  spores  of  the  casual  fungus  are  ordi- 
narily matured  before  the  blooming  period,  the  early  development  of 
the  disease  in  the  Door  County  cherry  section  is  so  retarded  by  en- 
vironmental conditions  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  apply  the  pre-blossom 
spray  which  was  formerly  considered  an  essential  of  standard  orchard 
practice. 

Relation  of  Environment  to  Health  and  Disease  in  Plants 

EVERY  FARMER  knows  that  weather  is  of  much  importance  in 
determining  success  or  failure  with  his  crops,  even  though 
many  plant  diseases  are  definitely  known  to  be  due  to  parasitic 
fungi  of  which  the  spores  are  the  disease  carriers.  Right  thinking 
about  the  cause  and  control  of  disease  requires,  however,  not  only  a 
knowledge  of  the  “germs”  that  cause  infection,  but  a much  more  defi- 
nite knowledge  of  the  conditions  under  which  they  may  infect. 

This  fact  was  very  strikingly  brought  out  by  the  Plant  Pathological 
department  early  in  the  work  with  truck  crops,  such  as  cabbage  and 
onions,  at  Racine.  More  recent  studies  have  also  proved  it  to  be  the 
key  to  a fuller  understanding  of  the  obscure  potato  and  tobacco  dis- 
eases. Studies  on  the  relation  of  weather  to  plant  diseases  promise 
also  to  explain  the  reason  for  resistance  or  susceptibility  of  wheat  and 
corn  to  root  rot  and,  perhaps,  throw  new  light  upon  the  development 
and  control  of  certain  orchard  diseases. 

Weather  Influences  Cabbage  Diseases.  From  the  outset  of  the  work 
of  L.  R.  Jones  (Plant  Pathology)  in  southeastern  Wisconsin  on  cab- 
bage yellows,  it  has  been  evident  that  the  severity  of  that  disease  de- 
pends directly  on  the  weather.  The  disease  is  soil-borne,  but  even  on 
the  “sickest”  soil  where  in  a bad  year  the  loss  might  be  total,  the  next 


48 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


season  may  yield  a profitable  crop.  When  resistant  varieties  were  in- 
troduced, it  was  seen  that  even  the  best  is  not  wholly  immune  and 
that  under  some  conditions  the  disease  resistance  will  partially  “break 
down.”  The  disease  was  worst  in  dry,  hot  midsummers.  Was  it 
drouth  or  heat  or  both  together? 

When  seedling  cabbage  were  grown  in  glass  jars  where  the  soil 
temperature  was  controlled  by  immersion  at  constant  temperatures, 


FIG.  18— DOING  TWO  SEASONS  WORK  IN  ONE 

By  growing-  such  biennial  plants  as  cabbage  in  the  greenhouse,  it  is 
possible  to  produce  seed  in  about  one  year’s  time.  This  arrangement 
saves  much  time  in  experimental  investigations.  Picture  shows  pro- 
duction of  “yellows”  resistant  cabbage  seed. 

J.  C.  Gilman  and  W.  B.  Tisdale  found  that  the  higher  the  tempera- 
ture within  the  usual  field  range,  the  worse  the  disease.  On  the  other 
hand,  even  in  the  “sickest”  soil  a low  temperature  so  inhibits  disease 
occurrence  that  healthy  plants  may  be  grown  if  the  soil  is  kept  con- 
tinuously cool.  The  “critical”  soil  temperature  is  about  62°F.  (17°C.), 
below  which  the  cabbage  plant  escapes  from  the  disease  even  if  the 
parasite  is  abundant  in  the  soil;  above  this  point  the  disease  becomes 
progressively  worse. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


49 


Similar  relations  were  demonstrated  for  the  related  wilt  disease  of 
the  flax  except  that  the  critical  temperature  was  found  to  be  some- 
what lower,  about  56°F.  (14°C.).  Later  investigations  showed  that, 
while  soil  moisture  is  also  a factor  and  that  the  disease  is  worse  in 
drier  soils,  soil  moisture  is  a minor  factor  as  compared  with  soil  tem- 
perature. 

Cold  Favors  Root  Rot  of  Tobacco.  With  the  tobacco  diseases  in- 
vestigation made  by  James  Johnson  and  R.  E.  Hartman,  it  was  found 
that  a low  soil  temperautre  favored  the  disease.  This  serves  to  ex- 
plain some  puzzling  observations  regarding  the  behavior  of  the  dis- 
ease in  the  field.  With  old-infested  tobacco  soil,  root  rot  may  show1  up 
in  the  seed  bed  in  the  spring  and  continue  to  stunt  the  plants  if  the 
early  summer  continues  cool;  then  upon  the  advent  of  high  tempera- 
ture about  August  1,  the  field  suddenly  recovers  and  may  even  mature 
a profitable  crop.  A temperature  condition  which  may  therefore  aid 
in  the  development  of  cabbage  yellows  will  check  the  spread  of  to- 
bacco root  rot.  In  both  cases,  the  crop  would  be  healthy  if  no  disease 
germs  were  present  in  the  soil;  but  when  the  exciting  cause — the  spe- 
cific germ — is  present,  environment,  chiefly  soil  temperature,  deter- 
mines whether  or  not  the  disease  develops. 

Early  Planting  Favors  Potato  Canker.  Similarly  environmental  in- 
fluences affect  the  seriousness  of  two  common  potato  maladies,  stem 
canker  and  scab.  With  both  of  these  troubles  the  germs  are  com- 
monly carried  on  the  seed  and  persist  in  the  soil.  But  even  when  the 
germs  are  present,  there  are  wide  differences  in  the  seriousness  of 
the  diseases.  Studies  made  by  B.  L.  Richards  with  controlled  soil 
temperatures  under  greenhouse  conditions  have  shown  that  stem 
canker  is  stimulated  to  its  worst  development  by  low  temperature; 
so  if  the  germs  are  present  on  the  seed  tubers,  the  young  shoots  may 
be  wholly  destroyed  or  become  weak  sterile  plants.  At  high  tempera- 
tures even  with  the  canker  organism  present,  the  shoots  escape  un- 
injured. This  explains  why  potatoes  planted  early  while  the  soil  is 
cool  may  suffer  much  worse  than  later  plantings. 

Temperature  Affects  Potato  Scab.  With  potato  scab,  L.  R.  Jones 
and  H.  H.  McKinney  found  that  high  temperature  facilitates  develop- 
ment of  disease  while  low  temperature  lessens  it.  These  foregoing 
illustrations  all  dealt  primarily  with  root  diseases,  because  in  our 
earlier  experimental  work  the  soil  conditions  could  be  more  readily 
controlled.  It  is  also  well  known  that  the  factors  of  air  environment — 
moisture  and  temperature — exercise  a similar  controlling  influence  in 
the  occurrence  of  diseases  of  the  leaves  and  fruits  of  plants  such  as 
the  common  rusts,  mildews,  and  scabs. 


50 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Absolute  Control  of  Environmental  Conditions 

EATHER  may  not  be  controlled  in  the  open,  but  apparatus 


was  developed  that  could  be  regulated  so  that  not  only  soil, 


but  air  temperatures  could  be  controlled  as  well  as  humidity. 
These  have  now  been  developed  in  greenhouse  units  so  that  plants  in 
an  entire  house  can  be  held  within  certain  humidity  and  temperature 
limits.  The  temperature  has  been  controlled  to  within  5°C.  in  four 
houses  each  20x30  feet;  humidity  has  been  regulated  only  in  the 
chambers.  For  most  refined  work,  smaller  culture  chambers  have 
been  developed  where  the  temperature  control  is  perfect  for  all  prac- 
tical conditions. 

Wisconsin  Soil  Temperature  Tanks.  These  tanks  consist  of  a water 
bath  operating  at  a constant  temperature  in  which  is  suspended  a 
metal  soil  container.  They  are  of  standard  size,  24x36x30  inches,  and 
consist  of  a water-tight  metal  box  placed  in  a wooden  box  of  two 
inches  larger  dimensions  in  all  directions.  The  space  between  the 
two  boxes  is  filled  with  mineral  wool,  a nonconductor  of  heat.  The 
top  of  the  tank  has  a cover  of  metal  and  wood  with  the  mineral  wool 
between.  Eight  holes  are  cut  in  the  cover  to  allow  the  eight  soil  cans 
to  be  suspended  in  the  water  bath.  Each  tank  is  equipped  with  a 
thermostat  connected  with  a pony  telegraph  relay  which  acts  as  a 
switch  to  turn  on  and  off  the  heating  current  of  the  Edison  partial 
vacuum  electrical  heaters  submerged  in  the  tank.  This  equipment 
was  used  successfully  in  the  study  of  tobacco  root  rot,  cabbage  yel- 
lows, onion  smut,  corn  and  wrheat  seedling  blight,  and  others,  all  of 
which  are  diseases  concerned  with  soil  infesting  parasites. 

Air  Temperature  Control  Chambers.  The  development  of  air  cham- 
bers for  temperature  and  humidity  control  necessitated  a refrigera- 
tion machine  and  the  rearrangement  of  two  greenhouses  into  four 
compartments  operated  at  different  temperatures  in  which  to  install 
the  control  chambers.  Each  of  these  greenhouse  compartments  was 
equipped  with  separate  thermostatic  heating  coils  and  in  addition  a 
large  motor-driven  blower  operated  by  thermostatic  control  was  in- 
stalled in  each  of  the  two  lower  temperature  houses.  Thus  in  addition 
to  regulation  of  the  heat  in  each  compartment,  a rise  in  temperature 
in  the  two  low  temperature  houses  was  safeguarded  by  employing  a 
blower  which  takes  in  the  cold  air  from  the  outside  and  circulates  it 
inside  the  houses. 

The  control  chambers  placed  within  these  greenhouses  consisted  of 
a cement  base  and  a glass  chamber  above.  The  base  was  divided  into 
a brine  coil  compartment,  a heater  compartment,  and  a third  compart- 
ment in  which  the  dampers  were  installed.  The  glass  chamber,  a cube 
of  five  feet,  was  constructed  of  double  glass  with  a half-inch  dead  air 
space  between.  With  the  exception  of  the  air  inlet  at  the  top  and  the 
air  outlet  vent  at  the  bottom,  this  chamber  has  no  equipment  to  occupy 
space  needed  for  plant  growth.  Each  chamber  was  equipped  with 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


51 


regulators  for  temperature  and  humidity  operating  dampers  which 
control  the  air  and  moisture  entering  the  chamber. 

Both  instruments  were  placed  in  the  chamber  where  the  air,  after 
passing  through  the  air  tempering  compartments  and  through  the 
chamber,  was  forced  over  the  instruments  before  being  discharged. 
The  thermostat,  operating  a mixing  damper,  allows  larger  or  smaller 
quantities  of  the  air  driven  over  either  the  brine  coils  or  the  heaters 
to  enter  the  chamber.  The  humidostat,  in  turn,  operating  a mixing 
damper,  permits  larger  or  smaller  volumes  of  air  to  pass  directly  into 
the  chamber  or  through  the  water  spray  in  the  humidifying  compart- 
ment. A small  electric  blower  connected  with  the  heating  and  brine 
compartments  by  a six-inch  pipe  was  installed  outside  of  the  base. 
This  blower  operates  continuously  insuring  a constant,  uniform  flow 
of  air  over  the  coils  through  the  mixing  damper  and  humidifier  into 
the  chamber.  Thus  the  air  is  constantly  passing  over  the  brine  coils 
or  through  the  electric  heaters,  or  part  both  ways,  depending  upon  the 
position  of  the  mixing  damper,  and  then  through  the  humidifier  into 
the  chamber. 

After  a year’s  use  of  this  equipment,  the  department  is  thoroughly 
satisfied  that  a marked  advance  has  been  made  in  perfecting  the  tech- 
nique of  closely  controlled  research.  Any  weather  can  be  produced 
at  will  and  its  effect  on  plant  life  studied  at  close  range.  Definite 
results  can  now  be  gotten  in  a comparatively  short  time. 

Potato  Strains  Fail  to  Resist  Mosaic 

ESTS  MADE  the  past  season  with  strains  of  Triumph  potatoes, 


relatively  free  from  mosaic  disease  after  having  been  grown  for 


two  seasons  in  proximity  to  infected  potatoes,  reveal  that  the 
strains  are  not  resistant  to  mosaic,  but  were  merely  free  from  the  dis- 
ease because  they  had  been  grown  under  a system  of  rigid  roguing  or 
isolation  which  had  practically  eliminated  the  mosaic  disease  from  the 
particular  strain.  The  demand  for  Wisconsin  certified  potato  seed 
stock  from  out-of-the-state  sources,  however,  makes  it  very  desirable 
to  continue  this  work  in  the  hope  of  isolating  resistant  strains  which 
will  perhaps  remain  free  from  the  mosaic  disease. 

Work  on  this  subject  will  be  continued  by  J.  G.  Milward  and  J.  John- 
son (Horticulture)  and  attempts  will  be  made  to  obtain  and  preserve 
mosaic-free  potato  seed  stock  for  dissemination  in  the  commercial 
potato  districts.  Such  work,  if  successful,  will  doubtless  prove  of 
value  to  the  certified  potato  industry.  This  has  in  recent  years  ac- 
quired considerable  prestige  in  Wisconsin,  as  is  shown  by  the  num- 
ber of  seed  buyers  from  other  parts  of  the  country  who  annually  visit 
Wisconsin,  as  well  as  by  the  extensive  orders  received  for  Wisconsin 
seed  stock. 


52 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Nitrogen  Fertilization  Affects  Off-Year  Production 

HAT  THE  dropping  of  fruit  from  trees  which  usually  occurs  early 


in  the  growing  season  is  not  due  to  lack  of  pollination,  but  rather 


to  nutritional  factors,  is  indicated  by  recent  findings  in  deter- 
mining the  effects  of  pruning  and  nitrogen  fertilization  upon  the  off- 
year  production  of  Wealthy  apple  trees  conducted  by  R.  H.  Roberts 
(Horticulture). 

The  study  so  far  shows  that  the  so-called  first  drop  of  young  fruit, 
which  takes  place  shortly  after  the  blossom  stage,  was  very  closely 
related  to  the  vegetative  condition  of  the  spurs  or  branches  upon 
which  the  blossoms  were  produced.  Fertilization  of  the  blossoms  did 
not  occur  because  of  degenerate  ovules,  and  these  were  the  result  of 
the  influence  of  nutritional  factors.  The  second  drop  of  fruit  which 
sometimes  occurs  after  the  petals  fall  is  likewise  due  not  to  lack  of 
pollination,  as  all  of  the  young  fruit  have  seeds  in  them  which  con- 
tain small  embryos,  but  rather  to  the  vegetative  condition  of  the  wood 
from  which  these  blossoms  fall.  Similarly  the  third  or  so-called  June 
dropping  of  fruit  appeared  also  to  be  due  to  similar  causes.  Well- 
developed  embryos  were  found  in  these  young  apples,  and  the  drop- 
ping probably  resulted  from  the  nutritional  condition  of  the  trees.  It 
appears  that  trees  properly  pruned  and  fertilized  so  that  the  bearing 
top  will  be  in  good  vegetative  condition  will  suffer  less  from  loss  of 
fruit  by  dropping,  which  has  heretofore  been  attributed  to  other 
causes. 

Does  Light  Affect  the  Fertilizer  Requirements  of  Plants? 

HY  DO  some  plants  blossom  less  in  the  middle  of  the  summer 


than  in  the  spring  or  fall?  Why  do  Rural  New  Yorker  pota- 


toes or  Green  Mountain  potatoes  blossom  in  one  section  of 


the  state  and  not  in  another,  or  one  year  and  not  another?  These  and 
similar  questions  have  interested  scientific  men  a long  time  and,  slowly 
but  gradually,  answers  to  some  of  them  are  coming  from  men  engaged 
in  plant  research. 

During  the  past  year  G.  T.  Nightingale  (Horticulture),  cooperating 
with  E.  J.  Kraus  (Applied  Botany),  has  developed  a number  of  facts 
of  striking  scientific  interest,  particularly  on  the  relation  of  light  to 
the  growth  and  chemical  composition  of  horticultural  plants.  While 
the  work  is  yet  incomplete,  the  following  conclusions  seem  warranted: 

1.  Nitrates  may  be  stored  by  the  plant  until  the  proper  conditions 
arise  for  building  up  into  other  forms  of  nitrogen. 

2.  The  presence  of  nitrates  as  such  in  the  plant  does  not  appear  to 
affect  materially  the  type  of  growth  of  the  plant. 

3.  Conditions  resulting  in  a decrease  of  insoluble  nitrogen  and  a 
still  greater  proportional  decrease  in  carbohydrates  resulted  in  a rela- 
tively high  proportion  of  insoluble  nitrogen  to  carbohydrates,  produc- 
ing a strongly  vegetative  and  unfruitful  plant. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


53 


FIG.  19— A TEMPERATURE  CONTROL  CHAMBER  WHERE  WEATHER 
IS  MADE  TO  ORDER 

Plants  are  grown  in  these  chambers  under  controlled  temperature  and 
relative  humidity,  thus  making  it  possible  to  produce  definite  weather 
conditions  and  so  determine  their  influence  with  exactness. 

Inset  shows  graph  of  temperature  maintained.  Note  its  uniformity. 
Note  the  comparatively  straight  lines  representing  the  temperature  of 
the  soil  in  two  tanks  operating  at  12°  and  28°C.,  respectively.  Compare 
with  the  greenhouse  temperature  for  the  week. 


54 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


4.  Conditions  favoring  the  formation  of  an  abundance  of  insoluble 
nitrogen  and  at  the  same  time  an  abundance  of  carbohydrates  resulted 
in  a vigorously  vegetative  and  fruitful  plant. 

5.  Conditions  resulting  in  a decrease  of  available  soluble  nitrogen 
without  simultaneously  decreasing  the  carbohydrates  supply  resulted 
in  a very  high  proportion  of  carbohydrates  to  insoluble  nitrogen  and 
produced  a weakly  vegetative  and  unfruitful  plant. 

6.  It  is  possible  that  certain  forms  of  soluble  nitrogen  may  be  as 
intimately  associated  with  growth  responses  as  are  certain  insoluble 
forms  of  nitrogen;  no  specific  substances  have  been  determined  in 
this  work. 

7.  In  the  case  of  tomatoes,  light  within  the  limits  of  a six-hour  day 
did  not  appear  markedly  to  limit  the  building  up  of  nitrates  to  insol- 


FIG  20. — 'CURING  TOBACCO  UNDER  CONTROLLED  CONDITIONS 

One  of  the  reasons  why  there  have  not  been  more  data  on  the  curing 
of  tobacco  is  the  fact  that  it  has  been  difficult  to  control  atmospheric 
conditions.  The  new  control  chambers  overcome  this  problem.  . 

uble  forms  of  nitrogen,  providing  there  was  present  an  available  sup- 
ply of  carbohydrates. 

8.  Buckwheat,  soybeans,  radish,  and  salvia  of  the  varieties  used, 
however,  were  limited  in  the  building  of  nitrates  to  insoluble  forms  of 
nitrogen  by  a seven-hour  day  as  it  occurred  in  the  greenhouse,  even 
though  there  was  present  an  available  supply  of  carbohydrates. 

9.  A large  decrease  of  carbohydrates  in  tomato  plants  already  high 
in  carbohydrates  was  apparently  coupled  with  decomposition  of  in- 
soluble nitrogen  when  this  decrease  was  brought  about  by  reduction 
in  time  of  exposure  of  plants  to  light.  Also,  new  growth  was  pro- 
duced even  though  there  was  no  external  supply  of  nitrates  available 
to  the  plant. 

10.  In  the  tomato,  insoluble  nitrogen  was  not  decomposed  to  nitrates. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


55 


Curing  Conditions  Affect  Quality  of  Tobacco 

UNDER  what  conditions  can  tobacco  be  cured  to  best  advantage? 
To  throw  more  light  upon  the  subject,  experimental  work  has 
been  done  over  four  curing  seasons  by  James  Johnson  (Horti- 
culture).* Three  experimental  chambers  in  which  the  temperature  and 
moisture  of  the  air  could  be  closely  controlled  were  used,  and  valuable 
data  on  the  rate  of  curing  and  the  quality  of  leaf  produced  under  dif- 
ferent air  conditions  were  compiled. 

The  results  show  that  proper  curing  can  only  be  obtained  between 
temperatures  of  approximately  70°F.  and  100°F.  Below  and  above 
these  temperatures  abnormal  processes  occur.  Usually  the  best  cures 


FIG.  21 — WILDFIRE  WORKS  HAVOC  IN  TOBACCO  SEED  BEDS 

(A)  A seed  bed  before  infection. 

(B)  A seed  bed  after  infection 

were  obtained  between  85°F.  and  95°F.  provided  the  humidity  was 
kept  sufficiently  high.  The  humidity,  however,  varies  with  the  tem- 
perature; and,  in  general,  the  higher  the  temperature  the  higher  the 
relative  humidity  necessary  for  good  curing  of  the  leaf. 

Results  seem  to  be  related  more  to  the  evaporating  power  of  the  air 
than  to  the  relative  humidity  itself.  It  was  found  that,  if  the  tempera- 
ture is  too  low  or  the  humidity  too  low,  the  leaf  usually  cures  out  with 
a greenish  color,  though  this  may  be  partly  overcome  by  subsequent 
curing  under  good  conditions.  When  the  temperature  is  too  high,  the 
leaf  is  killed  quickly  and  develops  an  olive  green  color.  If,  however, 

♦Cooperating'  with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


56 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


the  humidity  is  too  high,  damage  occurs  which  is  due  in  part  to  the 
development  of  fungi  in  the  tissues  which  cause  decay.  Shed-burn 
seems  to  occur  only  under  extremely  moist  conditions  which  do  not 
permit  evaporation  of  the  moisture  exhaled  from  the  surface  of  the 
leaf.  Stem-rot  occurs  at  somewhat  lower  moisture  conditions  than 
shed-burn,  but  neither  of  these  troubles  prevail  until  the  leaf  tissues 
are  about  in  the  middle  of  the  curing  stage. 

Much  can  be  done  to  approach  favorable  curing  conditions  by  the 
proper  construction  of  sheds,  hanging  of  the  crop,  and  regulation  of 
ventilation  systems,  combined  with  the  use  of  some  artificial  heat 
during  cold  and  moist  weather,  and  possibly  by  the  application  of 
moisture  to  the  ground  in  the  shed  during  exceptionally  dry  periods 
so  as  to  raise  the  humidity  during  dry  periods. 


HE  WILDFIRE  disease  of  tobacco  which  appeared  in  Wisconsin 


last  year  and  has  caused  so  much  damage  in  other  tobacco-grow- 


ing sections  has  not  become  widespread  in  this  state.  This  is 
largely  because  the  weather  during  the  past  two  seasons  was  unfavor- 
able to  the  disease  and  because  every  effort  was  made  by  workers  of 
the  Experiment  Station  and  the  State  Department  of  Agriculture  to 
check  the  outbreak. 

In  order  to  be  better  prepared  to  cope  with  the  disease  if  a serious 
outbreak  should  occur,  experiments  to  control  it  have  been  under- 
taken by  James  Johnson  in  cooperation  with  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture.  This  work  has  been  planned  mainly  to  de- 
termine where  the  germs  of  the  disease  live  over  winter  and  how  they 
get  into  the  seed  bed  in  spring.  Studies  on  dissemination  of  the  dis- 
ease, dusting  and  spraying  of  plant  beds,  and  seed  treatment  have 
also  been  made. 

The  results  so  far  show  that  the  germs  live  over  winter  mostly  on 
or  in  cured  or  dried  tobacco  leaves  or  refuse,  and  that  other  possible 
places  of  overwintering  are  probably  of  minor  importance.  Since  ex- 
periments showed  that  about  one  hundred  other  plants  (such  as  pep- 
per, egg  plant,  tomato,  potato,  ground  cherry,  black  night  shade,  Jim- 
son  weed,  melon,  pumpkin,  cucumbers,  peas,  beans,  clovers,  as  well  as 
some  grains  and  grasses)  may  also  become  infected  with  the  disease, 
it  is  possible  that  it  may  live  over  winter  in  refuse  other  than  that  of 
tobacco  origin  and  hence  infect  the  tobacco  seedling  from  various 
sources. 

Since  refuse  from  the  curing  shed  is  the  main  source  of  infection,  it 
seems  especially  important  on  farms  where  wildfire  has  occurred  to 
locate  the  seed  bed  a considerable  distance  away  from  the  curing  shed 
where  pieces  of  infected  leaves  may  less  readily  find  their  way  into 
the  beds.  The  sterilization  of  seed  with  mercuric  chloride  (corrosive 
sublimate — HgCl2),  which  has  been  used  by  growers  in  other  sections, 
has  proved  a failure  in  Wisconsin  because  of  our  method  of  sprouting 
seed. 


Tobacco  Wildfire  Studied 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


57 


The  seed  so  treated  failed  to  sprout  “in  bulk”  and  therefore  cannot 
be  used  by  Wisconsin  farmers  under  their  present  system.  A new 
method  of  seed  sterilization  which  gives  promise  of  being  entirely  sat- 
isfactory is  now  being  developed.  Dusting  and  spraying  of  seed  beds, 
which  has  been  recommended  in  some  sections,  has  not  been  found 
satisfactory  in  Wisconsin  because  it  does  not  give  complete  control 
of  the  disease  in  the  seed  bed;  and  unless  the  plants  in  the  bed  are 


FIG.  22 — WILDFIRE  MAY  ATTACK  MANY  DIFFERENT  HOST  PLANTS 

1.  Pokeweed  5.  Lambsquarter 

2.  Sunflower  6.  Maple 

3.  Prickly  lettuce  7.  Ladysthumb 

4.  Catnip  8.  Chickweed 


completely  free  from  the  disease,  it  is  not  safe  to  use  them  in  the  field. 
When  the  seed  bed  is  not  disease-free,  plants  should  be  obtained  else- 
where for  planting  the  crop.  Observations  so  far  indicate  that  meth- 
ods of  preventing  infection  are  more  satisfactory  than  any  curative 
processes  that  have  so  far  been  advanced. 


58 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Cheap  Formula  Controls  Grasshoppers 

FTER  SERIOUS  outbreaks  of  grasshoppers  in  certain  sections 


of  Wisconsin  for  several  years  in  succession,  research  workers 


devised  a formula  for  a cheap  grasshopper  bait  which  made 
control  a relatively  inexpensive  matter. 

The  saving  was  made  by  using  sawdust  instead  of  bran  in  a for- 
mula that  had  been  widely  used  prior  to  the  Wisconsin  outbreak. 
Sawdust  may  be  had  in  many  sections  of  Wisconsin  practically  with- 
out cost,  and  is  satisfactory  for  this  bait.  Continued  investigations 
the  past  year  at  the  Peninsular  Branch  Station  by  C.  L.  Fluke  (Eco- 
nomic Entomology)  * indicate  that  effective  sawdust  bait  can  be  made 
according  to  the  Wisconsin  formula  at  a cost  of  from  10  to  15  cents  an 
acre  for  material,  which  is  probably  the  cheapest  effective  bait.  The 
formula  of  previous  years  has  been  cheapened  by  the  omission  of  amyl 
acetate  without  materially  lessening  the  attractiveness  of  the  bait. 
The  formula  as  now  used  is  as  follows: 


FIG.  23. — POISON  BAIT  DOES  ITS  WORK 

Sprinkling  different  poisons  on  white  cardboard  enables  the  experi- 
menter to  test  the  relative  efficiency  of  different  baits. 

The  first  three  of  these  ingredients  are  mixed  dry;  then  water  is 
added  and  the  shorts  are  later  mixed  in  well.  More  water  may  be 
added  if  necessary. 

Materials,  such  as  amyl  acetate,  common  salt,  calcium  chloride,  mo- 
lasses, soap,  apple  oil,  lemons,  and  shorts,  were  tested  to  determine 
their  value  in  adding  attractiveness  to  the  bait  so  as  to  render  it  more 

♦Cooperating  with  the  Bureau  of  Entomology,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 


Sawdust  .... 
White  arsenic 

Salt  

Water  

Shorts  


to  moisten 
,15  lbs. 


85  lbs. 
5 lbs. 
5 lbs. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


59 


effective.  Of  these,  common  salt  was  found  to  be  about  the  best,  and 
is  considered  essential  to  the  sawdust  bait.  The  various  other  ma- 
terials tested  seemed  to  give  results  in  some  cases,  but  were  not  ef- 
fective enough  to  warrant  the  expense. 

It  is  possible  that  the  bait  may  be  further  cheapened  by  the  substi- 
tution of  crude  leach,  a by-product  of  the  smelting  industry,  for  the 
white  arsenic.  This  material  can  be  purchased  at  a price  below  that 
of  good  grades  of  arsenic,  but  additional  trials  will  be  necessary  be- 
fore it  can  be  recommended. 

Field  tests  with  the  poisoned  bait  under  Messrs.  Fluke  and  Granov- 
• sky  have  been  so  satisfactory  that  Door  County  farmers  are  reported 
as  planning  to  treat  all  areas  infected  by  grasshoppers  during  the  next 
season. 

Bees  Need  Winter  Protection 

BEES  CAN  BE  wintered  more  satisfactorily  when  the  hives  are 
protected  against  low  temperatures  either  by  careful  packing  out 
of  doors  or  by  proper  storage  in  bee  cellars  of  fairly  uniform 
temperature.  This  was  demonstrated  in  previous  work  by  H.  F. 
Wilson  and  V.  G.  Milum  (Economic  Entomology). 

Large  losses  occur  in  the  state  each  year,  because  the  suffering  of 
the  colonies  from  low  temperatures  during  the  winter  months  is  so 
great  that  many  fail  to  survive.  The  experiments  of  the  past  year 
indicate  that  when  colonies  were  wintered  in  a heavy  packing  case 
with  10.5  inches  of  packing  around  the  hives  or  in  a bee  cellar  where 
the  temperature  is  fairly  uniform,  they  lived  through  the  winter  with 
relatively  small  losses  and  with  but  a small  consumption  of  winter 
stores.  Colonies  wintered  without  packing  last  year  required  31 
pounds  of  stores  from  November  26  to  April  12,  whereas  a colony  in  a 
heavy  packing  case  required  only  9%  pounds. 

Table  VI — Stores  Required  With  and  Without  Winter  Packing 


Method  of  wintering 


Amount  of  packing 


Stores  consumed 


Without  packing  (No.  2) 

Double  walled  hive  (No.  1) 

Double  packing  case  (No.  5) 

Heavy  packing  case  (No.  4) 

Bee  cellar  (Average  of  12  colonies) 


No  packing. 
\x/i  inches. . 
7 inches. . . . 
10 Vi  inches. 


31  lbs.  November  26,  1922— April  12,  1923 
24  lbs.  November  26,  1922 — April  12,  1923 
144  lbs.  November  26,  1922— April  12,  1923 
9-1.|  lbs.  November  26,  1922 — April  12,  1923 
10H  lbs.  December  6,  1922— April  10,  1923 


The  value  of  heavy  packing  for  winter  protection  has  been  amply 
demonstrated  in  these  trials.  When  a colony  of  bees  is  exposed  to 
temperature  below  57°F.,  it  forms  a compact  cluster  and  maintains 
the  temperatures  within  it  by  means  of  muscular  activity.  The  tem- 
perature of  the  outer  edge  of  the  cluster  is  usually  about  57°F.,  while 
the  warmest  part  of  the  cluster  varies  from  70°  to  90°F.,  depending 
upon  the  amount  of  protection  given  the  colony  and  upon  how  low  the 
outside  temperature  drops,  the  colder  the  outside  temperature,  the 


60 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


higher  the  temperature  maintained  within  the  cluster.  When  the  bees 
ar  not  required  to  produce  a large  amount  of  energy  by  muscular  ac- 
tivity to  maintain  the  proper  cluster  temperature  during  the  winter 
months  they  not  only  survive  the  period  of  storage  in  much  better 
condition  than  otherwise,  but  there  is  considerable  saving  in  the  stores 
required  to  carry  them  through  the  winter. 

Colony  Temperatures  Affect  Early  Brood  Rearing 

IT  IS  IMPORTANT  for  a colony  of  bees  to  get  an  early  start  in  the 
brood  rearing  season,  and  once  they  get  under  way  it  is  also  im- 
portant that  it  be  continued  without  interruption  in  order  that  the 
colony  may  be  of  sufficient  strength  and  ready  to  harvest  the  honey 
crop  in  season.  Recent  work  by  Mr.  Milum  shows  that  brood  rearing 
in  the  early  spring  takes  place  at  temperatures  much  below  93°F., 


PIG.  24. — HEAVY  PACKING  PAYS  IN  WINTER  STORAGE  OF  BEES 

Bees  survive  the  winter  best  when  they  are  protected  against  low  tem- 
peratures. 

(Left  to  right) — No.  1 is  a double  walled  hive,  No.  2 a single  walled 
hive,  No.  3 is  the  colony  removed  from  the  bee  cellar,  No.  4 had  10%  inches 
of  packing,  and  No.  5 had  7 inches  of  packing. 

which  has  in  the  past  been  considered  the  brood  rearing  temperature. 
It  has  been  found  that  brood  rearing  activities  continue  to  points 
even  below  90°F.,  but  fluctuations  below  that  point  seem  to  retard  the 
brood.  High  temperatures  such  as  96°  or  97°F.,  which  are  sometimes 
attained  later  in  the  season  are  also  undesirable  because  they  increase 
the  tendency  of  the  colony  to  swarm. 

Heavy  insulation  serves  a good  purpose  in  the  brood  rearing  season, 
because  it  protects  the  colony  from  extremes  of  cold  early  in  the 
spring  and  has  a tendency  to  keep  the  temperature  more  uniform. 
Later  in  the  season  when  the  weather  may  be  warmer,  heavy  insula- 
tion may  cause  the  temperatures  to  be  too  high,  due  to  lack  of  ventila- 
tion. Other  factors,  such  as  the  general  temperature,  weather  condi- 
tions, as  well  as  the  amount  of  sunlight,  the  size  of  the  entrance,  the 
amount  of  ventilation,  and  the  size  of  the  colony  and  its  activities, 
may  also  influence  to  a certain  degree  the  brood  rearing  activities 
within  the  hive. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


61 


Foulbrood  Yields  to  Sodium  Hypochlorite 

SEVERAL  preparations  of  sodium  hypochlorite  have  been  tested 
during  the  past  season  to  determine  its  value  in  fighting  Ameri- 
can foulbrood.  This  disease  has  been  prevalent  in  Wisconsin 
apiaries  for  twenty  years  or  more,  and  considerable  losses  have  re- 
sulted. The  work  so  far  conducted  by  H.  F.  Wilson  seems  to  demon- 
strate conclusively  that  sodium  hypochlorite  is  an  effective  remedy  in 
destroying  spores  of  the  disease  provided  the  treatment  is  used  for  a 
sufficient  length  of  time.  The  use  of  the  material,  however,  is  limited 
because  the  cost  of  the  chemicals  is  relatively  high. 

The  experiments  show  that  brood  combs  containing  the  larvae  killed 
with  American  foulbrood  can  be  sterilized  if  soaked  in  a concentrated 
solution  of  sodium  hypochlorite  for  24  hours  and  that  both  of  the  types 
of  solution  so  far  tested  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  sterilizing  hive 
bodies  and  hive  parts  from  the  diseased  colony.  This  may  be  done  by 
dipping  or  by  spraying  with  the  solution.  It  was  also  shown  that 
spores  in  honey  can  be  destroyed  if  very  concentrated  solutions  are 
used.  The  cost  of  the  chemicals  in  concentrated  solutions,  however, 
is  so  high  as  to  make  their  use  for  this  purpose  doubtful  except  where 
applications  can  be  made  by  spraying  or  a very  short  dipping  process. 

Control  of  Pea  Aphis 

SINCE  Wisconsin  is  now  producing  over  one-half  of  the  canned 
peas  of  the  nation  and  the  industry  is  still  expanding,  there  is 
naturally  much  interest  in  the  success  of  the  crop.  Damage  by 
the  pea  louse  or  pea  aphis  has  be,en  serious  in  some  sections  year 
after  year  and  is  present  in  moderate  amounts  every  year.  Studies  in 
the  control  of  this  insect  have  been  carried  on  during  the  past  two  sea- 
sons by  J.  E.  Dudley  (Economic  Entomology).*  * 

On  account  of  the  late  wet  spring  the  aphides  did  not  become  abun- 
dant until  rather  late  during  the  past  season.  Extensive  studies  were 
made,  however,  by  Mr.  Dudley  in  the  fields  of  the  Columbus  Canning 
Company.  Slight  infestations  were  noticed  in  pea  and  clover  fields 
after  April  22,  but  the  insects  did  not  become  numerous  until  June  10 
to  20  when  a very  marked  increase  occurred.  Alsike  clover,  red  clo- 
ver, and  alfalfa  are  usually  the  center  of  early  infestation  of  the  pea 
louse  in  cultivated  fields.  From  these  clover  fields  the  aphides  slowly 
spread  to  adjoining  pea  fields  early  in  June,  and  it  was  observed  that 
the  number  of  aphides  in  the  pea  fields  became  appreciably  less  as  the 
distance  from  the  clover  fields  increased;  but  at  a time  of  great  in- 
festation the  insect  seemed  to  be  plentiful  in  all  parts  of  the  field. 

Observations  also  showed  that  there  are  a large  number  of  natural 
enemies  which  prey  upon  the  pea  aphis.  Ladybird  beetles  and  other 
enemies  of  the  pea  louse  seem  to  increase  rapidly  when  the  insects 
become  plentiful.  In  one  field  of  alfalfa  almost  as  many  ladybird 

* Cooperating  with  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


62 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


beetle  adults  were  found  as  there  were  pea  aphides,  and  in  about  ten 
days  the  aphides  were  practically  wiped  out.  In  order  to  test  the  ef- 
fectiveness of  these  beetles  wTiere  they  were  well  established,  a large 
number  of  them  were  caught  and  taken  to  a field  near  Waterloo  which 
was  heavily  infested  with  the  pea  aphis.  It  was  noted  that  after  they 
were  released  the  number  of  aphides  in  this  part  of  the  field  decreased 
while  there  was  a rapid  increase  elsewhere. 

Birds  Destroy  Aphides.  While  birds  in  general  have  long  been  a 
good  friend  of  the  farmer,  a particular  case  of  their  effectiveness  came 
to  the  attention  of  the  men  working  on  the  pea  aphis  during  the  past 
season.  On  June  29  a flock  of  about  40  red-winged  blackbirds  were 
noticed  on  the  pea  vines  on  a heavily  infested  field.  Later  three  of 
these  birds  were  shot,  dissected,  and  examined,  and  their  mouths,  crops, 
and  gizzards  were  found  to  be  full  of  the  pea  lice.  It  was  estimated 
that  each  bird  contained  the  undigested  portions  of  250  aphides.  The 
same  results  were  noticed  on  other  occasions,  and  it  is  very  well  estab- 
lished that  millions  of  the  insects  are  destroyed  where  flocks  of  birds 
are  present  to  feed  upon  them. 


FIG.  25. — THE  APHIDOZER,  A NEW  MACHINE  FOR  COLLECTING 
PLANT  LICE  ON  PEAS 

This  outfit,  though  but  recently  tried  out,  gives  promise  of  meeting 
the  pea  louse  problem.  Inset  shows  a catch  of  11  pounds  of  lice  collected 
from  2 y2  acres. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


63 


Are  Certain  Varieties  of  Peas  Immune  to  Aphis  Attack?  It  has  been 
claimed  by  growers  and  canners  that  certain  varieties  of  “sweet”  peas 
are  immune  from  attack  by  the  pea  aphis,  and  men  of  science  have 
been  interested  in  verifying  this  observation.  An  opportunity  to  ob- 
serve this  supposed  immunity  came  during  the  past  season  when  a 
large  field  containing  both  Admirals  and  Advancers  (both  sweet  va- 
rieties) was  inspected  on  June  5.  In  the  same  field  the  aphides  ap- 
peared to  be  more  than  15  times  as  numerous  on  the  Advancers  as  on 
the  Admirals.  Since  both  varieties  were  in  about  the  same  state  of 
development,  it  appeared  that  the  Admirals  are  less  susceptible  to  at- 
tack than  the  Advancers.  Further  observations,  however,  will  be 
needed  to  verify  this  result. 

Control  Measures  Undertaken.  Continuing  the  work  of  last  year, 
applications  of  dust  were  tried  after  the  aphides  became  sufficiently 
numerous  to  warrant  the  taking  of  machinery  into  the  fields.  The 
studies  this  past  season  were  not  only  to  determine  the  effectiveness 
of  the  insecticide,  but  also  the  most  improved  mechanical  methods  of 
application. 

Several  kinds  of  spraying  booms  were  tried,  one  of  which  was  an 
18-foot  triangular-shaped  boom  devised  by  the  workers.  This  boom  is 
all  in  one  piece  with  a wide  feed  pipe  as  the  center.  The  angle  of  the 
“Y”  is  very  carefully  constructed  so  as  to  give  a gradual  even  curve 
of  90°.  The  boom  is  triangular  in  cross  section;  the  bottom  is  open, 
forming  a continuous  slit  for  its  entire  length,  the  width  of  which  can 
be  easily  controlled  every  foot  and  a half  by  winged  nuts  on  bolts 
running  through  the  two  sides.  Its  distribution  of  dust  is  excellent 
and  there  was  no  trouble  with  clogging.  It  is  believed  that  further 
trials  with  this  boom  will  be  highly  satisfactory. 

When  a canvas  trailer  was  attached  to  the  boom,  it  helped  to  knock 
the  aphides  from  the  vines  and  thoroughly  mixed  the  dust  with  the 
foliage.  Where  the  canvas  was  weighted  down  with  iron  straps,  it 
was  more  effective  in  knocking  the  aphides  down  to  the  ground  where 
they  were  more  readily  killed  by  the  insecticide. 

In  general  the  percentages  of  killed  were  not  so  high  as  was  ex- 
pected, but  with  strong  dust  and  good  weather  conditions — i.e.,  high 
temperature  and  the  absence  of  wind — kills  from  70  to  85  per  cent 
were  obtained,  though  certain  calcium  cyanide  dusts  with  a high 
. cyanide  content  gave  some  trouble  in  the  burning  of  the  foliage. 

The  Aphidozer.  In  view  of  some  discouraging  results  with  dust 
and  sprays,  an  attempt  was  made  to  devise  a machine  that  would  col- 
lect the  aphides.  E.  M.  Searls,  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  was  assigned  to  this  task  and  after  considerable  experi- 
menting, a machine  called  an  aphidozer  was  constructed.  This  effec- 
tively collected  as  high  as  86  per  cent  of  the  aphides  when  the  speed 
of  the  paddles  was  sufficient  to  brush  the  insects  from  the  vines.  Such 
a machine,  if  perfected,  would  have  many  advantages,  as  it  requires 
little  skill  in  operation  and  could  be  used  in  almost  all  weather  ex- 
cept perhaps  during  a rain.  Its  operation  would  also  be  fairly  inex- 


64 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


pensive.  Furthermore,  the  thousands  of  insect  enemies  which  prey 
upon  the  pea  aphis  and  are  normally  destroyed  in  efforts  to  control  the 
aphis  could  be  liberated  very  easily  from  this  machine.  A method  to 
accomplish  this  has  already  been  worked  out. 

Rain  Destroys  Young  Pea  Aphis.  Canners  often  state  that  a heavy 
driving  rain  will  clean  up  an  infestation  of  pea  aphis.  On  the  night  of 
June  7 a downpour  lasting  for  over  an  hour  made  it  possible  to  ob- 
serve its  results  upon  the  pea  aphis.  It  was  found  that,  in  a field  of 
sweets  which  had  been  heavily  infested  with  adults  and  all  stages  of 
nymphs,  by  the  next  morning  the  majority  of  the  nymphs,  especially 
those  in  the  smaller  stages,  had  disappeared  from  the  vines,  but  the 
adults  appeared  to  be  as  numerous  as  before.  It  was  evident  that  the 
adults  produced  young  at  a rapid  rate  and  that,  while  the  rain  may 
have  destroyed  large  numbers  of  the  younger  insects,  the  check  was 
at  best  a temporary  one. 


Dusting  or  Spraying  for  Leaf  Hopper 

HE  COMPARATIVE  costs  of  controlling  insects  by  the  use  of 


nicotine  dust,  powdered  bordeaux,  and  similar  materials  as  con- 


trasted with  the  more  common  applications  of  liquid  sprays  have 
been  studied  at  the  Culp  Farm  near  Waupaca  by  Mr.  Fluke  in  copera- 
tion  with  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Entomology,  Division  of  Truck  Crop  In- 
sects. Results  show  no  great  difference  in  the  relative  costs  of  the 
two  methods.  In  this  trial  the  potato  plots  treated  for  leaf  hopper  by 
means  of  the  liquid  sprays  outyielded  slightly  those  treated  by  the 
dusting  process.  The  cost  of  the  dusting  was  slightly  higher  than 
that  of  the  liquid  sprays,  though  the  method  of  applying  the  dust  is 
simpler  and  more  rapid. 

Besides  throwing  some  light  upon  the  merits  of  the  tw>o  types  of 
treatment,  the  trials  again  demonstrated  the  value  of  using  some 
method  of  controlling  the  leaf  hopper  in  the  potato  section.  Increased 
yields  varying  from  18  to  49  bushels  per  acre  were  obtained  by  its 
application. 

Running  Silage  Cutters  at  High  Speed  Does  Not  Pay 

GREATER  economy  results  from  running  silage  cutters  at  a 
lower  speed,  according  to  recent  tests  directed  by  F.  W.  Duffee 
(Agricultural  Engineering),  than  that  commonly  recommended. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  larger  machines,  for  when  two  men  were 
pitching  off,  the  capacity  of  the  machine  was  actually  greater  when 
the  cutters  were  operated  at  a speed  of  from  550  to  600  revolutions 
per  minute  instead  of  the  usual  higher  speed.  At  the  same  time  a 
saving  in  the  power  requirements  of  about  one-third  was  obtained  when 
running  a 14-inch  machine  at  550  revolutions  instead  of  the  rated  750. 

With  smaller  machines  probably  the  capacity  is  more  often  the 
limiting  factor  and  more  corn  can  be  put  through  them  by  operating 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


65 


at  higher  speed  within  the  usual  limit.  But  with  these  machines,  as 
with  the  larger  ones,  the  efficiency  is  much  greater  at  slower  speed. 

The  extreme  fluctuation  in  these  requirements  at  the  higher  speed 
was  another  important  observation  on  the  power  requirements  of  high 
and  low  speeds.  When  operated  at  a lower  speed,  the  usual  hum  and 
vibration  of  the  machines  was  entirely  absent  and  they  were  doing 
excellent  work.  It  was  also  found  that  at  slower  speed  the  peak  loads 
do  not  go  nearly  so  high  and  the  pull  is  more  uniform  and  steady, 
which  is  desirable  for  both  the  cutter  and  the  engine.  When  running 
more  slowly,  the  feed  table  can  be  kept  practically  full  and  the  upper 
rollers  are  constantly  raised  almost  to  the  top. 

The  observations  showed  that  properly  designed  machines  will  ele- 
vate silage  by  means  of  blowers  to  ordinary  heights  at  speeds  much 
below  the  usual  recommendations.  In  two  tests  with  14-inch  and 
16-inch  cutters,  dry  corn  was  elevated  to  a height  of  100  feet  at  662  and 
670  R.  P.  M.,  respectively.  This,  however,  cannot  be  achieved  unless 
the  machine  is  properly  designed.  See  Table  VII. 


Table  VII — Results  Obtained  With  Cutters  Run  at  Different  Speeds 


Name  of  cutter 

Type 

Size 

Condition 
of  corn  R.P.M. 

Tons  per 
hour 

Av.  net 
H.P. 

H.P.  hours 
per  ton 

1 Advance  Rumely 

Fly 

15 

Green 

747 

12.50 

17.7 

1.42 

2 Advance  Rumely 

Fly 

15 

Green 

694 

13.03 

18.2 

1.396 

4 Case  

Fly 

14 

Green 

762 

11.77 

16.88 

1.434 

5 Case 

Fly 

14 

Green 

662 

11.66 

13.90 

1.192 

6 Case 

Fly 

14 

Green 

545 

12.70 

12.30 

.9p8 

8 McCormick-Deering 

Fly 

14 

Green 

744 

16.9 

24.1 

1.420 

9 McCcrmick-Deering 

Fly 

14 

Green 

650 

16.35 

21.9 

1.338 

10  McCormick-Deering 

Fly 

14 

Green 

566 

17.58 

20.3 

1.149 

11  McCormick-Deering 

Fly 

14 

Green 

530 

17.35 

17.5 

1.007 

13  McCormick-Deering 

Fly 

11 

Green 

936 

8.23 

12.0 

1.458 

14  McCormick-Deering 

Fly 

11 

Green 

866 

8.85 

11.45 

1.295 

15  McCormick-Deering 

Fly 

11 

Green 

695 

7.60 

7.35 

.967 

16  McCormick-Deering 

Fly 

11 

Green 

613 

7.24 

6.10 

.843 

18  Papec  (See  Note  1) 

Fly 

16 

Dry 

670 

22.1 

32.4 

1.46 

19  Papec  (See  Note  2) 

Fly 

16 

Dry 

575 

20.8 

26.6 

1.28 

21  Rowell 

Fly 

13 

Green 

887 

13.37 

18.4 

1.375 

22  Rowell  (See  Note  3) 

Fly 

13 

Green 

767 

11.55 

10.15 

.878 

Note  1.  Large  capacity  secured  by  having  four  men  throwing  off  and 
three  men  feeding. 

Note  2.  High  power  requirement  partly  due  to  dry  corn.  Green  corn 
test  at  this  R.  P.  M.  was  1.1  HP  hours  per  ton,  at  17.63  tons  per  hour. 

Note  3.  Elevated  green  corn  at  this  R.  P.  M.  but  failed  to  elevate  wilted 
corn.  Fan  design  changed  slightly  and  retest  asked  for  too  late  to  be 
given. 


Soil  and  Quality  Determine  Life  of  Drain  Tile 

OUT  OF  Wisconsin’s  189,295  farms,  52,228  contain  land  needing 
drainage,  according  to  the  census  of  1920.  Over  27  per  cent  of 
her  farmers  are  interested  in  this  vital  subject.  They  have 
spent  over  $400,000  for  tile  drainage  alone  in  1923. 


66 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


One  of  the  primary  purposes  in  tile  drainage  at  the  present  time, 
especially  in  the  older  sections  of  the  state,  is  to  facilitate  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  land  on  a more  efficient  basis.  Twenty  acres  of  drained 
land  producing  a good  crop  may  out-yield  40  acres  of  poorly  drained 
land  where  the  crop  is  a partial  failure,  and  at  the  same  time  the  cost 
of  working  the  smaller  area  is  considerably  less.  The  removal  of  sink 
holes  and  the  draining  of  sloughs  in  older  fields  will  mean  an  increased 
efficiency  in  farm  operation. 

Studies  on  the  durability  of  different  kinds  of  tile  under  various  soil 
conditions  have  been  continued  during  the  past  year  by  E.  R.  Jones  and 
O.  R.  Zeasman  (Agricultural  Engineering).  These  investigators,  in 
cooperation  with  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  have 
found  that,  in  general,  comparatively  poor  concrete  tile  are  standing 
up  well  in  clay  subsoils,  but  only  the  best  show  signs  of  permanence 
in  peat.  This  deterioration  in  peat  is  less  where  dense  walls  with  low 
absorption  are  secured  by  firm  packing  and  selected  material  in  the 
manufacturing  process.  Such  material  and  packing  seems  to  be  prac- 


FIG.  26.— DEVICE  FOR  TESTING  CLAY  TILE 
By  this  means  the  breaking  point  of  tile  can  be  determined. 


ticable  only  in  the  thick  walls  of  the  12-inch  tile  and  the  larger  sizes. 
Where  extra-quality  methods  and  materials  are  used  in  the  smaller 
sizes,  they  are  too  expensive  to  compete  with  good  shale  or  clay  tile. 

Ten  drainage  systems  that  have  been  in  operation  from  three  to 
nine  years,  each  area  containing  some  deep  peat  as  well  as  some  shal- 
low peat  with  a clay  subsoil,  showed  that  the  concrete  tile  four  to 
eight  inches  in  diameter  laid  in  contact  with  peat  had  weakened  until 
they  were  only  80.5  per  cent  as  strong  as  similar  concrete  tile  from 
the  same  lots  that  had  lain  the  same  length  of  time  in  a clay  subsoil. 
Strength  tests  were  made  on  140  tile. 

The  12-inch  tile  laid  on  the  University  Marsh  in  1920  were  so  well 
made  that  they  have  but  few  signs  of  unfavorable  action  by  the  peat, 
and  none  that  appeared  the  past  year.  On  the  contrary,  they  are 
about  two  and  one-half  times  stronger  than  shale  tile  laid  the  same 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


67 


time.  This  allows  a reasonable  factor  of  safety  for  any  weakening 
effect  of  the  peat  in  the  years  to  come,  and  for  other  peats  more 
acid  in  character  than  the  University  Marsh.  The  engineer,  however, 
must  be  alert  in  detecting  the  occasional  weak  concrete  tile  that  may 
find  its  way  into  a lot  of  good  ones,  due  possibly  to  the  use  of  partly 
set  sweepings  from  the  floor  of  the  factory. 

Engineers  accepting  concrete  tile  in  peat  are  advised  to  insist  on 
(1)  steam  curing;  (2)  absorption  less  than  7 per  cent  of  the  dry 
weight  of  the  tile;  and  (3)  a breaking  strength  of  1,600  pounds  per 
linear  foot  for  all  30-day-old  tile  up  to  16  inches  in  diameter,  with  an 
increase  of  100  pounds  for  each  inch  in  diameter  thereafter.  A 
strength  two-thirds  as  great  as  this  is  permissible  for  concrete  tile 
laid  in  a clay  subsoil  and  for  shale  tile  in  any  soil  for  all  depths  up  to 
six  feet.  At  greater  depths,  the  greater  strength  is  required  for  both 
shale  and  concrete  tile.  In  deep  cuts  a curved  trench  bottom  exactly 
fitting  the  tile  is  essential.  Another  safety  device  is  to  fill  the  trench 
on  the  installment  plan  after  the  tile  are  laid  to  allow  time  for  part  of 
the  filling  to  settle  and  become  firm  before  the  rest  is  put  back. 

Some  of  the  clay  tile  used  in  Wisconsin  are  too  soft,  porous  and 
weak  to  be  recommended  at  any  depth.  Such  weaknesses  are  usually 
manifest  by  high  breakage  in  shipment. 

The  testing  device  shown  in  Figure  26  has  proven  its  worth.  One 
arm  of  this  lever  is  eight  times  as  long  as  the  other.  If  the  dead 
weight  of  the  level  on  the  scale  is  90  pounds  before  the  lift  is  applied, 
and  the  tile  breaks  at  230  pounds,  the  actual  lift  is  140  pounds.  This 
multiplied  by  eight  gives  1,120  pounds  of  pressure  applied  upon  the 
tile.  To  compensate  for  the  wooden  bearings  instead  of  soil  50  per 
cent  must  be  added,  which  would  make  1,780  pounds  the  breaking 
point  of  the  tile  if  laid  in  soil. 

Sodatol,  a New  Explosive  Mixture 

T THE  close  of  the  late  war  there  remained  in  the  various  gov- 


ernment arsenals  large  quantities  of  war  explosives,  such  as 


picric  acid,  TNT,  and  nitrate  of  soda.  Large  amounts  of  the 
picric  acid  have  in  recent  years  been  used  throughout  the  country  for 
land  clearing,  road  building,  and  other  purposes  at  a great  saving  in 
cost  over  the  more  common  forms  of  explosives  previously  used. 

Investigations  during  the  past  year  by  John  Swenehart  (Agricultural 
Engineering),  in  cooperation  with  the  Bureau  of  Public  Roads  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  have  evolved  a new  explo- 
sive mixture  composed  of  45  parts  of  TNT  and  55  parts  of  sodium 
nitrate.  This  mixture,  known  as  Sodatol,  can  be  produced  from  the 
government  supplies  at  a price  which  makes  a saving  of  12  to  25  cents 
per  pound  to  the  farmers  of  the  state  who  took  advantage  of  this  oppor- 
tunity by  the  purchase  of  2,106,000  pounds  in  the  fall  of  1923. 

To  overcome  shipping,  handling,  and  storage  problems,  preparation 
of  this  material  in  cartridge  form  was  necessary.  After  experiments 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


A. — Wisconsin  used  over 
2,000,000  pounds  of  sodatol  this 
last  season. 


B. — The  mud  cap  replaces 
drilling  for  rock  blasting.  Cheap 
explosives  cost  less  than  extra 
fab  or. 


C. — Sodatol  has  shattering  pow- 
er to  crack  the  big  ones.  When 
breaking  stones  this  way,  work- 
ers should  keep  out  of  range  of 
flying  fragments. 


FIG.  27.— SODATOL,  THE  NEW  EXPLOSIVE,  WORKS  WELL  ON  STUMPS 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


69 


had  determined  the  proper  amounts  of  the  ingredients  to  be  used  in  a 
mixture  for  best  results,  arrangements  were  made  to  have  it  packed 
in  cartridges  1.25x8  inches  weighing  about  seven  ounces  each  and 
having  a working  strength  approximately  equal  to  the  cartridge  of 
the  ordinary  dynamite  weighing  about  half  a pound.  This  means  that 
sodatol  is  about  15  to  20  per  cent  stronger  than  ordinary  dynamite  and 
has  a shattering  strength  approximately  equivalent  to  40  per  cent 
ammonia  dynamite. 

Nitrate  of  soda,  one  of  the  ingredients  used  in  the  making  of  sodatol, 
absorbs  water  readily,  but  in  a mixture  with  TNT  in  properly  paraf- 
fined cartridges -the  moisture  encountered  in  agricultural  work  does  not 
interfere  with  its  use.  Small  quantities  of  water  prevent  explosion  of 
the  material  and  cannot  be  readily  removed.  It  is  essential  that  it  be 
kept  dry  at  all  times,  which  is  unlike  the  requirements  for  handling 
dynamite  or  picric  acid. 

Sodatol  is  not  highly  inflammable  and  burns  slowly  without  explo- 
sion in  small  quantities.  It  is  not  sensitive  to  moderate  shocks  and 
hauling,  which  makes  it  safe  to  use  for  all  ordinary  purposes.  Since 
the  material  is  slower  than  picric  acid  and  relatively  more  insensitive, 
it  is  less  efficient  for  mud-capping  of  rocks  or  ditch  blasting. 

Results  of  various  tests  indicate  that  sodatol  is  a satisfactory  explo- 
sive for  all  general  work.  It  stands  storage  without  deterioration  and 
produces  no  disagreeable  effects  upon  the  health  of  the  workers  or 
headaches  when  used  in  open-air  blasting.  A large  detonator  such  as 
the  No.  6 blasting  cap  or  an  electric  blasting  cap  should  be  used  in  de- 
tonating sodatol. 


Farmers’  Condition  Improved  in  1922 

DURING  1922  the  financial  condition  of  farmers  has  shown  an 
appreciable  improvement  over  that  of  1921.  Surveys  made  un- 
der the  direction  of  P.  E.  McNall  (Agricultural  Economics)  in 
Walworth,  Washington,  and  Fond  du  Lac  counties  indicate  that  this 
improved  status  is  due  to  the  efforts  of  the  farmers  in  readjusting 
their  operations  rather  than  to  any  change  in  the  prices  of  farm  prod- 
ucts. The  study  showed  that  the  farmers  in  these  counties  reduced 
their  cash  farm  expenses  from  an  average  of  $1,743  in  1921  to  $1,576 
in  1922.  The  practice  of  greater  diversification  in  1922  over  1921  is 
another  factor  which  helped  to  improve  the  net  income  of  the  farmer. 
While  the  sale  of  dairy  products  decreased  from  $2,479  per  farm  in 
1921  to  $1,926  in  1922,  the  returns  from  the  sale  of  hogs  and  poultry 
amounted  to  $463  more  per  farm  in  the  latter  year.  The  fact  that  1922 
was  a better  crop  year  also  made  possible  the  carrying  over  of  about 
$200  worth  more  of  feed  per  farm  than  was  carried  over  during  1921. 

It  was  again  shown  that  the  production  per  cow  is  still  the  most 
important  factor  in  increasing  net  returns  on  the  dairy  farm.  The 
group  of  farmers  in  this  survey  whose  herds  sold  less  than  5,000 
pounds  of  milk  per  cow  during  the  year  received  no  compensation  for 
their  time  and  only  3.3  per  cent  of  interest  on  their  total  farm  invest- 


70 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


ment.  On  the  other  hand,  farmers  whose  herds  sold  from  5,000  to 
7,000  pounds  of  milk  per  cow,  while  receiving  no  compensation  for 
their  labor,  received  4.7  per  cent  interest  on  their  total  farm  invest- 
ment, which  is  an  increase  of  1.4  per  cent  over  the  interest  rate  earned 
on  farms  where  the  cows  produced  less  than  5,000  pounds  of  milk. 
Farmers  from  whose  herds  were  sold  more  than  7,000  pounds  of  milk 
per  cow  during  1922  received  on  an  average  5 per  cent  return  on  an 
investment  averaging  $22,000;  over  and  above  this,  they  averaged 
$244  each  for  their  time  as  operates  of  these  farms.  All  this  goes  to 
show  that  to  make  the  dairy  farm  pay,  high  production  per  cow  is 
essential.  These  figures  verify  the  observation  that  the  farmer’s  con- 
dition is  improving,  but  obviously  the  income  of  the  farms  is  still  too 
low  to  yield  a fair  profit. 


FIG.  28. — HOW  THE  WISCONSIN  CHEESE  PRODUCERS’  FEDERATION 
MARKETS  ITS  PRODUCTS 


In  organizing  commodity  companies,  there  are  two  main  forms,  the 
federated  type,  illustrated  above  and  the  centralized  type  which  omits 
only  the  local  and  district  operating  associations. 

What  Form  of  Cooperative  Organization  Is  Best? 

IN  RECENT  years  there  has  been  a great  deal  of  misunderstanding 
over  the  use  of  various  terms  employed  with  cooperative  and  com- 
modity marketing.  Many  forms  of  cooperative  effort  have  been 
made  known,  and  commonly  they  are  not  very  well  understood.  In 
order  to  understand  what  form  of  cooperative  organization  is  best,  it 
is  essential  that  there  be  a clearer  understanding  of  the  difference 
between  the  various  forms  prevailing. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


71 


In  order  to  determine  the  best  forms  of  cooperative  organization  in 
use,  a survey  of  twenty  cooperative  companies  in  three  Pacific  Coast 
states  and  British  Columbia  was  conducted  by  Theodore  Macklin  (Ag- 
ricultural Economics)  within  the  past  year.  This  survey  showed  that 
two  forms  of  organization  are  most  frequently  used:  (1)  systems  of 

federated  local  associations,  and  (2)  single  central  individual  mem- 
bership associations.  Either  of  these  forms  of  organization  may  de- 
velop so  as  to  practice  commodity  marketing,  and  either  may  be  or- 
ganized on  the  basis  of  a non-stock-non-profit  incorporation  or  on  a 
regular  stock  and  patronage  dividends-profit  incorporation.  The  nature 
of  the  commodity  to  be  handled,  the  object  to  be  attained,  and  local 
conditions  must  usually  determine  the  form  of  organization  selected 
by  an  enterprise. 

There  is  no  single  satisfactory  plan  of  cooperation  for  marketing. 
The  cooperators  who  have  been  so  successful  on  the  Pacific  Coast 
have  selected  the  plan  wrhich  seemed  most  likely  to  attain  their  ob- 
jective. In  organizing  for  cooperative  marketing  each  group  of  actual 
or  prospective  cooperators  must  use  judgment  based  on  understanding 
as  to  how  they  shall  organize  and  conduct  their  business  operations. 

Farm  Ownership  High  in  Wisconsin 

FARM  ownership  is  higher  in  Wisconsin  than  in  any  of  the  bor- 
dering states.  In  fact,  the  amount  of  tenancy  in  the  state  does 
not  exceed  14  per  cent.  In  view  of  the  high  percentage  of  farm 
ownership,  a study  was  made  under  the  direction  of  B.  H.  Hibbard 
(Agricultural  Economics)  of  the  various  methods  of  acquisition  by 
which  the  farmers  of  the  state  have  acquired  their  farms. 

These  studies  showed  that  a very  considerable  number  of  the  farm 
owners  of  today  have  at  one  time  or  another  been  hired  men  and  ap- 
parently the  number  of  such  farm  owners  is  increasing.  In  1882  ex- 
actly 54  per  cent  of  the  farmers  had  been  hired  men;  in  1922  this  num- 
ber had  increased  to  62  per  cent.  It  is  also  found  that  the  number  of 
farm  owners  who  at  some  time  had  been  farm  tenants  is  increasing. 
In  1872  only  about  11  per  cent  of  the  farmers  had  worked  as  tenants, 
while  in  1922  this  percentage  was  53.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that 
the  period  of  tenancy  which  precedes  ownership  is  becoming  some- 
what longer,  especially  in  the  older  portions  of  the  state.  The  aver- 
age age  at  w’hich  men  now  acquire  farms  also  shows  a tendency  to 
advance.  Thirty  years  ago  the  average  age  of  the  men  buying  farms 
was  slightly  over  27  years,  while  in  1922  it  exceeded  32  years. 

It  was  found  that  66  per  cent  of  the  farms  were  purchased  outright 
on  a business  basis;  that  11  per  cent  were  acquired  mainly  by  pur- 
chase, but  with  some  other  form  of  assistance;  5 per  cent  were  in- 
herited; nearly  3 per  cent  homesteaded;  and  2 per  cent  received  as 
gifts.  It  is  further  noted  that  boys  coming  from  small  farms  become 
tenants  a little  later  in  life  than  those  from  the  large  farms,  and  that 
the  length  of  time  for  which  they  remain  as  tenants  is  gradually  in- 
creasing. 


72 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


The  number  of  persons  on  farms  who  were  not  born  upon  farms 
seems  to  be  increasing.  According  to  this  survey,  the  actual  number 
of  these  was  20  per  cent  of  the  total,  but  other  studies  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  this  figure  should  probably  be  slightly  lower  for  the  state  as 
a whole.  When  it  comes  to  boys  leaving  the  land,  the  study  seems  to 
indicate  that  the  large  farms  lose  fewer  young  people  than  the  small 
farms.  Nearly  all  of  the  farmers  have  worked  away  from  the  farm  for 
some  time.  Relatively  more  men  from  large  farms  have  gone  back 
to  farming  than  of  those  that  came  from  the  small  farms.  Moreover, 
men  who  were  boys  on  small  farms  still  own  smaller  farms  than  do 
those  who  came  from  farms  of  larger  size,  which  seems  to  show  that 
the  size  of  farms  perpetuates  itself  at  least  for  a time. 


HE  RESEARCH  in  rural  life  was  concerned  with  rural  religious 


organizations  and  town  and  country  relationships  during  the 


past  year.  Both  of  these  were  conducted  by  J.  H.  Kolb  (Agricul- 
tural Economics).* 

The  first  project,  “Rural  Religious  Organization,”  is  a study  of  pres- 
ent-day organization  of  religious  groupings  in  one  county.  No  purely 
religious  question,  as  such,  is  considered  at  all,  but  the  problem  was 
to  map  the  various  rural  church  groups,  enumerate  their  constituency 
and  then  study  into  the  factors  and  conditions  lying  back  of  this 
present-day  organization.  This  plan  involved  tracing  these  groups 
back  to  their  European  or  early  American  sources,  analyzing  their  de- 
velopments in  the  changed  situation  and  of  showing  the  interrelation 
of  the  various  national  and  local  constituent  bodies.  In  the  county 
studied,  117  such  bodies  were  found  distributed  according  to  three 
major  groupings  as  follows:  Lutheran  bodies,  47,  including  five  synods 
and  having  a combined  constituency  of  slightly  over  11,000  communi- 
cant members;  Roman  Catholic  bodies,  22,  with  a membership  of 
6,590;  and  “Reformed”  bodies  representing  all  non-Lutheran  protes- 
tant  groups,  48,  including  11  different  divisions  with  a total  of  3,693 
members. 

Town  and  Country  Relationships.  The  second  project  was  com- 
pleted after  two  years  of  field  and  laboratory  work.  Six  small  towns 
were  selected  in  three  counties  and  all  of  their  service  institutions  in 
any  way  in  contact  with  the  farming  population  were  minutely  studied. 
These  institutions,  of  course,  included  retail  stores,  marketing  agen- 
cies, schools,  and  churches,  or  social,  fraternal  and  recreational  organ- 
izations. Then  in  the  outlying  trade  areas  of  these  six  towns  787  farm 
families  were  personally  visited  and  questioned  in  detail  about  their 
relationship  to  these  near-by  towns.  This  service  relation  of  town 
and  country  is  sixfold. 

* Cooperatively  with  the  Bureau  of  Agricultural  Economics,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture. 


Rural  Life  Studied 


. 


FIG.  29.— TRADE  ZONES  ARE  AN  INDEX  OF  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

RELATIONS 

The  solid  black  lines  indicate  the  general  trade  zones  while  the  broken 
swinging  curves  represent  the  maximum  area  to  which  any  service  from 
the  town  extends.  The  arrows  show  encroachments  from  nearby  towns. 


74 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


The  economic  service  includes  merchandising,  marketing,  and 
financing.  The  merchant  by  selling  his  wares  to  the  farmer  contrib- 
utes directly  to  the  later’s  standard  of  living.  Marketing  is  the  re- 
verse side  of  the  relationship;  it  is  the  local  assembling  of  the  farm- 
ers’ product  for  the  world  consumption.  Financing  works  both  ways, 
the  farmer  buying  and  selling  in  town  and  the  merchant  buying  and 
selling  with  the  farmer.  Both  processes  require  financing. 

The  educational  service  holds  the  key  to  the  future  with  reference 
to  social  attitudes  affecting  town  and  country  relations.  This  service 
is  presented  locally  by  schools,  libraries  and  lyceums  of  various  sorts 
for  lectures,  music,  drama,  and  art. 

The  religious  service  has  to  do  with  those  idealizing  and  motivating 
forces  in  rural  life.  It's  local  representative  is  the  church  and  its 
various  organizations  of  benevolence  and  religious  education.  It  has 
at  its  command  music,  draina,  beautiful  imagery,  commanding  archi- 
tecture, reverent  rituals,  and  inspiring  personalities. 

The  social  service  is  concerned  with  those  functions  which  make 
for  sociability,  contentment,  and  happiness,  and  quite  as  much  with 
those  of  social  welfare  represented  by  programs  of  health,  charity  or 
corrective  work. 

The  communication  service  has  within  its  grasp  powerful  means 
for  unifying  or  dividing  community  life.  The  channels  for  understand- 
ing and  communication  are  here.  They  are  such  as  the  telephone, 
telegraph,  and  the  radio;  the  mail  service;  the  newspaper  and  maga- 
zines; and  transportation  in  all  its  forms,  for  the  roads  themselves  be- 
come important  means  of  communication. 

The  organization  service.  No  service  relations  can  be  effective  or 
permanent  until  they  are  appropriated,  incorporated  and  incarnated 
within  the  life  of  local  groups  of  people.  This  organization  service, 
whether  of  cooperative  endeavor,  of  community  organization  (which 
is  nothing  more  than  the  local  harmonizing  and  harnessing  of  all  in- 
terests), or  that  of  leadership  from  within,  become  matters  of  prime 
importance  demanding  more  than  a haphazard  or  casual  attention  on 
the  part  of  the  larger  town  and  country  community. 

In  summary  the  implications  from  the  study  may  be  expressed  from 
the  viewpoint  of  the  townsman  and  second  from  that  of  the  farmer. 
For  the  townsman  it  means  that  his  town  must  become  the  specialized 
service  station  for  the  larger  community.  Each  town  may  well  spe- 
cialize to  those  services  it  can  render  most  effectively.  This  means, 
of  course,  that  no  one  town  and  its  community  can  live  unto  itself, 
but  must  work  out  interrelations  with  other  towns  and  their  com- 
munities. 

The  implication  for  the  farmer  is  the  assumption  of  a keener  respon- 
sibility for  the  larger  community  life  rather  than  attempting  to  hold 
to  a family  or  a neighborhood  economy.  The  farmer  is  in  real  need  of 
this  larger  organization  relationship  where  his  own  interests  may  be 
safeguarded,  but  at  the  same  time  united  with  those  of  his  town  or 
city  in  order  to  effect  an  efficiency  commensurate  with  the  greatly  ex- 
panded needs  of  his  day. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


75 


It  Pays  to  Inoculate  Canning  Peas 

FOR  A NUMBER  of  years  canners  have  thought  it  advisable  to 
inoculate  peas  grown  on  light  soils  where  the  inoculation  often 
exerts  a marked  influence  on  the  yield.  On  the  more  fertile  soils 
inoculation  has  not  generally  been  considered  worth  while  because 
there  seemed  to  be  no  material  difference  in  the  resultant  crops.  Re- 
cently, however,  some  of  the  canning  companies  have  made  compara- 
tive trials  of  cultures  prepared  in  the  Agricultural  Bacteriology  de- 
partment by  using  inoculated  and  uninoculated  seed  in  the  same  field. 
While  they  were  often  unable  to  see  any  difference  in  the  crop  as  it 
stood  in  the  field  and  did  not  consider  it  worth  while  to  continue  the 
inoculating  process  from  outward  appearances,  a careful  determina- 
tion of  the  crop  after  harvesting  has  shown  that  the  inoculation  has  a 
very  good  effect  upon  the  yield  of  shelled  peas  and  is  profitable  even 
on  the  more  fertile  soils  as  well  as  on  the  lighter  ones. 

The  Garden  Canning  Company,  of  Evansville,  after  making  com- 
parative trials  on  fertile  land  reports  a yield  of  2,165  pounds  per  acre 
for  the  uninoculated  land  and  2,894  pounds  for  the  inoculated  fields. 
When  calculated  at  3 cents  per  pound  for  the  shelled  peas,  these  fig- 
ures show  an  increase  of  ?21.87  per  acre  which  was  brought  about  by 
inoculation  material  costing  $1.00  per  acre  and  leaving  therefore  a net 
return  of  $20.87  due  to  this  extra  work. 

The  William  Larsen  Canning  Company,  of  Green  Bay,  reports  an  in- 
crease of  267.2  pounds  per  acre  of  green  shelled  peas,  making  a net 
monetary  increase  of  $7.01  per  acre.  The  report  of  this  firm  states 
that  there  was  no  noticeable  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  fields. 
On  trials  of  this  sort  run  in  Walworth  county,  County  Agent  Merriam 
reports  an  increase  of  254  pounds  of  green  shelled  peas  per  acre  due 
to  the  inoculation,  making  a net  monetary  increase  of  $6.62  per  acre. 
Again  in  this  case  there  was  no  apparent  difference  in  the  growth  of 
the  plant  though  the  color  of  the  inoculated  peas  was  somewhat  darker. 

The  pea  canners  of  the  state,  through  their  state  organization,  are 
bringing  these  results  to  the  attention  of  the  different  people  inter- 
ested in  this  industry.  The  introduction  of  such  practices  is  the 
surest  way  to  reduce  the  cost  of  production  without  much  additional 
expense.  The  effect  will  be  to  add  materially  to  the  fertility  of  our 
soils  by  keeping  up  the  nitrogen  content. 

Experiments  With  Silage 

WISCONSIN  now  has  over  100,000  silos,  and  silage  plays  an  ex- 
ceedingly important  part  in  feeding  the  2,200,000  dairy  cows 
of  the  state. 

From  year  to  year  the  number  of  inquiries  about  silos  and  troubles 
experienced  in  making  good  silage  has  constantly  increased.  The  de- 
partments of  Agricultural  Chemistry  and  Agricultural  Bacteriology 
have  continued  their  experiments  from  both  the  chemical  and  biolog- 
ical points  of  view. 


76 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Moldy  Silage.  Moldy  areas  in  silage  have  given  dairymen  in  certain 
sections  of  the  state  unusual  concern  within  the  past  two  years.  So 
far,  the  only  explanation  is  that  the  corn  was  usually  ensiled  when 
too  dry  and  that,  in  certain  areas,  the  oxygen  in  the  contained  air  was 
used  up  so  slowly  by  the  live  plant  tissues  of  the  corn  that  mold 
growth  was  made  possible  for  a short  time.  It  seems  that  the  diffusion 
of  oxygen  is  slow  in  the  tightly  packed  silage;  if  this  gas  is  not  taken 
up  by  the  respiration  of  the  plant  tissues  in  a given  area,  it  does  not 
pass  into  the  surrounding  material  rapidly  enough  to  avoid  the  growth 
of  mold.  It  is  possible  that  the  growth  of  mold  in  these  spots  occurs 
the  first  day  or  so  after  the  material  is  placed  in  the  silo.  Thorough 
compacting  will  help  to  some  extent  in  overcoming  this,  buL  more  par- 
ticularly corn  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  too  ripe. 

Silage  Fermentation  Trials.  In  the  fall  of  1922  a stave  silo  was 
filled  with  corn  in  excellent  condition,  with  which  to  make  a complete 
chemical  and  bacteriological  study  of  the  silage  at  various  periods  of 
fermentation.  The  work  was  carried  out  under  E.  G.  Hastings  and 
E.  B.  Fred  (Agricultural  Bacteriology)  and  W.  H.  Peterson  (Agricul- 
tural Chemistry).  The  most  striking  result  was  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  oxygen  disappeared  from  the  silage  after  ensiling.  It  was 
practically  all  consumed  within  two  or  three  hours,  and  a correspond- 
ing increase  in  the  carbon  dioxide  content  of  the  silage  air  was  noted. 
Gradually  the  carbon  dioxide  content  decreased  and  its  place  was 
taken  by  nitrogen.  It  appears  that  the  carbon  dioxide  gradually  dif- 
fuses out  and  is  replaced  by  nitrogen  instead  of  normal  air  because 
the  oxygen  in  the  air  is  removed  by  mold  growing  on  the  surface  lay- 
ers of  the  silage. 

Ensiling  Partially  Dried  Alfalfa.  In  the  summer  of  1922  Messrs. 
Fred  and  Peterson  ensiled  some  alfalfa  in  the  manner  advocated  by 
Mr.  Samarini,  of  Italy.  This  material  was  partially  dried  by  exposure 
after  cutting  to  30  or  40  per  cent  moisture,  then  tightly  packed  and 
heavily  weighted;  and  it  was  found  that  the  silage  produced  was 
brownish  green  in  color,  had  a pleasant  odor,  and  was  readily  eaten 
by  cattle.  There  was  little  loss  of  dry  matter  during  the  process 
(about  5 per  cent). 

The  success  of  this  method  seems  to  depend  upon  the  proper  reduc- 
tion of  the  water  content  in  the  material  ensiled  to  a point  which  will 
not  permit  bacterial  growth  and  which  will,  at  the  same  time,  retain 
enough  living  plant  tissue  to  remove  the  oxygen  from  the  silage  air  by 
respiration,  thus  providing  suitable  conditions  under  wThich  the  silage 
will  be  protected  from  mold  and  ordinary  bacterial  growth.  On  the 
whole,  it  seems  that  in  practical  use  a farmer  would  have  difficulty  in 
getting  material  such  as  alfalfa  dried  to  the  proper  degree  for  silage, 
and  it  is  doubtful  whether  such  a practice  can  ever  be  recommended 
under  conditions  where  alfalfa  can  be  satisfactorily  converted  to  hay. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


77 


New  Test  to  Separate  Strains  of  Legume  Bacteria 

THE  LEGUME  bacteria  are  divided  into  natural  groups  depend- 
ing upon  the  kind  of  plants  they  are  able  to  invade  and  produce 
root  nodules.  The  agglutination  reaction  which  has  been  used 
by  J.  W.  Stevens  (Agricultural  Bacteriology)  divides  the  natural 
groups  into  a number  of  subgroups.  These  subgroups  differ  in  that  the 
members  of  one  subgroup  may  be  more  effective  in  promoting  the 
growth  of  a higher  plant  than  those  of  another  subgroup.  The  varia- 
tion in  the  effectiveness  of  the  cultures  belonging  to  different  sub- 
groups is  shown  in  Fig.  30. 

The  variations  seem  to  be  more  in  the  ability  of  the  bacteria  to 
assist  the  green  plant  than  in  the  actual  nodule-forming  power.  In  the 
experiments  the  nodules  were  sometimes  more  abundant  on  the  roots 
of  the  plant  inoculated  with  strains  that  produced  the  smallest  growth 
than  on  those  inoculated  with  strains  that  produced  the  largest  growth. 
The  plants  making  the  largest  amount  of  growth  contained  the  higher 
percentage  of  nitrogen. 


FIG.  30.— LEGUME  BACTERIA  CAN  BE  PEDIGREED  ON  BASIS  OF 
NITROGEN-FIXING  POWER 

By  applying-  the  blood  test  used  in  detecting  typhoid  fever,  the  bac- 
teriologist is  able  to  separate  alfalfa  bacteria  into  high  or  low  nitrogen- 
fixing groups.  This  new  discovery  opens  up  new  fields  in  producing  com- 
mercial cultures. 


Soybean  Inoculation 

WITH  THE  increasing  acreage  of  soybeans  now  grown  in  the 
state,  there  is  much  interest  in  successful  cultural  practices. 
While  the  importance  of  soybean  inoculation  has  to  some  ex- 
tent been  recognized,  there  is  yet  much  to  learn. 

Because  such  varied  results  were  obtained  in  field  trials  with  inocu- 
lated soybeans  a carefully  planned  series  of  trials  has  been  conducted 
over  a period  of  four  years  by  W.  H.  Wright  (Agricultural  Bacteri- 
ology). From  a great  mass  of  data  collected  the  following  findings 
stand  out: 

1.  Different  strains  of  bacteria  used  in  inoculating  soybeans  differ 
in  their  nitrogen-fixing  efficiency. 

2.  Different  strains  of  bacteria  used  for  soybean  inoculation  differ 
in  their  power  of  producing  nodules  on  the  roots  of  the  plants  as 
shown  by  actual  count  both  as  to  number  and  size  of  nodules. 


78 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


3.  Different  varieties  of  beans  differ  in  their  relative  “susceptibility” 
of  inoculation. 

4.  The  efficiency  of  nitrogen  fixed  varies  with  the  soil  composition 
and  reaction. 

The  results  in  the  following  table  were  obtained  by  inoculating  soy- 
beans with  standard  cultures  that  are  ordinarily  sold.  These  cultures 
contain  a mixture  of  several  strains  of  bacteria,  and  the  variation  in 
results  under  different  soil  conditions  is  interesting. 

Table  VIII — Summary  of  1921-22.  Field  Experiments  With  Inoculated 

Soybeans 


County 

Year 

Farm 

Soil  and  reaction 

Variety 

Soybeans 

Gain  in  dj 
due  to  in< 

:y  weight 
aculation 

Gain  in  Ditrogen 
content  due  to 
inoculation 

Adams.  . . . 

1921 

1 

Medium  acid  sand 

I to  San . 

Lbs.peracre 

270 

Per  cent 
7.9 

Per  cent 
4 1 

Adams 

1921 

2 

Medium  acid  sand 

Ito  San 

105 

3.8 

21.6 

Adams 

1921 

3 

Medium  acid  sand 

Mancbu 

324 

8.0 

5 2 

Adams 

1921 

4 

Medium  acid  sand 

Ito  San 

85 

2.5 

3.8 

6.6 

15.0 

Green  Lake. . 

1921 

1 

Slightly  acid  sand 

Manchu 

30 

1.0 

Green  Lai  e . 

1921 

2 

Slightly  acid  sand 

Wis.  Black .... 

669 

26.0 

Columbia 

1922 

1 

Medium  acid,  sandy  loam. . 

Machnu 

1,581 

73.6 

28.4 

Columbia 

1922 

1 

Medium  acid,  sandy  loam. . 

Wis.  Black.  . . . 

1,943 

48.8 

4.8 

Columbia 

1922 

1 

Medium  acid,  sandy  loam.. 

Hollybrook .... 

2,446 

74.3 

27.1 

Columbia 

1922 

1 

Medium  acid,  sandy  loam. . 

Black  Eyebrow . 

259 

4.0 

18.4 

Columbia 

1922 

1 

Medium  acid,  sandy  loam. . 

Chestnut 

35 

0.9 

17.9 

Columbia 

1922 

2 

Medium  acid  sand 

Hollybrook .... 

1.504 

38.3 

12.0 

Columbia .... 

1922 

2 

Medium  acid  sand 

Manchu 

3,557 

60.8 

8.6 

Columbia . . . 

1922 

2 

Medium  acid  sand 

Wis.  Black .... 

1,795 

50.6 

16.3 

MANCHU  MANCHU 

INOCULATED  UNINOCULATED 


FIG.  31.— INOCULATION  PAYS 

Ten  plants  from  an  inoculated  plot  (left)  and  ten  from  an  uninoculated 
plot  (right).  Inoculation  increases  yield  per  acre,  also  nitrogen  content 
(as  shown  by  color),  and  feeding  value  of  crop. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


79 


Stinker  Swiss  Cheese 


IN  VIEW  of  the  fact  that  Wisconsin  produces  over  three-fourths  of 
the  Swiss  cheese  made  in  the  United  States,  anything  affecting 
this  industry  is  of  considerable  importance.  In  the  past  year  the 
amount  of  “stinker”  cheese  continued  to  increase;  and  because  this 
putrefactive  trouble  often  makes  the  cheese  unsalable,  investigational 
work  is  of  interest. 

It  was  found  previously  that  butyric  acid-forming  bacteria  were  al- 
ways present  in  the  rotten  spots,  while  few  organisms  of  this  type  were 
also  present  in  the  good  part  of  the  cheese.  Pure  cultures  of  the 
butyric  acid  organism,  however,  do  not  produce  any  odor  resembling 
the  “stinker”  odor.  Continued  work  this  year  by  E.  G.  Hastings  and 
W.  C.  Frazier  (Agricultural  Bacteriology)  has,  however,  resulted  in 
isolating  another  organism  from  “stinker”  cheese  which  gives  a bad 
odor  when  grown  by  itself  in  sterile  milk. 

It  was  found  that  the  only  way  in  which  this  organism  would  pro- 
duce stinker  spots  in  cheese  was  its  introduction  into  the  cheese  or 
into  the  milk  from  which  the  cheese  was  made  either  in  combination 
with  the  butyric  organism  or  with  the  gas-forming  bacteria  from 
Nissler  cheese.  Neither  organism  alone  would  produce  the  stinker 
spots.  The  tentative  conclusion  reached  is  that  this  trouble  is  caused 
by  a combination  of  organisms,  which  may  readily  occur  in  milk, 
rather  than  by  any  single  type  of  germ. 

Role  of  Bacteria  in  Curdling  Evaporated  Milk 

HE  CURDLING  of  milk  by  heat  has  been  a subject  for  consid- 


erable study  because  of  its  importance  in  the  evaporated  milk 


industry.  Previous  work  has  shown  that  the  balance  of  salts  in 
milk  may  determine  whether  or  not  a given  sample  will  coagulate  upon 
heating  and  that  bacterial  action  on  the  milk  may  influence  its  heat 
coagulation. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  acid  formation  by  bacteria  in  general, 
assists  coagulation,  but  that  acid  in  limited  amounts  inhibits  it.  It 
was  thought  that  the  type  of  organism  which  causes  the  “sweet  cur- 
dling” of  milk,  i.e.,  curdling  without  the  production  of  much  acid, 
might  have  a considerable  influence  upon  the  heat  coagulation  of  milk. 
W.  C.  Frazier  has  studied  a number  of  these  organisms.  When  por- 
tions of  a milk  culture  of  these  organisms  were  added  to  milk  in  spiall 
amounts,  they  were  found  to  inhibit  heat  coagulation,  but  larger 
amounts  assisted  it. 

The  coagulating  ability  of  such  organsms  is  due  to  an  enzyme  se- 
creted by  them.  This  rennin-like  enzyme,  which  is  similar  to  the 
coagulating  enzyme  found  in  the  rennet  extract  from  calves’  stomachs, 
was  isolated  in  a more  or  less  pure  state.  Tests  with  the  purified 
enzyme  have  shown  that  when  acting  alone  it  has  comparatively  little 
influence  upon  the  heat  coagulation  of  milk  and  that  acidity  is  a more 


80 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


dominant  factor  in  the  action  of  the  bacteria.  It  was  also  found  that 
the  enzyme  was  sensitive  to  high  temperatures.  Heat  at  140 °F. 
(60°C.)  for  twenty  minutes  weakened  it  considerably  while  150°F. 
(70°C.)  destroyed  it  entirely,  which  shows  that  such  enzyme  must  be 
destroyed  during  the  preheating  process  and  does  not  function  during 
the  evaporation  or  sterilization  of  milk. 


HAT  THE  salt  composition  of  milk  is  of  practical  importance 


in  a number  of  ways  has  been  shown  in  previous  work.  Among 


these  are  the  heat  coagulation  of  evaporated  milk,  the  rennet 
coagulation  of  milk  in  cheese  making,  and  the  coagulation  of  milk  in 
the  alcohol  test. 

There  are  indications  that  the  feed  consumed  by  the  dairy  cow  has 
an  effect  on  the  salt  composition  of  the  milk.  Feeding  experiments 
were  therefore  conducted  by  H.  H.  Sommer  and  W.  L.  Lerch  (Dairy 
Husbandry)  to  determine  whether  the  mineral  intake . of  the  dairy 
cow  influences  the  composition  and  properties  of  the  milk. 

The  general  plan  of  the  experiments  was  (1)  to  feed  cows  on  either 
a normal  or  a low  calcium  ration  first  and  later  to  add  inorganic  cal- 
cium to  this  ration,  and  (2)  to  study  the  milk  produced  under  these 
conditions  for  (a)  Titratable  acidity,  (b)  Hydrogen  ion  concentration, 
(c)  Alcohol  coagulation,  (d)  Heat  coagulation,  (e)  Heat  coagulation 
of  the  concentrated  milk,  and  (f)  Analysis  for  calcium,  phosphorus, 
and  citric  acid  content. 

In  the  first  experiment  four  cows  were  fed  on  a winter  ration  low 
in  calcium  in  the  preliminary  period.  Later  100  and  finally  200  grams 
of  precipitated  calcium  carbonate  were  added  to  this  ration  per  day. 
There  were  slight  fluctuations  in  the  properties  of  the  milk,  but  they 
were  not  abnormal  and  bore  no  consistent  relation  to  the  change  in 
the  ration,  which  indicated  that  in  this  experiment  the  feeding  of  the 
calcium  carbonate  did  not  produce  any  change  in  the  properties  of 
the  milk.  Since  the  results  of  this  experiment  were  contrary  to  those 
of  an  earlier  experiment  in  which  the  feeding  of  calcium  carbonate 
affected  the  alcohol  coagulation  of  the  milk,  it  was  thought  that  vita- 
mine  D,  which  governs  the  assimilation  of  calcium,  may  have  been 
lacking.  The  experiment  was  therefore  repeated  and  this  factor  was 
furnished  by  feeding  100  c.  c.  of  cod-liver  oil  per  day  per  cow,  but 
without  any  effect  on  the  properties  studied. 

Since  the  cod-liver  oil  was  given  only  once  a day,  it  undoubtedly 
did  not  come  into  contact  with  all  portions  of  the  feed  and  its  effec- 
tiveness may  for  that  reason  have  been  reduced.  A more  satisfactory 
experiment  was  therefore  conducted  in  which  the  vitamine  D was  fur- 
nished by  green  feed.  Three  cows  were  given  green  feed  to  which 
bone  meal  was  later  added.  The  addition  of  the  bone  meal  caused  the 
milk  to  coagulate  more  readily  in  the  rennet  and  alcohol  tests,  and 
produced  a slight  change  in  the  heat  coagulation,  although  analyses 


Heat  Coagulation  of  Milk 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


81 


failed  to  show  an  increase  in  the  calcium  content  and  there  was  no 
change  in  the  acidity  of  the  milk. 

When  the  changing  of  the  cows  from  the  winter  ration  to  pasture 
feeding  was  studied,  the  analyses  of  the  milk  showed  that  there  was 
an  increase  in  the  citric  acid  content,  averaging  0.012  per  cent  on  14 
samples.  This  increase  in  the  citric  acid  content  caused  somewhat 
slower  rennet  and  alcohol  coagulation.  There  was  no  change  in  the 
acidity  of  the  milk. 

It  appears,  then,  that  changes  in  the  mineral  content  of  the  ration 
failed  to  produce  any  change  in  the  acidity  of  the  milk,  but  that  under 
certain  conditions,  especially  in  the  presence  of  green  feed,  the  min- 
eral intake  may  affect  the  salt  composition  enough  to  cause  a notice- 
able change  in  the  rennet,  alcohol,  and  heat  coagulation  of  the  milk. 
Further  experimental  work  is  necessary  before  final  conclusions  can 
be  drawn. 

It  is  known  that  in  the  manufacture  of  evaporated  milk  the  tem- 
perature to  which  the  milk  is  “preheated”  before  it  is  concentrated 
later  affects  the  coagulation  of  the  concentrated  milk  when  it  is  steri- 
lized. High  preheating  temperatures  cause  the  milk  to  coagulate  less 
readily.  By  comparing  milk  made  with  a preheating  temperature  of 
180°F.  with  another  portion  of  the  same  milk  preheated  to  210°F. 
Messrs.  Sommer  and  Lerch  found  that  the  milk  preheated  to  180°F. 
coagulated  much  more  readily  in  the  sterilizing  process.  Analyses 
showed  that  the  milk  preheated  to  180°F.  contained  61.3  per  cent  of 
its  original  albumin  content  in  a soluble  form,  while  the  milk  pre- 
heated to  210°F.  contained  only  39.6  per  cent.  Further,  the  milk  pre- 
heated to  180°F.  contained  0.010  per  cent  more  soluble  calcium.  The 
beneficial  effect  of  high  preheating  temperatures  in  delaying  coagula- 
tion of  the  evaporated  milk  is  therefore  attributed  to  the  greater  pre- 
cipitation of  calcium  salts  and  coagulation  of  albumin  at  the  higher 
temperatures. 

New  Butter  Test  Developed 

MANY  attempts  have  been  made  to  devise  a satisfactory  method 
of  testing  butter  for  fat  content  at  the  creamery,  but  it  has 
been  difficult  to  find  a test  that  could  be  used  without  spe- 
cial laboratory  facilities.  Recently,  however,  E.  H.  Farrington  (Dairy 
Husbandry)  has  perfected  a test  which  is  thoroughly  practical  for  gen- 
eral practice. 

Among  the  problems  in  previous  methods  of  testing  the  butter  for 
fat  content  was  the  difficulty  of  getting  a fair  sample;  slight  errors 
produce  considerable  variation  in  results;  and  the  reading  of  tests 
was  often  difficult  because  they  are  affected  by  changes  in  tempera- 
ture and  the  fact  that  the  fat  content  of  the  butter  was  improperly 
separated  from  the  water,  casein,  and  brine. 

How  the  Test  Is  Made.  The  new  method  overcomes  the  old  diffi- 
culty of  obtaining  a proper  sample,  because  a number  of  small  por- 
tions are  removed  from  different  parts  of  the  package  to  be  tested 


82 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


and  placed  in  a special  cup  where  they  are  kept  until  the  time  for 
testing.  When  the  testing  is  to  be  done,  the  cup  is  placed  in  water  at 
a temperature  of  about  100 °F.  long  enough  to  bring  the  butter  to  the 
consistency  of  heavy  cream.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  heat  the 
butter  to  so  high  a temperature  as  to  separate  the  fat  from  the  brine. 
When  the  entire  sample  has  been  brought  into  a creamy  condition 
either  by  shaking  or  by  beating  with  a case  knife  or  spatula,  it  may  be 
poured  out  into  the  testing  bottle.  The  special  bottles  for  testing  of 
butter  for  fat  content  have  a capacity  of  about  50  grams  and  a total 
length  of  not  over  seven  inches  with  a diameter  fitting  into  the  pocket 
of  the  centrifuge  of  a Babcock  milk  tester.  A cylinder  or  adapter  is 
provided  to  hold  each  bottle  in  place  while  in  the  centrifuge  because 
the  pockets  are  too  short  to  hold  the  bottle  properly  without  support. 

In  the  testing  process  the  bottle  is  weighed  accurately  before  and 
after  filling  so  that  exact  weight  of  the  sample  may  be  known.  Ordi- 
narily about  47  grams  are  used. 

The  test  bottles  containing  the  weighed  portion  of  butter  are  then 
placed  in  a water  bath  having  a temperature  of  about  160°F.  This 
melts  the  butter  sample  and  the  fat  rises  to  the  surface  while  the 
brine  settles  to  the  bottom.  The  casein  or  curd  is  more  or  less  mixed 
through  the  fat  or  forms  in  a layer  between  the  fat  and  brine.  The 
preliminary  heating  helps  to  contract  the  curd  and  to  give  a clearer 
reading  at  the  lower  line  of  the  fat  column. 


FIG.  32.— FARRINGTON  BUTTER  TEST  FILLS  A LONG- VOICED  NEED 


This  device  greatly  simplifies  the  process  of  determining  accurately  the 
amount  of  fat  in  butter. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


83 


After  warming  the  bottles  for  a few  minutes,  they  are  placed  in  the 
pockets  of  the  Babcock  centrifuge  with  an  adapter  to  hold  the  bottles 
securely  in  place.  The  centrifuge  should  be  hot,  but  no  additional  heat 
is  needed  in  steam  turbine  tester. 

After  whirling  these  butter  test  bottles  for  15  minutes,  at  full  speed, 
they  are  taken  out  and  placed  in  a water  bath  having  a temperature 
of  140°F.  where  they  remain  for  10  minutes  in  order  that  the  fat  in 
the  bottle  may  all  reach  the  temperature  of  140°F. 

If  the  line  between  the  brine,  or  water,  and  the  fat  is  not  clear,  a 
few  drops  of  hot  water  may  be  added  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  this 
water  will  drop  through  the  fat  and  form  a clear  layer  between  the 
fat  and  the  casein  at  the  bottom  of  the  fat  column.  It  is  sometimes 
advisable  to  whirl  the  test  bottle  in  the  centrifuge  a second  time  until 
a clear  line  is  obtained  between  the  lower  portion  of  the  fat  column 
and  the  liquid  below  it.  The  test  bottle  should  take  a nearly  horizontal 
position  in  the  centrifuge  during  the  whirling,  otherwise  the  lower 
end  of  the  fat  column  is  not  straight  and  it  may  be  difficult  to  read. 

Measuring  the  Fat.  As  soon  as  the  butter  test  bottles  have  reached 
a temperature  of  140°F.  in  the  bath  where  they  are  placed  after  whirl- 
ing, they  are  carefully  raised  out  of  the  hot  water,  but  not  entirely  re- 
moved from  it.  For  each  bottle  a reading  is  made  of  the  graduated 
tube  at  the  top  and  also  at  the  bottom  of  the  fat  column.  The  differ- 
ence between  these  two  readings  gives  the  grams  of  butter  fat,  and 
if  this  reading  is  made  quickly  with  the  bottle  partially  dipping  in  the 
warm  water,  it  can  be  made  before  there  is  much  change  in  the  tem- 
perature of  the  fat  in  the  test  bottle.  Reading  the  fat  column  at  a 
temperature  of  140°F.  is  a very  important  point  in  getting  an  accurate 
test.  Glymol  may  be  used  for  reading  the  top  of  the  fat  column  if  de- 
sired, but  it  is  not  necessary. 

Calculating  the  Percentage  of  Fat.  The  number  of  grams  of  fat 
shown  by  the  reading  is  multiplied  by  100  and  divided  by  the  grams 
of  butter  weighed  into  the  test  bottle;  the  figure  obtained  by  this 
division  is  the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  butter. 

The  following  figures  will  illustrate  the  weights  and  calculations 


made  in  testing  butter  by  this  method. 

Weight  of  test  bottle  containing  butter 106.9  grams 

Weight  of  empty  test  bottle 58.7  “ 

Weight  of  butter  taken 48.2  “ 

Reading  of  test  bottle  after  whirling  in  centrifuge  and  holding 
10  minutes  at  140°F. 

Upper  reading  of  fat  column 48.2  grams 

Lower  reading  of  fat  column 8.5  “ 

Amount  of  fat  in  sample 39.7 


This  39.7  grams  fat  multiplied  by  100  and  the  product  divided  by 
grams  of  butter  weighed  into  the  test  bottle,  48.2  grams,  gives  82.3  as 
the  percentage  of  fat  in  the  butter  tested. 


84 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Scoring  May  Raise  Butter  Quality 

STUDY  conducted  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Farrington  has 


shown  that,  while  Wisconsin  is  the  second  state  in  the  Union 


in  butter  production,  the  466  packages  of  butter  from  207  cream- 
eries inspected  during  the  year  were  not  all  of  the  highest  quality.  If 
the  buyers  of  butter  were  governed  strictly  by  the  score  of  the  butter 
and  the  published  market  prices  of  butter  of  a given  score,  then  only 
11.4  per  cent  of  the  output  of  our  creameries  graded  up  to  the  top 
price  paid  on  the  market  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1923. 
About  one-fifth  of  the  butter  graded  as  the  quality  that  is  quoted  at 
1 cent  under  the  top  price  and  nearly  one-third  of  it  at  2 cents  under 
top,  while  as  much  as  22  per  cent  graded  as  the  quality  quoted  at  3 
cents  below  top  price,  and  about  one-seventh  of  the  total  4 cents  under 
the  average  top. 

Theoretically,  butter  scoring  93  is  supposed  to  be  entitled  to  the 
highest  market  price.  In  actual  practice,  however,  it  is  found  that 
there  is  so  little  butter  on  the  market  which  scores  93  that  butter 
scoring  92  usually  sells  at  the  highest  market  quotation.  In  general 
it  may  be  said  that  butter  scoring  91  or  92  may  sell  at  1 cent  below  the 
top  of  the  market  while  butter  scoring  90  sells  for  2 cents  below  the 
market;  so  that  for  each  point  below  93  in  the  score  a reduction  of 
1 cent  per  pound  is  made  in  the  selling  price. 

Over  a period  of  years  the  quality  of  butter  in  this  state  has  been 
gradually  improved,  but  more  careful  methods  of  manufacture  can 
make  for  much  further  progress.  With  this  in  view,  the  Dairy  De- 
partment has  for  some  time  been  conducting  butter  scoring  contests 
and  encouraged  Wisconsin  creameries  to  send  samples  of  their  prod- 
uct for  scoring  and  analysis.  In  each  case,  when  a sample  was  sent 
for  examination,  complete  record  of  the  conditions  under  which  it 
wras  produced  accompanied  it.  In  this  way  the  judges,  after  scoring 
a sample,  can  make  constructive  suggestions  for  improvement.  A re- 
port of  the  score,  the  analysis,  and  the  comments  of  the  judge,  when 
sent  to  the  buttermaker,  are  helpful  to  him  in  improving  his  product 
and  also  keep  him  informed  about  the  newer  methods. 

For  a time  it  was  thought  that  an  analysis  of  the  butter  samples 
might  show  a distinct  relation  of  composition  to  quality.  Some  be- 
lieved that  low  scoring  butter  contains  too  much  moisture,  and  that  a 
higher  percentage  of  fat  would  probably  often  produce  a higher  scoring 
butter.  A comparison  of  the  analysis,  however,  shows  no  constant 
relation  between  the  percentage  of  fat  or  moisture  in  butter  and  its 
quality  or  score;  and  that  samples  scoring  93  often  contain  as  much 
or  more  moisture  than  samples  rated  lower.  Very  likely,  quality  is 
more  the  result  of  the  conditions  under  which  the  product  is  pro- 
duced, considering  the  entire  process  from  the  cow  to  the  final  pack- 
age, than  to  the  actual  chemical  nature  of  the  ingredients.  The  study 
of  this  subject  will  be  continued,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  findings 
may  have  a considerable  influence  on  Wisconsin  butter. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


85 


Mineral  Metabolism  of  Cows 


STUDY  of  the  effect  of  supplementing  summer  pasture  rations 


(green  grass)  with  a calcium  carrier  was  conducted  because  it 


was  previously  observed  that  green  material  contains  more  of 
the  antirachitic  vitamine  than  dried  plant  tissue,  especially  when  plant 
tissues  are  dried  under  certain  conditions.  It  has  furthermore  been 
shown  that,  during  the  winter  feeding,  the  calcium  equilibrium  in  a 
cow  may  be  seriously  impaired  because  of  the  absence  of  a generous 
supply  of  the  antirachitic  vitamine. 

The  present  work  was  blocked  out  on  the  theory  that  a ration  must 
contain,  from  the  mineral  standpoint,  an  ample  supply  of  calcium  and 
phosphorus,  also  an  ample  supply  of  an  organic  factor,  the  antirachitic 
vitamine,  which  controls  the  concentration  of  these  elements  in  the 
blood  stream  and  tissues.  It  was  believed  that  the  green  material 
carries  an  abundance  of  the  antirachitic  vitamine  and  that  supple- 
menting summer  pasture  with  a calcium  carrier  would  lead  to  a gener- 
ous storage  of  calcium  during  that  period  which  would  provide  a re- 
serve for  the  winter. 

A trial  was  run  with  heavy  milking  cows  receiving  a ration  of  green 
grass,  silage,  and  a grain  mixture,  supplemented  with  steam  bone 
meal;  and  no  attention  was  paid  to  the  previous  history  of  the  ani- 
mals. It  was  found  that  one  animal  which  had  been  receiving  alfalfa 
hay  during  the  winter  made  no  pronounced  storage  of  calcium  during 
the  green  grass  period  or  on  a ration  of  green  grass  and  a bone  meal 
supplement.  Another  animal  that  had  been  receiving  poor  roughage 
during  the  winter  made  a very  pronounced  storage  of  calcium  in  the 
body,  but  only  when  green  grasses  were  supplemented  with  calcium. 
This  leads  to  the  belief  that  there  are  certain  winter  rations  which 
will  maintain  the  calcium  balance  of  the  animal  and  it  is  probable  that 
animals  receiving  the  best  cured  legume  hay  will  not  show  lime  deple- 
tion which  results  when  poor  hays,  such  as  timothy  (low  in  lime),  or 
improperly  cured  hays  are  fed. 

From  the  observations  made  it  is  apparent  that  a generous  storage 
of  calcium  may  ordinarily  be  expected  by  supplementing  green  grasses 
with  a lime  carrier.  The  data,  however,  show  that  grasses  alone 
(lawn  clippings  used)  would  not  accomplish  this  without  the  calcium 
supplement,  especially  with  heavy  milking  cows. 

Effect  of  Mineral  Supplement  to  Good  and  Poor  Roughages 

IN  ORDER  to  determine  the  effect  of  mineral  supplements  to  good 
and  poor  roughages  on  milk  production  and  reproduction  in  dairy 
cattle,  a project  has  been  under  way  with  grade  Holstein  cattle 
since  December,  1921.  Four  animals  were  fed  timothy  hay  plus  silage 
and  a grain  mixture;  a second  group  of  four  received  alfalfa  hay  plus 
corn  silage  and  a grain  mixture;  and  the  third  group  of  four  also  re- 
ceived alfalfa  hay,  corn  silage,  and  a grain  mixture.  During  the  dry 


86 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


period  of  60  days  Lot  I received  one-half  pound  of  bone  meal  per  c ui- 
mal  per  day;  Lot  II  during  the  same  time  received  one-half  pound  of 
bone  meal;  and  Lot  III  received  an  equal  amount  of  sodium  acid  phos- 
phate (Na,HP04). 

The  purpose  was  to  determine  the  effect  upon  milk  production  and 
reproduction  of  the  calcium  and  phosphorus  in  the  ration,  particularly 
the  calcium  in  the  roughage.  The  timothy  hay  used  during  the  first 
year  contained  .73  per  cent  of  calcium  oxide,  which  is  exceedingly  low. 
The  records  for  that  year  show  that  milk  production  in  all  three  groups 
of  animals  was  well  sustained,  the  timothy  hay  group  doing  quite  as 
well  in  this  respect  as  the  alfalfa  group.  There  was,  however,  a con- 
siderable difference  in  the  readiness  with  which  the  various  groups 
bred,  the  timothy  hay  group  being  much  slower  in  this  respect  than 
those  receiving  alfalfa  hay.  This  group  also  showed  a rapid  decrease 
in  the  milk  flow  and  dried  off  early  after  they  were  safely  bred,  which 
indicates  that  a depletion  was  probably  taking  place  in  this  group  as 
compared  with  the  alfalfa  group;  and  in  attempt  at  self-preservation 
the  milk  production  was  lowered,  which  tends  to  show  that  maximum 
milk  production  is  not  obtained  unless  a properly  balanced  ration,  con- 
sidering the  mineral  requirements,  as  well  as  the  nutrient  protein  and 
energy  factors,  is  supplied. 

Effect  of  Curing  Methods  on  Availability  of  Calcium 

HAT  THE  availability  of  calcium  in  legume  hay  may  differ  be- 


cause of  the  destruction  of  the  antirachitic  vitamine  in  the  cur- 


ing process  has  been  pointed  out  by  previous  experiments.  This 
work,  however,  has  been  continued  during  the  past  year  by  C.  A.  Hop- 
pert  (Agricultural  Chemistry).  Clover  and  alfalfa  hays  were  cured  in 
different  ways  and  tested  out  with  dry,  milking,  and  growing  goats. 

Alfalfa  was  cut  in  June  and  left  out  in  sunshine  and  rain  for  ten 
days  and  therefore  exposed  to  all  the  weathering  (oxidative)  processes 
of  the  atmosphere.  In  another  case  the  alfalfa  was  dried  in  an  attic 
under  total  darkness  before  an  electric  fan,  where  the  process  was 
completed  in  three  days.  Another  supply  was  dried  over  heated  coils, 
the  temperature  being  kept  at  140°F.  to  158°F.  (60°C.  to  70°C.).  Under 
this  condition,  4.5  days  were  required  to  cure  the  hay.  In  another  case 
the  alfalfa  was  spread  out  on  a large  canvas,  exposed  to  the  sunlight 
for  17  days,  but  was  brought  indoors  at  night  and  exposed  only  on  days 
when  the  sun  was  shining  brightly.  Another  alfalfa  hay  studied  was  a 
commercial  product  made  by  a rapid  drying  process  in  which  the 
green  alfalfa  is  carried  on  a long  moving  platform  while  a current  of 
heated  air  is  continuously  swept  through  it.  In  this  drying  process, 
a temperature  of  200°F.  is  employed,  and  it  is  of  15  to  20  minutes  dura- 
tion. A series  of  clover  hays  were  cured  in  ways  similar  to  the  meth- 
ods employed  with  the  alfalfa. 

The  earlier  observations  in  this  work  tended  to  show  that  the  antira- 
chitic vitamine  was  destroyed  by  exposing  hay  to  the  sunlight  and 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


87 


weather,  and  that  the  assimilation  of  calcium  by  the  body  was  thereby 
infpeded  was  confirmed.  The  data  acquired  show  that,  though  the 
alfalfa  cured  in  the  ordinary  manner  was  quite  as  high  in  lime  con- 
tent as  that  cured  in  the  dark,  its  lime  content  was  completely  unavail- 
able even  to  a mature  dry  goat.  Data  are  available  which  indicate 
that  the  hays  dried  in  the  sun,  but  not  exposed  to  the  influence  of 
moisture  such  as  rain  and  dew  retained  and  antirachitic  factor  in 
greater  abundance  than  those  which  were  cured  with  exposure  to  all 
weather  conditions  such  as  dew,  rain,  light,  etc. 

Distribution  of  Anti-Rickets  Vitamine.  Efforts  were  also  made  to 
get  .some  idea  of  the  distribution  of  the  antirachitic  vitamine  in  nature. 
Yellow  carrots  in  amount  as  high  as  1,000  grams  per  day  were  fed 
without  influencing  the  calcium  assimilation  in  the  least.  The  same 
was  done  with  cabbage  with  similar  results;  and  it  is  apparent  that 
the  distribution  of  the  antirachitic  factor  is  quite  different  from  the 
distribution  of  other  vitamines.  Attempts  to  extract  this  vitamine 
from  hays  by  alcohol  (the  solvent  for  vitamine  A and  B)  have  failed. 
It  is  known,  however,  that  ordinary  white  light  as  well  as  the  light  of 
a mercury  vapor  lamp  supplements  a ration  low  in  the  antirachitic 
vitamine,  producing  an  effect  similar  to  that  which  is  obtained  when 
it  is  present.  It  is  possible  that  animal  life  is  dependent  for  its  min- 
eral regulation  (calcium  and  phosphorus)  more  upon  sunlight  than 
upon  the  food  material,  although  it  is  recognized  that  this  organic 
factor  does  exist  in  such  materials  as  fish  liver  oils,  green  plant  tis- 
sues, and  properly  cured  grasses.  It  may  be  that  sunlight  is  needed 
quite  as  much  to  keep  us  in  a healthy  condition  as  it  is  to  cure  us 
from  some  diseases  where  its  healing  effects  are  now  quite  thoroughly 
recognized. 

Effect  of  Roughages  Grown  on  Acid  Soils  on  Reproduction 

ORMAL  reproduction  can  be  disturbed  through  improper  nutri- 


tion. Observations  over  a number  of  years  with,  dairy  cattle 


have  been  steadily  pointing  to  this  fact.  Especially  is  this 
disturbance  brought  about  through  low  mineral  intake  accompanied 
by  a correspondingly  low  intake  of  the  antirachitic  vitamine.  It  is 
believed  that  earlier  results  secured  with  wheat,  wheat  straw,  and 
wheat  gluten,  whereby  the  offspring  were  dead  or  prematurely  born, 
can  be  explained  wholly  upon  the  basis  of  deficiency,  primarily  of 
calcium  and  the  antirachitic  vitamine  rather  than  upon  the  old  theory 
of  toxicity  of  the  wheat  grain. 

Wisconsin  has  large  areas  of  acid  soils,  and  the  roughage  grown  on 
such  lands  is  inevitably  low  in  lime.  This  fact  has  led  to  further  trials 
in  the  feeding  of  roughages  grown  upon  these  soils,  such  as  corn 
stover  and  timothy  hay,  to  dairy  cattle  in  order  to  determine  their 
effect  upon  reproduction.  Hay  obtained  from  the  Buena  Vista  marsh 
(a  highly  acid  soil)  in  Portage  county,  containing  less  than  0.5  per 
cent  of  calcium  oxide  has  given  disastrous  results  in  reproduction. 


88 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Rations  containing  plenty  of  protein,  but  low  in  lime,  produced  calves 
that  were  either  dead  at  birth  or  so  weak  that  they  died  shortly  after. 
The  feeding  of  timothy  hay  from  Stevens  Point  which  had  a calcium 
oxide  content  of  .7  to  .8  per  cent  has  given  somewhat  mixed  results. 
In  some  cases  the  offspring  have  been  miserably  poor  and  died  two 
or  three  days  after  birth;  but  in  one  case  the  offspring  was  better  and 
lived. 


FIG.  33. — HAY  FROM  ACJD  MARSHES  LACKS  ELEMENTS  NECESSARY 
FOR  NORMAL  REPRODUCTION 


Timothy  hay  from  Buena  Vista  (Portage  Co.)  marsh  lacked  lime  and 
antirachitic  vitamine  so  that  calves  were  either  weak  or  dead.  Grain 
mixture  used  with  hay  supplied  abundance  of  protein. 

It  is  possible  that  the  method  of  curing  the  roughage  may  be  some- 
thing of  a factor  in  the  results  obtained.  Further  studies  on  the  con- 
trol of  the  processes  used  in  the  curing  of  the  fodder  may  unravel  this 
problem. 


Prevention  of  Rickets  in  Swine 

DURING  THE  past  year  an  attempt  has  been  made  by  E.  B.  Hart 
and  H.  Steenbock  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  to  measure  the 
amount  of  cod-liver  oil,  which  is  an  excellent  antidote  against 
rickets  (antirachitic),  that  would  be  required  to  prevent  the  develop- 
ment of  rickets  in  growing  swine  when  fed  a ration  low  in  the  anti- 
rachitic vitamine.  In  addition,  various  forms  of  calcium,  such  as  lime- 
stone, bone  meal,  rock  phosphate,  and  limestone  plus  sodium  phos- 
phate, were  tried  as  supplements  to  a skimmilk-grain  ration  in  order 
to  determine  if  any  difference  resulted  from  the  feeding  of  any  of 
these  forms  of  lime  provided  there  was  an  abundance  of  the  anti- 
rachitic factor  present. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


89 


Observations  so  far  indicate  that  there  is  no  difference  in  the  effect 
of  the  type  of  calcium  carrier  used  for  the  prevention  of  rickets  pro- 
vided there  is  an  ample  supply  of  antirachitic  vitamine.  Floats, 
steamed  bone  meal,  and  calcium  carbonate  may  be  used  without  dif- 
ference of  result  if  the  vitamine  is  present.  It  has  been  found  that 
20  c.  c.  of  cod-liver  oil  per  week,  per  animal,  is  sufficient  to  protect  it 
against  the  development  of  rickets,  though  there  is  known  to  be  some 
difference  in  the  potency  of  the*  various  cod-liver  oils  in  this  respect. 

While  the  practice  of  feeding  cod-liver  oil  to  swine  in  England  is 
being  urged,  workers  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  do  not  feel 
that  this  practice  is  necessary  except  in  an  emergency.  It  is  believed 
best  to  find  common  and  natural  sources  of  food  as  remedies  when- 
ever possible. 

In  this  work  it  has  been  shown  that  the  amount  of  inorganic  phos- 
phorus in  the  blood  cannot  be  completely  relied  upon  as  an  index  to 
rickets.  Individual  animals  have  maintained  the  inorganic  phosphorus 
in  the  blood  while  above  5 milligrams  per  100  cubic  centimeters  of 
serum  and  yet  been  in  a state  of  total  collapse.  In  fact,  the  inorganic 
phosphorus  of  the  blood  may  not  be  lowered  in  these  cases  until  late 
in  the  history  of  the  disease. 

Do  Cooking  Methods  Affect  Vitamine  Content  of  Peas? 

BECAUSE  of  the  prominent  place  which  vegetables,  especially 
those  inv  canned  form,  are  assuming  in  our  diet,  a study  of  the 
vitamine  B content  in  early  June  peas  prepared  under  different 
conditions  was  made  during  the  past  year  by  Miss  Helen  T.  Parsons 
(Home  Economics).  In  this  work  peas  canned  by  the  regular  canning 
process  and  peas  first  cooked,  then  dried  and  powdered  were  used. 
Rats  were  employed  as  experimental  animals  throughout  the  trial. 

It  was  the  particular  purpose  of  this  experiment  to  ascertain  the 
difference  in  vitamine  B content  between  peas  prepared  by  the  regular 
canning  process  and  those  prepared  by  household  methods  and  also 
to  determine  wiiat  proportion  of  the  vitamine  B content  in  canned  peas 
is  present  in  the  peas  themselves  as  contrasted  with  the  amount  con- 
tained in  the  juice.  From  the  results  obtained  in  these  trials  it  ap- 
pears that  canned  peas  are  inferior  in  vitamine  content  to  fresh  peas 
which  are  cooked  by  steaming  and  subsequently  dried,  but  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  vitamine  B content  of  the  pea  juice  is  large  enough  to 
account  for  the  difference  noted.  In  fact,  in  this  experiment  the 
juice  from  the  canned  peas  appeared  to  be  relatively  poor  in  vitamine 
B.  This  suggests  the  possibility  that  vitamine  B is  more  unstable 
over  a long  period  of  time  when  in  contact  with  water  than  in  a dry 
condition  or  that  some  factor  other  than  the  canning  process  itself  is 
responsible  for  loss  in  vitamine  content. 

While  the  trial  showed  that  canned  peas  seemingly  contain  a smaller 
amount  of  vitamine  B than  peas  cooked  and  dried,  it  also  indicates 
that  canned  peas  are  not  valueless  as  a source  of  vitamine  B as  has 


90 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


FIG.  34.— CHICKS  ON  A GOOD  RATION  WILL  DIE  WITHOUT  LIGHT 

The  upper  two  birds  are  60  days  old  and  the  only  survivors  of  a 
group  of  10  chicks  fed  on  a ration  of  97  parts  yellow  corn,  2 parts  ground 
lime  stone,  1 part  of  salt,  and  all  the  skimmed  milk  they  would  consume. 
They  were  confined  in  a clean,  dry  basement  with  the  windows  closed. 
Lack  of  sunlight  killed  them. 

The  lower  group  of  birds  received  exactly  the  same  ration  as  those 
above.  Sunlight  made  the  difference. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


91 


sometimes  been  supposed.  Further  investigation  on  this  subject  and 
kindred  ones  is  necessary;  and  with  the  increasing  importance  of 
canned  peas  and  other  processed  vegetables  in  our  diet,  a growing 
interest  in  work  of  this  sort  is  likely  to  develop. 

Direct  Sunlight  Is  Factor  in  Animal  Growth 

WHILE  it  has  long  been  known  that  sunlight  plays  an  important 
part  in  the  development  of  all  of  our  green  plants,  the  direct 
relation  of  this  form  of  energy  to  animal  life  has  but  recently 
attracted  the  attention  of  men  of  science.  Developments  in  nutri- 
tional studies  of  the  past  few  years,  however,  indicate  that  in  some 
cases  at  least  light  may  be  almost  as  important  a factor  in  the  normal 


FIG.  35.— CHICKENS  CAN  BE  RAISED  ON  A “TEST  TUBE”  DIET 

The  secrets  of  nutrition  can  best  be  discovered  by  growing  birds  on  a 
compound  ration  made  of  chemically  definite  elements.  These  “syn- 
thetic” rations  when  used  with  cod  liver  oil  to  add  vitamines  permits 
successful  rearing  of  birds.  Weight  here  was  825  grams  in  13  weeks. 

development  of  certain  animals  as  it  is  in  the  growth  of  our  green 
plants.  Furthermore,  the  effect  of  common  window  glass  in  filtering 
certain  rays  from  the  light  of  the  sun  as  well  as  the  different  powers 
exhibited  by  sunlight  at  different  seasons  of  the  year  are  coming  to 
receive  careful  attention. 


92 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


That  certain  diseases,  such  as  rickets,  are  the  result  of  a deficiency 
of  certain  factors  in  the  diet  of  animals  has  been  conclusively  proven. 
It  has  been  shown  that  the  substitution  of  yellow  corn  for  white  may 
overcome  difficulties  which  have  been  encountered  because  of  the  lack 
of  the  fat-soluble  vitamine  in  that  grain;  and  that  the  use  of  green 
feeds  or  cod-liver  oil  has  had  a pronounced  influence  upon  the  health 
and  the  growth  of  various  animals  when  fed  on  ricket-producing 
rations.  Work  of  the  last  two  years  at  this  station  has  shown  that 
the  production  of  hens  as  well  as  the  hatchability  of  their  eggs  may, 
to  a very  large  extent,  be  dependent  upon  the  supply  of  vitamines  in 
their  food  and  the  same  factors  have  been  found  to  be  of  particular 
importance  in  the  normal  rearing  of  young  chicks  which,  because  of 
their  early  maturity  and  relative  sensitiveness,  make  splendid  ex- 
perimental animals  for  studies  of  this  sort.  That  the  practical  appli- 
cation of  these  findings  may  have  an  important  bearing  in  the  indus- 
try is  no  longer  in  doubt. 


FIG.  36.— LACK  OF  SUNLIGHT  AND  ANTIRACHITIC  VITAMINE 
STUNTS  GROWING  CHICKS 

Chicks  fed  white  corn  97  parts,  powdered  limestone  2 parts,  common 
salt  1 part,  and  free  use  of  skimmed  milk  were  given  sunlight  but  10 
minutes  daily.  Compare  the  bird  on  the  left  weighing  140  grams  at  six 
weeks  of  age  with  the  bird  at  the  right  fed  in  the  same  way  but  exposed 
all  day  to  sunlight.  It  weighed  210  grams  at  six  weeks. 


Continued  work  during  the  past  year  by  H.  Steenbock,  E.  B.  Hart, 
and  S.  Lepkovsky  (Agricultural  Chemistry)  and  J.  G.  Halpin  (Poultry 
Husbandry)  has  further  demonstrated  that  sunlight  or  its  equivalent 
has  a very  pronounced  effect  upon  the  growth  and  development  of 
chickens.  In  this  work,  four  experimental  groups,  each  consisting  of 
10  White  Leghorn  baby  chicks,  were  carefully  studied  in  the  Poultry 
Department.  The  first  group  received  a ration  consisting  of  97  parts 
of  white  corn,  2 parts  of  ground  limestone,  and  1 part  of  common  salt, 
together  with  free  access  to  skimmed  milk.  The  birds  in  this  group 
were  confined  in  a runway  in  the  basement  of  the  Poultry  Building 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


93 


with  the  windows  closed.  A second  group  received  exactly  the  same 
ration  as  the  first,  but  the  birds  were  placed  upon  a board  floor  out  of 
doors  and  exposed  to  sunlight  during  the  day.  A third  group  received 
yellow  corn  in  place  of  the  white  corn  in  the  above  ration  and,  like 
the  first  group,  were  confined  in  the  basement  of  the  building.  Group 
IV  received  the  same  ration  as  Group  III,  but  was  confined  out  of  doors 
on  board  floors  and  in  the  sunlight  in  the  same  manner  as  Group  II. 

For  the  first  two  weeks  growth  in  all  four  lots  was  apparently  nor- 
mal, due  no  doubt  to  the  fact  that  the  vitamine  factors  had  been  stored 
up  in  sufficient  quantity  in  the  egg  yolks  and  the  hatched  chicks. 
After  that  time,  however,  the  Group  I birds  practically  ceased  to 
grow,  and  all  of  the  chicks  in  it  soon  died.  The  lot  receiving  yellow 
corn  in  place  of  white  and  confined  to  the  basement  in  like  manner 
as  Group  I made  somewhat  better  growth  and  at  the  end  of  five  weeks 
all  but  two  of  the  chicks  had  died.  The  remaining  two,  however,  con- 
tinued to  live  for  a long  time  and  reached  live  weight  of  340  grams, 
but  from  then  on  lost  weight  and  died  at  the  end  of  twelve  weeks. 


FIG.  37.— SUNLIGHT  MAKES  CHICKS  GROW 

Both  these  chicks  started  on  the  same  plane  as  to  weight  and  vigor. 
They  were  fed  the  ration  (casein,  dextrin,  salts,  agar  and  yeast)  with 
some  fresh  green  clover  added.  On  this  ration  neither  did  well,  but 
right  hand  chick  was  given  a daily  sun  bath  of  30  minutes. 

Weight  of  right  chick  (7  weeks) — 235  grams. 

Weight  of  left  chick  (7  weeks) — 95  grams. 


On  the  other  hand,  both  of  the  groups  of  chicks  that  were  exposed 
to  sunlight  made  a remarkable  growth.  Those  on  white  corn  did  un- 
usually well  at  first,  but  ceased  to  grow  after  reaching  a weight  of 
600  grams.  At  this  stage  they  also  developed  eye  trouble  and  an  un- 
steady gait  accompanied  by  more  or  less  dizziness.  It  became  appar- 
ent that  it  would  be  impossible  to  raise  chicks  even  in  the  sunlight 
with  such  a ration  as  white  corn  and  skimmed  milk,  which  is  so  ob- 
viously deficient  in  vitamine  A.  The  birds  produced  in  Lot  IV  on  yel- 
low corn,  skimmed  milk,  and  sunlight  were  in  good  condition  through- 


94 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


out  the  experiment  and  showed  every  prospect  of  continuing  their 
growth  to  complete  maturity.  They  produced  eggs  at  the  age  of  four 
months.  In  this  lot  all  of  the  necessary  factors  were  doubtless  avail- 
able— a good  protein  mixture,  ample  ash,  and  the  necessary  vita- 
mines — and  the  deficiency  in  the  antirachitic  factor  exhibited  in  the 
group  receiving  the  same  feed,  but  reared  in  the  basement  was  doubt- 
less made  good  by  supplementing  the  ration  with  sunlight.  Clearly, 
then,  diseases  in  chickens,  such  as  leg  weakness,  which  is  a form  of 
rickets  and  caused  by  a lack  of  the*  antirachitic  vitamine,  may  be  over- 
come by  supplementing  with  sunlight  an  otherwise  satisfactory  ration, 
because  apparently  this  radiant  energy  goes  a long  ways  toward  over- 
coming any  deficiency  in  the  antirachitic  factor  that  may  exist.  Its 
importance  then  in  normal  animal  growth  is  in  a measure  at  least 
kindred  to  the  role  it  plays  in  the  development  of  our  green  plants. 


HE  NUMBER  of  reports  received  in  regard  to  leg  weakness  in 


chickens  this  last  spring  was  greater  than  in  any  previous  year. 


This  disease  often  makes  it  exceedingly  difficult  to  raise  chick- 
ens satisfactorily  under  confinement.  Experimental  studies  by  Messrs. 
Halpin  and  Hart  have  indicated  that  leg  weakness  as  a disease  is  no 
different  from  rickets.  Such  factors  as  the  low  phosphorus  content  of 
the  blood  and  low  calcium  content  of  the  bones  seem  to  show  that 
leg  weakness  and  rickets  are  kindred  deficiency  diseases. 

Experiments  conducted  during  the  past  year  show  that  cod-liver  oil, 
eggs,  milk,  and  green  feed  are  active  agents  in  preventing  this  trouble 
in  chickens  when  fed  during  the  early  growing  period.  A number  of 
groups  of  chickens  were  fed  separately  with  a ration  consisting  of  80 
parts  of  yellow  corn,  20  of  middlings,  5 of  lime  rock,  5 of  bone  meal, 
and  1 of  salt,  together  with  skimmilk  as  a drink.  It  was  found  pos- 
sible to  make  very  satisfactory  growth  with  chickens  confined  on  a 
cement  floor  during  the  first  six  weeks  of  their  lives. 

Growth  of  Chicks  Affected  by  Ration  of  Hens 

EXPERIMENTS  by  Messrs.  Halpin  and  Steenbock  during  the  past 
year  have  shown  that  when  chicks  hatched  from  a ration  of 
white  corn  plus  pork  liver  were  placed  in  the  same  brooder  with 
chicks  of  the  same  age  hatched  from  a ration  of  yellow  corn  plus  pork 
liver  and  fed  on  a ration  which  was  knowm  to  produce  leg  weakness, 
no  difference  occurred  in  the  time  in  which  this  disease  developed. 
It  was  found,  however,  that  the  chickens  fed  on  yellow  corn  made 
better  growth  than  did  those  from  the  white  corn  ration. 

The  number  of  chicks  hatched  from  the  white  corn  casein  ration, 
however,  was  so  small  that  comparative  studies  with  them  were  not 
made.  Most  of  these  chicks  from  the  white  corn  casein  ration  died 
within  48  hours  after  hatching.  This  indicates  the  necessity  of  vita- 


Leg  Weakness  in  Chickens 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


95 


FIG.  38.— RADIOGRAPH  SHOWS  EFFECT  OF  SUNLIGHT 


An  X-ray  photograph  of  the  birds  shown  in  Fig.  37  shows  poor  skeleton 
formation  in  animal  receiving  the  green  plant  tissues,  but  no  sunlight. 
The  bird  exposed  to  sunlight  had  excellent  bone  formation. 


96 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


mine-rich  feed  (as  found  in  the  yellow  corn)  in  the  poultry  ration  to 
maintain  the  hatchability  of  the  eggs.  Experiments  have  shown  that 
a proper  ration  is  important  if  eggs  high  in  hatchability  are  to  be 
produced. 


THAT  THE  color  of  the  yolk  in  eggs  varies  considerably  with  the 
quality  of  the  ration  fed  to  the  hen  has  been  known  for  some 
time.  Experiments  conducted  during  the  past  year  by  Messrs. 
Hart  and  Halpin  have  demonstrated  further  that,  while  white  corn  and 
similar  feeds  produced  white  yolks,  and  yellow  corn  and  green  feed 
produced  yellow  yolks,  a slight  yellowness  in  the  egg  yolks  can  also 
be  obtained  by  the  feeding  of  yellow  carrots. 

Feeding  Thyroid  Affects  Plumage  of  Fowls 

HAT  HENS  would  assume  cock  plumage  when  their  ovaries  be- 


came inactive  or  were  removed  has  been  shown  by  previous  ex- 


periments. But  until  recently  there  has  been  no  known  method 
whereby  male  birds  could  be  induced  to  assume  female  plumage, 
though  this  condition  has  been  known  to  occur  naturally  in  certain 


In  trials  conducted  during  the  past  year  by  L.  J.  Cole  (Genetics)  and 
D.  H.  Reid  (Poultry  Husbandry),  it  was  found  that  when  dried  thyroid 
powders  in  regular  doses  proportioned  to  their  weight  were  given  to 
roosters  whose  feathers  have  been  in  part  pulled  out,  these  birds  de- 
veloped new  feathers  in  place  of  those  which  had  been  removed  and 
the  new  growth  was  of  the  female  type.  With  check  lots  to  which 
thyroid  was  fed,  the  normal  male  plumage  was  developed  under  simi- 
lar conditions. 

Raising  Dairy  Calves  Economically 

PROGRESSIVE  dairymen  know  that  the  surest  way  to  build  up  a 
high-producing,  profitable  herd  is  to  raise  the  heifer  calves  from 
the  best  cows  in  the  herd,  sired  by  a bred-for-production,  pure- 
bred bull.  It  is  relatively  easy  to  raise  thrifty  calves  cheaply  when 
there  is  plenty  of  skimmilk  available,  but  in  condensary,  market  milk, 
or  cheese  factory  districts,  the  matter  is  more  difficult. 

To  gain  information  on  economical  methods  of  raising  calves  under 
various  conditions,  trials  have  been  carried  on  during  the  past  three 
seasons  by  Messrs.  Morrison,  Hulce,  and  Humphrey  (Animal  Hus- 
bandry). As  a check  lot  each  year  one  group  of  four  calves  (Lot  I) 
has  been  fed  the  sort  of  a ration  used  by  dairymen  who  have  plenty 
if  skimmilk.  This  was  not  over  14  pounds  of  skimmilk  a head  daily, 
clover  hay,  and  a mixture  of  corn,  oats,  wheat  bran,  and  linseed  meal. 
The  calves  were  watered  twice  daily  and  had  plenty  of  salt.  In  each 


Color  of  Egg  Yolk  Affected  by  Feed 


breeds. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


97 


White  at  start 


Yellour  outer  ed$e 


FIG.  39.— EGG  YOLK  COLOR  DEPENDS  ON  RATION 

Hens  fed  “white”  ration  (white  corn,  casein,  etc.)  produced  pale  egg 
yolks;  when  yellow  carrots  were  added,  “yellow”  yolks  resulted  in  10 
days. 


98 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


trial  they  made  excellent  gains,  averaging  1.76  pounds  a head  daily  for 
the  three  trials. 

Limiting  the  Skimmilk  Allowance.  In  two  of  the  trials  other  groups 
W‘ere  fed  similarly  except  that  the  amount  of  skimmilk  was  limited  to 
10  pounds  a head  daily,  to  represent  conditions  on  farms  where  the 
supply  of  skimmilk  for  calf  feeding  is  limited.  These  calves  made 
very  good  gains,  though  somewhat  less  than  Lot  I,  which  was  fed  14 
pounds  of  skimmilk  a head  daily.  They  gained  1.52  pounds  a head 
daily  in  comparison  with  1.72  pounds  for  Lot  I in  corresponding  trials. 
Owing  to  the  lesser  amount  of  skimmilk  fed,  the  feed  cost  up  to  six 
months  of  age  was  $21.32,  compared  with  $23.80  for  Lot  I.  The  calves 
receiving  14  pounds  of  skimmilk  daily  were  slightly  more  growthy,  al- 
though there  was  no  apparent  difference  in  the  vigor  of  the  two  lots, 
and  the  gains  of  the  calves  limited  to  10  pounds  of  skimmilk  a day 
were  actually  a trifle  larger  than  is  considered  normal. 

These  results  show1  that  good  thrifty  calves  can  he  raised  on  an 
allowance  of  skimmilk  limited  to  10  pounds  daily,  if  a good  concentrate 
mixture  and  good  hay  are  fed  in  addition.  When  an  abundance  of 
skimmilk  is  at  hand,  it  is  best  to  feed  the  larger  allowance  given  to 
Lot  I.  However,  sometimes  it  may  be  advisable  to  limit  the  allow- 
ance of  skimmilk  fed  the  calves  in  order  to  have  more  skimmilk  for 
young  pigs  or  poultry. 

A Ration  for  Market  Milk  and  Condensary  Districts.  Each  year  a 
third  lot  has  been  fed  no  skimmilk,  but  has  been  raised  on  a minimum 
amount  of  whole  milk,  which  did  not  exceed  400  pounds  for  each  calf 
from  birth,  or  about  375  pounds  from  the  fourth  day  after  birth,  when 
the  dam’s  milk  was  salable.  This  was  supplemented  by  a simple  con- 
centrate mixture  rich  in  protein  consisting  of  equal  parts  ground  oats, 
ground  corn,  linseed  meal,  and  wheat  bran.  After  the  calves  were 
seven  to  nine  weeks  old,  they  were  fed  only  this  mixture  with  hay, 
water,  and  salt,  no  expensive  calf  meal  whatsoever  being  fed  at  any 
time.  In  two  trials  these  calves  have  made  an  average  daily  gain  of 
1.43  pounds  at  a feed  cost  of  $22.64  per  head  to  six  months  of  age. 
This  lot  gained  slightly  less  than  Lot  II,  fed  10  pounds  of  skimmilk  a 
head  daily,  but  did  remarkably  well  considering  the  small  amount  of 
milk  fed.  In  fact,  the  gains  would  be  considered  normal  for  well-reared 
dairy  calves. 

These  results  show  plainly  that  good  thrifty  calves  can  be  raised 
on  market  milk  in  condensary  districts  at  a reasonable  cost  by  follow- 
ing this  simple  method,  and  without  the  use  of  any  expensive  com- 
mercial mixtures.  In  raising  calves  by  this  method,  if  a calf  is  deli- 
cate and  not  making  good  gains,  it  will  be  necessary  to  continue  the 
feeding  of  whole  milk  longer  than  otherwise.  In  these  experiments, 
however,  little  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  getting  the  calves 
entirely  off  milk  at  seven  weeks  of  age  in  the  case  of  Holsteins  and 
eight  to  nine  weeks  in  the  case  of  Guernseys. 

Good  Calves  Raised  on  Whey.  In  1921  and  1922  two  lots  were  fed 
whey  supplemented  by  a concentrate  mixture  rich  in  protein,  consist- 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


99 


ing  of  three  parts  of  ground  ‘corn,  three  of  standard  middlings,  and 
four  of  linseed  meal.  The  whey  was  pasteurized  skimmed  whey  and 
no  attention  was  paid  to  variations  in  sourness  after  the  calves  were 
used  to  this  feed.  In  making  the  change  from  whole  milk  to  whey 
somewhat  more  care  was  necessary  than  in  changing  from  whole  milk 
to  skimmilk. 

Lots  thus  fed  whey  gained  on  the  average  1.49  pounds  per  head 
daily,  or  nearly  as  much  as  the  calves  fed  10  pounds  of  skimmed  milk 
a day.  This  satisfactory  gain  was  due  in  all  probability  to  the  fact 
that  the  whey  was  never  allowed  to  stand  in  a filthy  tank  or  can,  but 
was  fed  with  reasonable  care  and  under  sanitary  conditions.  Fur- 
thermore, a concentrate  mixture  rich  in  protein  was  used  to  make 
good  the  casein  which  had  been  removed  from  the  milk  in  the  cheese 
making  process.  The  average  feed  cost  of  raising  these  whey-fed 
calves  to  six  months  of  age  was  $21.58.  These  results  show  that 
thrifty  calves  can  be  raised  on  whey  readily  and  cheaply  when  simple 
precautions  are  taken. 

Do  Not  Neglect  Watering  Calves.  The  importance  of  supplying 
plenty  of  water  to  dairy  calves  even  when  fed  a fairly  liberal  allow- 
ance of  skimmilk  is  not  appreciated  by  many  dairymen.  To  gain  defi- 
nite information  on  this  matter,  in  two  of  the  trials  a lot  was  fed  the 
same  ration  as  Lot  I,  except  that  no  water  was  given  these  calves. 
Both  lots  received  a liberal  allowance  of  skimmilk,  the  good  concen- 
trate mixture  mentioned  previously,  and  common  salt.  Lot  I received 
what  water  they  would  drink  twice  daily,  while  the  other  lot  had  no 
water  except  that  occurring  naturally  in  the  skimmilk  and  the  trifle 
in  the  “dry”  concentrates  and  hay.  The  calves  not  given  additional 
water  gained  only  1.32  pounds  a head  daily,  while  Lot  I watered  daily 
gained  1.86  pounds  during  corresponding  trials.  The  lack  of  water, 
therefore,  causes  a surprising  difference  in  the  gains  of  calves.  No 
farmer  who  wishes  to  grow  his  calves  rapidly  and  well  can  afford  to 
neglect  supplying  them  with  plenty  of  water — the  cheapest  item  in  the 
ration. 

Soybean  Hay  for  Milk  Production 

ESPECIALLY  in  the  sandy  sections  of  the  state  soybeans  are  of 
great  and  increasing  importance  as  a source  of  legume  hay  for 
stock  feeding.  Even  on  heavier  soils,  soybeans  are  one  of  the 
best  hay  crops  to  grow  when  clover  or  alfalfa  winterkills.  As  there 
is  yet  but  little  experimental  data  concerning  the  relative  value  of  soy- 
bean hay  and  alfalfa  hay  for  dairy  cows,  a series  of  trials  was  begun 
the  past  year  by  Messrs.  Morrison,  Savage,  and  Hulce. 

This  past  winter  Wisconsin-grown  hay  was  compared  with  soybean 
hay  raised  on  the  University  Farm.  Manchu  soybeans  were  cut  when 
the  pods  had  formed,  and  cured  in  windrow1  and  cock  so  that  a good 
grade  of  hay  was  secured.  Two  lots  of  six  cows  each  were  fed  by  the 
double  reversal  method  on  either  alfalfa  or  soybean  hay  with  corn 


100 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


silage  and  a concentrate  mixture  of  ground  corn,  ground  oats,  and 
wheat  bran.  Equal  amounts  of  hay,  silage,  and  concentrates  were 
fed  in  the  soybean  hay  and  the  alfalfa  hay  ration.  However,  17.8  per 
cent  of  the  soybean  hay  fed  was  not  consumed,  this  part  consisting 
of  the  coarse  stems.  On  the  other  hand,  there  was  practically  no 
wastage  of  alfalfa  hay. 

Good  production  was  secured  on  both  rations,  and  the  difference 
between  them  proved  slight.  The  yield  of  milk  per  cow  was  1.1  pounds 
less  and  of  fat  .02  pound  less  on  the  soybean  hay  ration  than  on  the 
alfalfa  hay  ration.  Furthermore  the  cows  did  not  maintain  their 
weights  quite  as  well  on  the  soybean  hay  ration.  These  results  were 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  the  cows  actually  consumed  less  of  the 
soybean  hay  than  of  alfalfa.  Before  drawing  any  definite  conclusion 
concerning  the  relative  value  of  the  two  kinds  of  hay,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  continue  the  investigations  further.  This  trial  shows,  however, 
that  soybean  hay  is  excellent  for  dairy  cows,  even  though  not  quite 
equal  to  alfalfa — the  best  of  all  legume  hays  for  milk  production. 


Alfalfa  Versus  Clover  Hay  for  Fattening  Cattle 

ON  ACCOUNT  of  the  popularity  of  alfalfa  hay  as  a feed,  its  rela- 
tive value  compared  with  that  of  red  clover  hay  is  a question 
of  much  interest.  Comparisons  of  these  two  kinds  of  legume 
hay  have  been  made  in  recent  years  at  the  two  corn-belt  stations. 
The  conclusion  was  reached  that  alfalfa  hay  was  not  superior  to  red 
clover  hay  of  equal  quality  for  fattening  beef  cattle.  These  trials 
were  not,  however,  so  planned  that  advantage  was  taken  of  the  fact 
that  alfalfa  hay  is  much  richer  than  clover  hay  in  digestible  crude  pro- 
tein. On  the  average  100  pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  furnishes  10.6  pounds 
digestible  crude  protein,  while  red  clover  hay  supplies  only  7.6  pounds. 
Therefore,  less  expensive  protein-rich  supplement,  like  cottonseed  or 
linsed  meal,  is  needed  to  balance  the  ration  with  alfalfa  hay  than  when 
red  clover  hay  is  fed.  Yet  in  these  experiments  carried  on  elsewhere 
the  same  amounts  of  supplement  were  given  to  the  alfalfa-fed  steers 
as  to  those  fed  clover. 

This  past  winter  a comparison  of  the  value  of  these  two  kinds  of 
hay  for  fattening  cattle  was  made  by  Messrs.  Fuller  and  Morrison  in 
which  the  amount  of  protein-rich  supplement  (cottonseed  meal)  was 
so  adjusted  that  both  rations  furnished  the  same  amounts  of  digestible 
crude  protein.  Two  lots,  each  of  10  two-year-old  grade  Hereford  steers, 
were  fed  experimentally  for  120  days  after  a preliminary  feeding  pe- 
riod. The  lot  on  clover  hay  received  6.0  pounds  Wisconsin-grown  red 
clover  hay,  9.3  pounds  ear  corn,  and  27.0  pounds  corn  silage.  In  addi- 
tion 1.4  pounds  cottonseed  meal  was  needed  to  balance  the  ration. 
The  alfalfa-fed  steers  received  6.0  pounds  Wisconsin-grown  alfalfa 
hay,  27.0  pounds  corn  silage,  and  10.0  pounds  ear  corn.  Only  0.8  pound 
cottonseed  meal  was  needed  to  balance  this  ration  on  account  of  the 
higher  protein  content  of  alfalfa  hay. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


101 


In  this  trial  the  alfalfa-fed  steers  gained  2.26  pounds  a head  daily 
and  those  receiving  clover  1.88  pounds,  and  the  alfalfa-fed  steers  sold 
for  10  cents  more  a hundredweight.  Further  experimental  work  will 
be  necessary  to  determine  definitely  the  relative  value  of  these  two 
kinds  of  hay  when  fed  so  as  to  gain  advantage  from  the  high  protein 
content  of  alfalfa.  These  results  indicate,  however,  that  in  beef  cattle 
feeding,  just  as  in  feeding  dairy  cattle,  alfalfa  hay  is  more  valuable 
than  clover,  primarily  due  to  its  higher  protein  content. 

Increasing  Efficiency  of  Swine  Rations 

MANY  WISCONSIN  pork  producers  are  fortunate  in  having 
plenty  of  dairy  by-products  available  for  their  pigs.  Where 
there  is  plenty  of  skimmilk,  buttermilk,  or  whey  for  feeding, 
there  is  little  need  of  purchasing  commercial  protein-rich  feeds,  such 
as  tankage  (also  called  meat  meal),  linseed  meal,  or  wheat  middlings. 
For  the  benefit  of  those  who  do  not  have  a sufficient  supply  of  dairy 
by-products  for  swine  feeding,  a series  of  trials  is  being  conducted  by 
Messrs.  Morrison  and  Fargo  to  compare  the  various  protein-rich  sup- 
plements for  growing  and  fattening  pigs. 

Poor  results  are  secured  when  either  linseed  meal  or  wheat  mid- 
dlings is  used  as  the  only  supplement  to  corn  or  barley  for  pigs  which 
are  not  on  pasture.  This  is  because  such  rations  supply  protein  of 
poor  quality  and  furthermore  are  low  in  lime.  Somewhat  better  re- 
sults are  secured  when  linseed  meal  or  wheat  middlings  is  used  as 
the  only  supplement  for  pigs  on  good  pasture,  but  even  then  such  a 
ration  is  not  economical.  In  three  different  trials  pigs  fed  corn  and 
linSeed  meal  on  good  pasture  gained  on  the  average  1.17  pounds  a 
head  daily  and  required  420  pounds  concentrates  for  100  pounds  gain. 
Similar  pigs  fed  corn  and  tankage  gained  1.34  pounds  a head  daily  and 
required  only  393  pounds  corn  and  tankage  per  100  pounds  gain.  Com- 
pared with  tankage  at  $60  a ton,  linseed  meal  was  actually  worth  only 
$17.56  a ton  in  these  trials,  though  it  usually  costs  over  three-fourths 
as  much  a ton  as  tankage. 

However,  surprising  results  have  been  secured  when  a mixture  of 
half  tankage  and  half  linseed  meal  has  been  fed  as  a supplement  to 
corn  for  pigs  on  good  pasture.  In  five  separate  experiments,  pigs  fed 
this  mixture  on  good  pasture  have  gained  1.43  pounds  a head  daily 
on  the  average  and  required  370  pounds  feed  for  100  pounds  gain. 
Other  lots  fed  corn  and  tankage  gained  on  the  average  1.36  pounds  a 
day  in  these  five  trials  and  required  16  pounds  more  feed  for  each  100 
pounds  gain.  Though  linseed  meal  was  worth  only  $17.56  a ton  com- 
pared to  tankage  when  fed  as  the  only  supplement,  when  linseed  meal 
was  thus  combined  with  tankage  it  was  actually  worth  over  $92.00  a 
ton. 

A mixture  of  corn  germ  meal  (germ  oil  meal)  and  tankage  has  been 
recommended  by  some  as  a protein-rich  mixture  for  swine  feeding. 
However,  in  two  trials  the  combination  of  corn  germ  meal  and  tank- 


102 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


age  has  proven  decidedly  less  efficient  to  feed  with  corn  for  pigs  on 
pasture  than  the  mixture  of  linseed  meal  and  tankage. 

Although  this  mixture  of  linseed  meal  and  tankage  is  so  highly  effi- 
cient for  pigs  on  good  pasture,  it  is  not  as  satisfactory  for  pigs  fed  in 
dry  lot.  For  winter  feeding  the  combination  mentioned  in  the  report 
for  the  previous  year  continues  to  prove  highly  efficient.  This  is  a 
mixture  of  50  pounds  tankage,  25  pounds  linseed  meal,  and  25  pounds 
chopped  alfalfa.  In  eight  different  experiments  pigs  fed  this  combina- 
tion as  a supplement  to  yellow  corn  in  dry  lot  have  gained  1.16  pounds 
a head  daily  while  those  fed  only  yellow  corn  and  tankage  gained  only 
0.97  pound  and  required  20  pounds  more  feed  for  each  100  pounds 
gained.  This  protein-rich  mixture  has  thus  far  been  the  most  efficient 
of  any  of  the  numerous  combinations  tested  which  did  not  include 
any  dairy  by-products. 

Rations  for  Brood  Sows 

Does  Corn  Hurt  Brood  Sows?  On  account  of  its  cheapness,  corn  is 
the  chief  grain  fed  to  sows  throughout  the  corn  belt.  Due  undoubtedly 
to  the  poor  results  secured  when  corn  is  unwisely  fed  to  brood  sows 
without  proper  protein-rich  supplements,  several  writers  have  gone 
so  far  as  to  state  that  corn  should  not  form  over  one-third  to  one-half 
the  ration  for  brood  sows,  as  it  is  “too  fattening.”  However,  experi-' 
ments  carried  on  by  Messrs.  Morrison,  Bohstedt,  and  Fargo  show 
clearly  that  excellent  results  are  secured  when  corn  is  the  only  grain, 
if  it  is  properly  supplemented  and  provided  the  allowance  is  strictly 
limited  to  the  amount  needed  to  keep  the  sows  in  thrifty  condition, 
without  becoming  too  fat. 

In  three  trials  with  gilts  a concentrate  mixture  which  many  breeders 
would  consider  about  ideal  was  compared  with  the  more  simple  ration 
of  ear  corn,  alfalfa  hay  fed  in  a rack,  and  0.3  pound  tankage  per  head 
daily  in  addition.  The  concentrate  mixture  consisted  of  35  parts 
ground  corn,  30  parts  ground  oats,  30  parts  wheat  middlings,  and  5 
parts  tankage. 

On  the  average,  the  gilts  required  5.5  pounds  of  this  mixture  per 
head  daily  to  keep  them  making  the  desired  gain  of  about  0.9  pound  a 
day,  while  the  other  lot  made  trifle  larger  gains  on  4.5  pounds  corn 
(reduced  to  the  basis  of  shelled  corn),  0.3  pound  tankage,  and  0.4 
pound  alfalfa  hay.  Thus  the  gilts  fed  ear  corn  properly  supplemented 
required  0.3  pound  less  feed  per  head  daily,  which  would  be  expected 
from  the  fact  that  corn  is  a more  concentrated  feed  and  richer  in  net 
energy  than  oats  or  middlings.  With  feeds  at  usual  corn-belt  prices, 
the  daily  cost  of  feed  per  sow  was  30  per  cent  less  on  this  ration.  Still 
more  important  was  the  fact  that  the  farrowing  results  were  even  a 
trifle  better  than  on  the  ration  which  contained  only  35  per  cent  of 
corn. 

Legume  Hay  and  Corn.  A ration  of  only  legume  hay  and  grain  is 
quite  satisfactory  for  brood  sows,  especially  for  yearlings  or  older 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


103 


sows.  Gilts  had  best  receive  a small  amount  of  a protein-rich  con- 
centrate in  addition,  such  as  tankage,  skimmilk,  buttermilk,  linseed 
meal,  or  wheat  middlings.  This  is  shown  by  trials  carried  on  during 
four  winters.  Each  winter  one  lot  of  gilts  was  allowed  access  to  good 
alfalfa  hay  in  a rack  and  fed  in  addition  enough  ear  corn  to  make  the 
desired  gains.  Another  lot  was  fed  similarly  except  that  they  were 
given  in  addition  one-quarter  to  one-third  pound  of  tankage  per  head 
daily. 

On  the  average  the  gilts  fed  tankage  in  addition  to  ear  corn  and 
alfalfa  hay  made  somewhat  larger  gains.  Also  the  average  weight  of 
the  pigs  at  birth  and  the  proportion  of  vigorous  pigs  were  greater 
with  this  ration.  Thus  from  all  standpoints  it  was  advisable  under 
corn-belt  conditions  to  add  a small  amount  of  a protein-rich  concen- 
trate to  the  ration  of  corn  and  alfalfa  hay. 

Roots  for  Brood  Sows.  Many  swine  breeders  provide  roots  as  a suc- 
culent feed  for  their  brood  sows  in  the  winter.  Without  question, 
roots  are  a desirable  addition  to  the  ration  of  brood  sows  when  no 
legume  hay  is  fed,  for  they  are  palatable,  bulky,  and  laxative.  How- 
ever, roots  will  not  take  the  place  of  legume  hay,  for  they  are  not  rich 
in  protein  and  calcium. 

To  find  whether  there  was  any  advantage  in  adding  roots  to  well- 
balanced  rations,  including  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  for  brood  sows,  ex- 
periments have  been  carried  on  during  four  winters.  Either  sugar- 
mangels  or  yellow  carrots  were  added  to  a ration  of  corn,  tankage,  and 
alfalfa  hay  or  a ration  consisting  of  clover  hay  and  a concentrate  mix- 
ture of  barley,  oats,  wheat  middlings,  and  linseed  meal.  Gilts,  year- 
lings, and  aged  sows  were  used  in  the  various  trials.  Contrary  to 
what  many  experienced  swine  breeders  would  predict,  in  no  case  did 
the  addition  of  roots  to  these  rations  result  in  larger  or  more  thrifty 
pigs.  Furthermore,  roots  proved  to  be  decidedly  uneconomical  under 
corn-belt  conditions,  for  in  no  case  was  their  actual  feeding  value  as 
high  as  $4.00  per  ton  with  corn  at  56  cents  a bushel  and  other  feeds  at 
corresponding  prices. 

Do  Brood  Sows  Fed  Good  Rations  Need  Mineral  Supplements? 

AMONG  THE  livestock  questions  most  frequently  discussed  is  that 
of  the  feeding  of  mineral  supplements  or  mineral  mixtures  to 
animals.  It  is  well  known  that  when  swine  are  fed  well-bal- 
anced rations  on  such  good  pastures  as  alfalfa,  clover,  or  rape,  excel- 
lent results  will  usually  be  secured  without  the  addition  of  any  min- 
eral supplement  whatsoever,  except  common  salt.  Whether  still  bet- 
ter results  will  be  secured  if  a mineral  supplement  supplying  calcium 
or  both  calcium  and  phosphorus  is  added  to  the  ration  is  a matter  of 
much  importance. 

To  study  this  question  two  extensive  experiments  have  been  carried 
on  with  brood  sows  by  Messrs.  Morrison  and  Fargo.  To  make  the 
trials  as  conclusive  as  possible,  they  did  not  include  merely  the  period 


104 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


when  the  sows  were  pregnant.  Both  experiments  were  started  in 
early  summer  with  gilts  (sow1  pigs)  weighing  60  to  70  pounds.  These 
were  divided  into  uniform  lots,  each  of  12  pigs  the  first  year,  and  10 
pigs  the  second  year. 

Each  year  one  lot  of  gilts  was  fed  a well-balanced  concentrate  mix- 
ture of  corn,  oats,  wheat  middlings,  linseed  meal,  and  tankage,  with 
no  mineral  supplement,  except  common  salt.  During  the  summer  they 
were  on  pasture  and  during  the  winter  they  had  access  to  good  alfalfa 
hay  in  a rack.  This  check  lot  was,  therefore,  fed  merely  a modern, 
efficient  ration,  made  up  of  ordinary  feeds,  and  just  such  a ration  as 
progressive  breeders  are  recommending  everywhere.  In  the  first  ex- 
periment alfalfa  pasture  was  used,  and  the  second  year  the  pasture 
was  blue  grass. 

In  each  experiment  another  lot  of  gilts  (Lot  II)  was  fed  just  the 
same  as  Lot  I,  except  that  two  pounds  of  steamed  bone  meal  were 
mixed  with  each  100  pounds  of  their  concentrate  mixture.  A third  lot 
(Lot  III)  received  ground  limestone  instead  of  steamed  bone  meal. 

Each  year  throughout  the  pasture  season  there  was  no  advantage 
whatsoever  from  adding  either  steamed  bone  meal  or  ground  limestone 
to  this  good  ration.  Likewise  in  the  winter  the  gilts  fed  these  min- 
eral supplements  made  no  more  rapid  nor  more  economical  growth 
than  Lot  I,  fed  neither  of  the  mineral  supplements. 

The  most  important  part  of  such  an  experiment  comes  at  farrowing 
time,  for  there  might  be  a difference  in  the  vigor  of  the  offspring,  even 
though  the  sows  themselves  showed  no  difference  in  growth  or  cost  of 
gains.  However,  both  in  the  trial  carried  on  last  year  and  in  the  trial 
just  now  being  completed  there  has  been  no  evidence  of  the  pigs  being 
apy  larger,  or  more  thrifty,  or  having  better  bone  or  longer  bodies 
when  their  dams  had  been  fed  steamed  bone  meal  or  ground  lime- 
stone. These  experiments,  therefore,  show1  clearly  that  there  is  no 
advantage  in  adding  a mineral  supplement  such  as  steamed  bone  meal 
or  ground  limestone  to  the  efficient,  well-balanced  ration  fed  these 
gilts,  which  included  tankage. 

When  for  any  reason  it  is  necessary  to  feed  a ration  low  in  lime  to 
swine,  then  this  mineral  should  be  furnished  by  adding  a mineral  sup- 
plement. Wherever  there  has  been  trouble  from  hairless  pigs,  iodine 
should  be  added  to  the  ration  of  the  pregnant  sows  to  prevent  this 
disease.  There  is,  however,  no  conclusive  proof  that  there  is  any 
benefit  derived  from  adding  iodine  to  the  rations  of  any  except  preg- 
nant sows. 

Lime  (calcium)  can  be  supplied  very  cheaply  by  using  finely  ground 
limestone,  air-slaked  lime,  chalk,  or  wood  ashes.  When  there  is  a pos- 
sibility of  phosphorus  being  lacking  as  well  as  calcium,  it  is  best  to 
supply  both  these  minerals  in  such  forms  as  steamed  bone  meal,  spent 
bone  black,  or  ground  rock  phosphate.  Other  ingredients  are  also 
often  incorporated  in  mineral  mixtures,  especially  charcoal,  sulfur, 
Glauber’s  salts  (sodium  sulfate),  Epsom  salts  (magnesium  sulfate), 
and  copperas  (iron  sulfate).  There  is  no  conclusive  evidence  to  show 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


105 


that  there  is  any  benefit  from  giving  such  ingredients  to  an  animal 
which  is  thrifty  and  making  normal  gains. 

So  far  as  is  definitely  known,  simple  home-prepared  mineral  mix- 
tures give  just  as  good  results  as  expensive  proprietary  preparations 
some  of  which  cost  $150  a ton  or  more. 


HE  STUDY  of  infectious  abortion  of  swine  by  F.  B.  Hadley  and 


B.  A.  Beach  (Veterinary  Science)  has  been  in  progress  this  past 


year  on  an  experimental  herd  of  23  sows  and  2 boars.  The  hogs 
were  divided  for  study  into  six  lots  and  were  treated  to  learn  more 
about  (1)  means  of  stimulating  the  production  of  immunity  and  (2) 
paths  by  which  the  causal  germ  (Bacterium  abortus)  enters  the  body 
of  the  animal. 

A blood  sample  was  first  taken  from  each  hog  to  test  it  for  evidence 
of  abortion  infection.  No  trace  of  infection  could  be  demonstrated. 

Lot  1 was  used  to  determine  the  nature  of  immunity  that  develops 
after  vaccination  with  living  abortion  bacilli  administered  subcutan- 
eously (under  the  skin.) 

Lots  2 and  3 were  designed  to  study  the  various  reactions  that  occur 
following  vaginal  introduction  of  living  abortion  bacilli  after  and  be- 
fore service  respectively. 

Lots  4 and  5 comprise  animals  that  were  selected  to  learn  whether 
abortion  infection  could  be  acquired  through  environmental  contacts 
alone. 

Lot  6 was  injected  intravenously  (into  the  vein)  with  living  abor- 
tion bacilli  during  pregnancy. 

Work  involving  farm  livestock  with  long  gestation  periods  must 
of  necessity  be  continued  over  a period  of  years  before  data  are  avail- 
able from  which  even  tentative  conclusions  can  be  drawn.  The  year’s 
work  so  far  shows: 

1.  The  subcutaneous  and  intravenous  injection  of  living  abortion 
bacilli  (vaccine)  in  open  sows  and  gilts  in  the  majority  of  cases 
apparently  resulted  in  no  permanent  injury. 

2.  This  vaccination  treatment  enabled  both  open  sows  and  gilts  to 
withstand  the  effects  of  large  doses  of  abortion  germs  after  they  were 
bred. 

3.  Swine  usually,  but  not  always,  react  to  the  agglutination  test  fol- 
lowing subcutaneous  and  intravenous  injections  of  living  abortion 
bacilli. 

4.  It  is  possible  for  some  sows  to  become  infected  by  way  of  the 
vagina  after  the  uterine  seal  has  formed,  but  judging  from  these  ex- 
periments, infection  by  this  path  after  conception  has  taken  place  does 
not  occur  frequently. 

5.  Experimental  gilts  were  infected  by  vaginal  introduction  of  abor- 
tion bacilli  before  pregnancy. 

6.  The  establishment  of  infection  in  non-pregnant  sows  is  more  diffi- 
cult than  in  pregnant  ones. 


Swine  Abortion  Studies 


106 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


7.  Sows  become  infected  most  readily  per  vagina  at  or  near  the  time 
of  service. 

8.  Most  of  the  sows  and  gilts  experimentally  infected  with  living 
abortion  bacilli  failed  to  react  to  the  agglutination  test  after  the  lapse 
of  four  months.  This  shows  that  the  danger  of  establishing  permanent 
infection  carriers  by  vaccination  is  not  great. 

9.  After  the  subcutaneous  and  intravenous  injection  of  living  abor- 
tion bacilli  a small  per  cent  of  sows  and  gilts  failed  to  conceive  even 
though  served  repeatedly. 


SINCE  hernias  in  swine  are  quite  common  and  considerable  loss 
results  from  them,  B.  L.  Warwick  (Veterinary  Science)  has  at- 
tempted to  ascertain  their  relative  prevalence. 

To  this  end,  the  swine  in  the  University  Farm  herd  were  closely 
observed  from  March  1,  1922,  to  August  15,  1923.  Of  the  1,008  pigs 
raised  during  this  time,  38,  or  3.77  per  cent,  had  hernias;  6.3  per  cent 
of  the  471  male  pigs  raised  were  affected. 

Of  59  pigs  raised  from  sows  sired  by  a boar  afflicted  with  hernia,  8.5 
per  cent  of  the  progeny  developed  it.  Of  32  male  pigs  raised  in  this 
group,  15.6  per  cent  showed  this  defect. 

Tuberculosis  in  Cattle  and  Swine 

O MORE  important  livestock  disease  problem  affects  the  Wis- 


consin stockman  than  that  of  tuberculosis.  It  will  be  a con- 


stant fight  to  hold  down  the  spread  of  this  disease,  but  in  a 
state  where  the  breeding  interests  are  so  dominant  it  must  be  done. 
The  interrelations  of  this  disease  in  cattle  and  hogs  is  of  the  great- 
est importance. 

Tuberculosis  in  Swine.  Figures  compiled  from  the  Federal  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry  inspectors’  reports  at  the  five  largest  packing 
plants  in  Wisconsin  between  October,  1922,  and  July,  1923,  show  that 
nearly  25  per  cent,  or  351,008  animals  out  of  the  1,496,000  hogs  slaugh- 
tered, were  infected  with  tuberculosis.  Most  of  the  diseased  hogs 
came  from  farms  located  in  the  south  half  of  the  state. 

For  several  years  B.  A.  Beach  (Veterinary  Science)  and  E.  G.  Hast- 
ings (Agricultural  Bacteriology)  have  been  investigating  the  type  of 
organism  found  in  tuberculosis  of  swine  to  see  if  such  cases  could  be 
traced  to  avian  or  bovine  origin.  A study  of  the  specimens  from  15 
hogs  showed  that  two  of  the  organisms  isolated  were  of  avian  or  fowl 
type,  while  the  remaining  13  cases  were  of  bovine  origin.  If  tuber- 
culosis in  swine  may  be  produced  from  fowls,  the  eradication  of  the 
disease  in  the  dairy  herds  may  not  suffice  to  eliminate  the  disease 
from  swine  where  infected  poultry  are  allowed  to  exist. 

Skin  Lesions  in  Cattle.  The  finding  of  tuberculosis  in  the  skin  of 
cattle  has  been  reported  by  veterinary  inspectors  of  meats  stationed 


Hernias  in  Swine 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


107 


at  the  large  packing  centers.  A study  of  23  specimens  of  such  material 
by  bacteriologic  methods  failed  to  reveal  any  genuine  tubercle  bacilli 
of  the  bovine  type,  although  acid-fast  organisms  were  found  in  seven 
out  of  the  23  specimens.  A question  arises  as  to  whether  these  were 
dead  tubercle  organisms  or  a non-disease-producing  acid-fast  organism. 

Tuberculosis  in  Horses.  Last  May  the  lungs  and  liver  of  a ten- 
year-old  horse  were  sent  to  the  Experiment  Station  for  diagnosis  by 
a veterinarian  in  New  Glarus.  A microscopic  examination  of  the 
specimen  revealed  numerous  acid-fast  organisms;  inoculations  with 
these  organisms  caused  the  death  of  guinea  pig;s.  Numerous  tubercles 
were  found  in  the  liver  and  spleen,  which  upon  examination  by  Mr. 
Beach  were  shown  to  be  undoubted  tubercle  organisms.  This  case  is 
of  special  interest  on  account  of  the  rarity  of  this  disease  in  horses. 

Johne’s  Disease  Spreading  in  Wisconsin 

THE  SLOW  and  insidious  Johne’s  disease  of  cattle  is  gradually 
becoming  more  or  less  widespread,  not  only  in  Wisconsin,  but 
throughout  the  United  States,  and  is  apparently  far  more  preva- 
lent than  was  formerly  supposed.  Data  and  material  for  study  have 
been  received  from  twenty  veterinarians  in  seven  different  states. 
The  diagnosis  of  this  disease  can  be  definitely  determined  by  the  use 
of  the  new  test  fluid,  Johnin.  This  station  has  made  special  effort  to 
prepare  and  send  this  material  to  applying  veterinarians.  Mr.  Beach 
has  tested  300  head  of  cattle  in  sixteen  different  herds.  Of  this  num- 
ber he  has  found  seven,  or  2.3  per  cent,  which  reacted  to  the  Johnin 
indicating  disease  infection.  Only  two  of  these  herds  had  been  tested 
before. 

From  material  which  has  been  sent  in  to  the  laboratory  for  diagnosis, 
Johne’s  disease  has  been  diagnosed  eight  times.  AH  of  these  positive 
specimens  were  from  Wisconsin  cattle.  As  the  traffic  in  pure-bred 
cattle  increases,  it  is  obvious  that  more  attention  must  be  paid  to  this 
disease,  and  the  farmer  and  stockman  cannot  afford  to  ignore  it.  Its 
slow  progress  and  insidious  nature  does  not  readily  alarm  the  owner 
as  would  be  the  case  with  a more  acute  disease. 

Control  of  Contagious  Abortion  in  Cattle 

CONTINUED  investigations  during  the  year  by  Mr.  Hadley  tend 
to  show  that  the  abortion  vaccine,  a preparation  containing 
living  abortion  germs,  is  of  real  value  as  an  immunizing  agent 
when  properly  prepared,  injected  while  fresh,  and  employed  according 
to  directions.  During  the  year,  270  doses  of  this  material  were  pre- 
pared and  sent  to  cooperating  veterinarians  for  field  use.  Practically 
all  of  this  vaccine  was  employed  in  herds  where  the  disease  had  al- 
ready secured  a foothold  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  cows  that  had 
not  yet  become  infected  with  the  disease.  Reports  from  users  of  the 
product  indicate  that  it  is  helpful  in  controlling  the  spread  of  this 
dreaded  disease. 


108 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Extensive  use  is  also  being  made  of  the  station’s  facilities  for  the 
testing  of  bovine  blood  samples  to  detect  abortion  infection.  Exactly 
2,400  such  samples  were  tested  during  the  past  year.  Among  them 
were  samples  from  cattle  owned  by  the  Cedar  Rapids  Bull  Associa- 
tion where  the  community  cooperates  in  safeguarding  the  herd  by 
having  the  cattle  in  all  herds  tested  before  being  allowed  the  use  of 
the  association  sire.  Since  reacting  animals  are  required  to  be  dis- 
posed of,  this  system  goes  a long  ways  toward  preventing  the  bull 
from  becoming  infected  with  or  acting  as  a mechanical  carrier  of  the 
abortion  disease.  Results  obtained  by  this  organization  indicate  that 
the  blood  test  is  an  effective  measure  for  the  control  of  abortion  dis- 
ease in  a community  breeding  association  and  that  the  measure  is 
practicable.  The  experience  points  the  way  to  the  possibility  of 
establishing  abortion-free  accredited  herds,  somewhat  after  the  method 
now  so  widely  employed  in  the  tuberculosis-free  accredited  herds  used 
in  the  control  of  that  diseases. 


Female 


Non-starchy 
corn  plant 


pollen  fstavchqt  Pollen 


All  non- Starchy 
corn  plants 


element 


Pollen 

50  percent  50  per  cent 


\ Female 
i element 


FIG.  40. — INHERITANCE  OF  THE  STARCHY  AND"  NON-STARCHY 
CONDITION  IN  CORN  POLLEN 


This  is  the  first  pollen  character  in  corn  of  which  the  inheritance  has 
been  determined.  The  starchy  and  non-starchy  conditions  form  a con- 
trasted pair.  Crossbred  plants  produce  two  types  of  pollen  grains  with 
equal  frequency. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


109 


White  Diarrhea  in  Poultry 

THIS  DISEASE  in  young  chickens  is  purported  to  have  been  re- 
sponsible for  heavy  losses  in  the  poultry  industry  during  past 
years.  Mr.  Beach  and  J.  G.  Halpin  have  tested  the  blood  of 
about  1,000  birds  on  the  station  poultry  farm  for  evidence  of  infection. 
Nearly  11  per  cent  of  these  fowls  reacted  to  the  agglutination  test. 
The  practical  importance  of  this  project  makes  it  desirable  to  ascer- 
tain the  manner  of  spread  of  the  disease  by  further  study. 

Inheritance  of  a Pollen  Character  in  Corn 

STUDENTS  of  heredity  have  recently  directed  their  attention 
towards  the  detailed  processes  by  which  seed  is  set  in  plants. 
The  more  prominent  aspects  have  been  familiar  for  many  years. 
In  corn,  for  example,  the  pollen,  shed  in  abundance  by  the  tassels, 
must  fall  upon  the  silks  before  grain  can  be  formed  on  the  cob.  The 
pollen  grains  lodged  on  the  silks  germinate  and  produce  tiny  plants 
consisting  of  single  slender  filaments  which  push  their  way  between 
the  cells  of  the  silk  and  eventually  reach  the  undeveloped  seed  struc- 
ture on  the  cob  and  initiate  development  of  the  seed.  It  is  only  re- 
cently, however,  that  these  events  have  been  made  the  subject  of 
critical  study  from  the  standpoint  of  heredity. 

Each  pollen  grain  at  the  time  it  is  shed  from  the  tassel  contains 
some  food  material  which  is  utilized  in  the  subsequent  growth  proc- 
esses. In  this  respect  it  is  similar  to  a seed  which  provides  food  for 
the  seedling  in  its  early  stages  of  growth.  Examination  has  been 
made  of  the  food  stored  in  the  pollen  of  different  varieties  of  corn  by 
R.  A.  Brink  (Genetics),  and  it  has  been  found  that  it  corresponds 
rather  closely  in  its  nature  with  the  materials  laid  down  in  the  seed 
itself.  Races  of  corn  which  produce  starchy  seeds,  and  these  comprise 
all  the  field  types,  bear  pollen  containing  more  or  less  starch.  On 
the  other  hand,  a strain  obtained  originally  from  China  and  termed 
“waxy”  on  account  of  the  resemblance  of  the  interior  of  the  seed  to 
hard  wax  contains  no  starch  in  these  parts.  It  has  been  shown  that 
the  pollen  also  of  this  race  lacks  starch,  this  latter  being  replaced  by 
a closely  related  substance,  probably  a dextrin. 

The  inheritance  of  the  ability  to  produce  starchy  or  non-starchy 
pollen  has  been  determined.  Plants  which  received  the  hereditary 
elements  for  starchy  characteristics  from  both  their  parents  will  them- 
selves produce  only  starchy  pollen  grains.  Likewise,  pure  non-starchy 
plants  of  which  the  so-called  Chinese  waxy  race  consists,  produce  only 
non-starchy  pollen.  When  the  starchy  and  non-starchy  types  are 
crossed  by  applying  the  pollen  of  the  one  to  the  other,  however,  an 
interesting  situation  develops.  The  seeds  immediately  resulting  from 
hypridization  are  starchy.  The  starchy  character  is  dominant  to  the 
non-starchy  condition.  Plants  grown  from  these  crossbred  starchy 
seeds,  unlike  those  raised  from  seed  from  a pure  starchy  race,  produce 


110 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


pollen  grains  of  two  types  and  in  equal  numbers.  One-half  the  pollen 
grains  shed  by  these  hybrids  is  starchy  and  the  other  half  non-starchy. 
The  transmission  of  this  character  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  40.  This  is 
the  first  pollen  character  in  corn  the  hereditary  behavior  of  which  has 
been  determined. 


PUBLICATIONS 

The  Experiment  Station  in  1922-23  published  11  popular  bulletins 
and  8 reprints,  and  5 research  bulletins.  Thirteen  circulars  and  8 
reprints,  and  also  14  stencil  bulletins  were  issued  by  the  Extension 
Service. 

The  bulletins  are  listed  below: 

Popular  Bulletins 

Bulletin  345. — Why  Costs  of  Milk  Vary.  (P.  E.  McNall  and  D.  R. 
Mitchell.)  Milk  costs  are  necessary  in  order  to  determine  profits  or 
losses  of  the  herd.  Cow-testing  associations  are  a possible  source  of 
milk  cost  figures. 

Bulletin  346. — Marketing  by  Cooperative  Sales  Companies.  (Theo- 
dore Macklin.)  A study  of  the  improvements  in  marketing  brought 
about  through  the  establishment  and  operation  of  sales  companies  and 
the  possibilities  for  cooperation. 

Bulletin  347. — Farming  the  Silt  Loams  of  Central  Wisconsin.  (F;  L. 
Musbach.)  As  heavy  silt  loam  is  the  most  important  soil  type  in  cen- 
tral Wisconsin,  the  management  of  this  type  brings  up  problems  of 
special  interest  to  farmers  now  in  the  area  as  well  as  to  the  new 
settler. 

Bulletin  348. — Tobacco  Wildfire  in  Wisconsin.  (James  Johnson  and 
S.  B.  Fracker.)  The  disease  of  tobacco,  known  as  wildfire,  has  shown 
itself  to  be  sufficiently  serious  in  other  tobacco  districts  to  warrant 
Wisconsin  growers  using  all  possible  measures  to  prevent  its  occur- 
rence in  their  fields. 

Bulletin  349. — Make  Alfalfa  a Sure  Crop.  (R.  A.  Moore  and  L.  F. 
Graber.)  A discussion  of  the  needs  of  the  alfalfa  crop  which  is  assum- 
ing more  and  more  importance  as  a Wisconsin  crop. 

Bulletin  350. — Minerals  for  Livestock.  (E.  B.  Hart,  H.  Steenbock, 
and  F.  B.  Morrison.)  A discussion  of  the  kind  of  minerals  to  feed  and 
the  amounts  required  by  different  classes  of  stock. 

Bulletin  351. — An  Outlet  Drain  for  Every  Farm.  E.  R.  Jones  and 
O.  R.  Zeasman.)  State  laws  provide  a means  by  which  neighbors  may 
cooperate  in  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  an  outlet  drain  serv- 
ing a community;  without  such  outlets  many  farm  drains  would  be 
valueless. 

Bulletin  352. — Science  Serves  Wisconsin  Farms.  Annual  Report  of 
the  Director,  1921-1922.  (H.  L.  Russell  and  F.  B.  Morrison.)  A re- 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


111 


view  of  results  secured  on  the  different  experimental  projects  con- 
ducted at  the  Experiment  Station. 

Bulletin  353. — Farm  Homes.  (Departments  of  Home  Economics  and 
Agricultural  Engineering.)  Descriptions  and  plans  of  comfortable 
and  convenient  farm  homes. 

Bulletin  354. — The  Modified  Leader  Tree.  (R.  H.  Roberts.)  The 
advantages  of  the  modified  leader  tree  and  how  trees  should  be  pruned. 

Bulletin  355. — Nicotine  Dust  Kills  Cucumber  Beetles.  (John  E.  Dud- 
ley, Jr.,  H.  F.  Wilson,  and  W.  D.  Mecum.)  Nicotine  dusts  have  been 
found  most  effective  in  killing  the  cucumber  beetles. 

Research  Bulletins 

Research  Bulletin  52. — The  Development  and  Winter  Injury  of 
Cherry  Blossom  Buds.  (R.  H.  Roberts.)  A study  of  the  variation  in 
relative  hardiness  of  the  blossom  buds  found  in  various  types  of  fruit- 
producing  plants. 

Research  Bulletin  53. — The  Influence  of  Soil  Temperature  on  Potato 
Scab.  (L.  R.  Jones,  H.  H.  McKinney,  and  H.  Fellows.)  Trials  were 
undertaken  in  both  field  and  greenhouse  to  determine  the  influence  of 
soil  temperature  on  the  development  of  the  common  scab  of  potato. 

Research  Bulletin  54. — The  Value  of  Lime  and  Inoculation  for  Al- 
falfa and  Clover  on  Acid  Soils.  (E.  J.  Graul  and  E.  B.  Fred.)  Fre- 
quently the  growth  of  alfalfa  and,  in  some  cases,  of  clover  is  largely 
determined  by  the  amount  of  lime  in  the  soil  and  the  presence  of  the 
proper  nodule-forming  bacteria. 

Research  Bulletin  55. — An  Experiment  Study  of  Infectious  Abortion 
in  Swine.  (F.  B.  Hadley  and  B.  A.  Beach.)  A study  of  the  cause  of 
infectious  swine  abortion,  the  relationship  between  infectious  abortion 
in  cattle  and  swine,  the  mode  of  transmission,  the  incubation  period, 
the  period  of  communicability,  and  the  means  of  control. 

Research  Bulletin  56. — Effect  of  Defoliation  Upon  Blossom  Bud  For- 
mation. (R.  H.  Roberts.)  Tests  were  made  of  the  effect  of  varying 
types  and  amounts  of  defoliation  upon  blossom  bud  formation  in  spe- 
cies of  American  plums. 

Technical  Articles 

Much  of  the  technical  scientific  output  of  the  experiment  station 
staff  is  first  presented  to  the  scientific  public  through  the  medium  of 
the  science  periodicals  and  publications  of  scientific  societies.  The 
publication  of  such  matter  enables  our  workers  to  have  their  results 
scrutinized  by  their  scientific  colleagues.  The  following  articles  have 
been  published  during  the  past  year,  ending  June  30,  1923: 

Beach,  B.  A.  Johne’s  disease.  Ohio  State  Vet.  Alum.  Quar.  11:  No.  1. 
1923. 

Bryan,  O.  C'.  The  effect  of  different  reactions  on  the  growth  and  cal- 
cium content  of  oats  and  wheat.  Soil  Science.  15: 375-381.  1923. 
Bryan,  O.  C.  Effect  of  reaction  on  growth,  nodule  formation,  and  cal- 
cium content  of  alfalfa,  alsike  clover,  and  red  clover.  Soil  Science. 
23-35.  1923. 


112 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Bryan,  O.  C.  Effect  of  acid  soils  on  nodule-forming  bacteria.  Soil 
Science.  15: 37-40.  1923. 

Cole,  L.  J.  The  “Chantecler.”  A new  breed  of  poultry — developed  to 
meet  the  winter  conditions  of  the  north.  Journ.  Heredity. 
1.3: 147-152.  1922. 

Cole,  L.  J.,  and  Steele,  D.  G.  A waltzing  rabbit.  Jour.  Heredity. 

15:290-294.  1923. 

Dickson,  J.  G.,  Eckerson,  S.  H.,  and  Link,  Karl  P.  The  nature  of  re- 
sistance to  seedling  blight  of  cereals.  Proc.  Nat.  Acad.  Science. 
v.9.  1923. 

Dickson,  J.  G.  Influence  of  soil  temperature  and  moisture  on  the  de- 
velopment of  the  seedling-blight  of  wheat  and  corn  caused  by 
gibberella  saubinetii.  Jour  Agr.  Res.  25:837-870.  1923. 

Dickson,  J.  G.  Disease  resistance  as  a factor  in  the  control  of  plant 
diseases.  Trans.  Wis.  State  Hort.  Soc.  123-131.  1923. 

Duffee,  F.  W.  Report  of  Silage  Cutter  Tests.  Am.  Society  Agr.  Engi- 
neers Trans.  1923. 

Fred,  E.  B.,  Peterson,  W.  H.,  and  Anderson,  J.  A.  The  fermentation 
of  arabinose  and  xylose  by  certain  aerobic  bacteria.  Jour.  Bact. 
8:  No.  3.  1923. 

Fred,  E.  B.,  Peterson,  W.  H.,  and  Anderson,  J.  A.  Production  of  ace- 
tone, alcohol,  and  acids  from  oat  and  peanut  hulls.  Jour.  Indust, 
and  Engin.  Chem.  15:126.  1923. 

Graber,  L.  F.  Scarification  as  it  affects  longevity  of  alfalfa  seed. 
Jour.  Am.  Soc.  of  Agron.  1^:298-301.  1922. 

Hadley,  F.  B.  and  Beach,  B.  A.  Relationship  of  infectious  abortion  in 
swine  and  cattle.  Ohio  State  Yet.  Alum.  Quar.  10:  No.  2.  1922. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  Steenbock,  H.,  Hoppert,  C.  A.,  Bethke,  R.  M.,  and  Hum- 
phrey, G.  C.  The  comparative  efficiency  of  timothy  hay,  alfalfa 
hay  and  timothy  hay  plus  calcium  phosphate  (steambone  meal)  in 
maintaining  calcium  and  phosphorus  equilibrium  in  milking  cows. 
Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  54:75.  1922. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  Steenbock,  H.,  Hoppert,  C.  A.,  and  Humphrey,  G.  C.  Diet- 
ary factors  influencing  calcium  assimilation.  II,  The  comparative 
efficiency  of  dry  and  green  alfalfa  in  maintaining  calcium  and 
phosphorus  equilibrium  in  milking  cows.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  53: 21. 
1922. 

Hart,  E.  B.,  Steenbock,  H.,  Hoppert,  C.  A.,  Bethke,  R.  M.,  and  Hum- 
phrey, G.  C.  Dietary  factors  influencing  calcium  assimilation. 
Ill,  The  comparative  efficiency  of  timothy  hay,  alfalfa  hay  and 
timothy  hay  plus  steamed  bone  meal  in  maintaining  calcium  and 
phosphorus  equilibrium  in  milking  cows.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  54 : 75. 
1922. 

Hastings,  E.  G.,  Davenport,  Audrey,  and  Wright,  W.  H.  The  influence 
of  certain  factors  on  the  methylene  blue  reduction  test  for  deter- 
mining the  number  of  bacteria  in  milk.  Jour,  of  Dairy  Science. 
5:5.  1922. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


113 


Hastings,  E.  G.  Wisconsin  Experiments  with  cheese.  Proc.  Twenty- 
third  Annual  Convention  Southern  Wis.  Cheesemakers’  and  Dairy- 
men’s Assn.  1923. 

Hibbard,  B.  H.  The  effect  of  freight  rates  on  agricultural  geography. 
Jour.  Farm  Econ.  ^:129.  1922. 

Hibbard,  B.  H.  The  intensity  of  cultivation.  Quarterly  Jour.  Econ. 
3d:  646.  1922. 

Hibbard,  B.  H.  The  farmers’  influence  over  prices.  Jour.  Farm  Econ. 
1923. 

Johnson,  James.  The  relation  of  air  temperature  to  the  mosaic  dis- 
ease of  potatoes  and  other  plants.  Phytopath.  12:438-440.  1922. 

Johnson,  James.  A bacterial  leaf-spot  of  tobacco.  Jour.  Agr.  Res. 
23:481-493.  1923. 

Jones,  L.  R.  and  Tisdale,  W.  B.  The  influence  of  soil  temperature  upon 
the  development  of  flax  wilt.  Phytopath.  12:409-413.  1922. 

Jones,  L.  R.  and  Walker,  J.  C.  Yellows-resistant  cabbage  varieties. 
Seed  World.  20-21.  Feb.,  1923. 

Jones,  Sarah  V.  H.  Studies  on  inheritance  in  pigeons.  IV.  Checks 
and  bars  and  other  modifications  of  black.  Genetics.  7:466-507. 
1923. 

Keitt,  G.  W.  Apple  scab.  Proc.  Ohio  State  Hort.  Soc.  56:78-87.  1923. 
Keitt,  G.  W.  Cherry  leaf  spot.  Proc.  Ohio  State  Hort.  Soc.  56:88-91. 
1923. 

Kolb,  J.  H.  Rural  organization  for  social  work.  Proc.  Wis.  State 
Conf.  Social  Work.  1922. 

Link,  K.  P.  and  Tottingham,  W.  E.  Effects  of  the  method  of  desicca- 
tion on  the  carbohydrates  of  plant  tissue.  Jour.  Am.  Chem.  So- 
ciety. 1/5:  No.  2.  1923. 

Morrison,  F.  B.,  Humphrey,  G.  C.,  and  Hulce,  R.  S.  Alfalfa  hay  as  a 
basis  for  home-grown  rations  for  milk  production.  Record  Proc. 
Annual  Meeting  of  Am.  Soc.  Animal  Production.  March,  1923. 
Nightingale,  G.  T.  Light  in  relation  to  the  growth  and  chemical  com- 
position of  some  horticultural  plants.  Proc.  Am.  Soc.  Hort. 
Science.  1922. 

Parker,  F.  W.  and  Bryan,  O.  C.  Soil  acidity  as  measured  by  sugar  in- 
version, the  Truog  Test,  and  the  hydrogen-ion  concentration  and 
its  relation  to  the  hydrolysis  of  ethyl  acetate.  Soil  Science. 
15: 99-107.  1923. 

Peterson,  W.  H.  and  Fred,  E.  B.  An  abnormal  fermentation  of  sauer- 
kraut. Centralblatt  fur  Bakteriologie.  II.  Abteilung.  Band  58, 
Helt  9/12.  Page  199.  1923. 

Peterson,  W.  H.,  Fred,  E.  B.,  and  Anderson,  J.  A.  The  fermentation 
of  hexoses  and  related  compounds  by  certain  pentose-fermenting 
bacteria.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  53:111.  1922. 

Schmidt,  E.  G.,  Peterson,  W.  H.,  and  Fred,  E.  B.  The  destruction  of 
pentosans  by  molds  and  other  microorganisms.  Soil  Science. 
15:  No.  6.  1923. 

Sommer,  H.  H.  and  Hart,  E.  B.  The  heat  coagulation  of  milk.  Jour. 
Dairy  Science.  5:525.  1922. 


114 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  362 


Sommer,  H.  H.  and  Binney,  T.  H.  A study  of  the  factors  that  influ- 
ence the  coagulation  of  milk  in  the  alcohol  test.  Jour.  Dairy 
Science.  6:176-196.  1923. 

Steenbock,  H.,  Hart,  E.  B.,  Miss  M.  T.  Sell,  and  Jones,  J.  H.  The 
availability  of  calcium  salts.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  56: 375.  1923. 

Steenbock,  H.,  Miss  M.  T.  Sell,  and  Nelson,  E.  M.  Vitamine  B,  I.  A 
modified  technique  in  the  use  of  the  rat  for  determinations  of 
vitamine  B.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  55:399.  1923. 

Steenbock,  H.  H.,  Miss  M.  T.  Sell,  and  Jones,  J.  H.  Vitamine  B,  II. 
Storage  of  vitamine  B by  the  rat.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  55:411.  1923. 

Steenbock,  H.,  Miss  M.  T.  Sell,  and  Nelson,  E.  M.  Fat-soluble  vita- 
mine, XI.  Storage  of  the  fat-soluble  vitamine.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem. 
56:327.  1923. 

Steenbock,  H.,  Miss  M.  T.  Sell,  and  Jones,  J.  H.  Fat-soluble  vitamine, 
XII.  The  fat-soluble  vitamine  content  of  millets.  Jour.  Biol. 
Chem.  56:345.  1923. 

Steenbock,  H and  Nelson,  E.  M.  Fat-soluble  vitamine,  XIII.  Light  in  * 
its  relation  to  ophthalmia  and  growth.  Jour.  Biol.  Chem.  56:355. 
1923. 

Sumner,  W.  A.  Building  better  farm  advertising  in  Wisconsin.  Judi- 
cious Advertising.  21: 23-26.  1923. 

Tottingham,  W.  E.  and  Rankin,  E.  J.  The  availability  of  iron  in 
nutrient  solutions  for  wheat.  Am.  Jour.  Botany.  10: 203.  1923. 

Truog,  E.  The  feeding  power  of  plants.  Science.  56:294-298.  1922. 

Truog,  E.  Determining  the  phosphorus  needs  of  soils.  Jour.  Am.  Soc. 
of  Agronomy.  15:110-117.  1923. 

Ver  Hulst,  John  H.,  Peterson,  W.  H.,  and  Fred,  E.  B.  Distribution  of 
pentosans  in  the  corn  plant  at  various  stages  of  growth.  Jour,  of 
Agr.  Res.  25:655.  1923. 

Wilson,  H.  F.  and  Hadfield,  W.  A.  The  effect  of  sodium  hypochlorite 
upon  the  spores  of  American  foulbrood  (Bacillus  larvae).  Science. 
57:334.  1923. 

Woodworth,  C.  M.  Inheritance  of  cotyledon,  seed  coat,  hilum  and 
pubescence  in  colors  in  soy  beans.  Genetics.  6:487-553.  1923. 

Woodworth,  C.  M.  The  extent  of  natural  cross-pollination  in  soy  beans. 
Jour.  Am.  Society  Agron.  1^:278-283.  1922. 

Woodworth,  C.  M.  Calculation  of  linkage  intensities  where  duplicate 
factors  are  concerned.  Genetics.  8:106-115.  1923. 


New  Facts  in  Farm  Science 


115 


THE  WISCONSIN  AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION,  IN  AC- 
COUNT WITH  THE  UNITED  STATES  APPROPRIATION 


1922-1923 

Dr. 

Cr. 

To  receipt  from  treasurer  of  the  United  States, 
as  per  appropriation  for  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1923,  under  the  acts  of  Congress  approved 
March  2,  1887,  and  March  16,  1906 

$30,000.00 

By  salaries 

$20,774.54 
5,605.05 
122.51 
3.22 
1,186.36 
500.95 
33.43 
822.85 
4.50 
790.00 
36  00 

By  labor 

By  publication 

By  freight  and  express 

By  chemicals  and  laboratory  supplies 

By  seeds,  plants,  and  sundry  supplies 

By  fertilizers 

By  feeding  stuffs 

By  tools,  machinery,  and  appliances 

By  scientific  apparatus  and  specimens 

By  livestock 

By  traveling  expense 

111.59 

Total 

$30,000.00 

$30,000.00 

-u  • s . 


Bulletin  363 


April,  1924 


Agricultural  Experiment  Station  of  the 
University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison 


Digest 


A farm  orchard  to  be  worth  while  must  be  properly  managed  and 
cared  for.  An  orchard  which  is  started  and  then  left  to  take  care  of 
itself  will  never  become  a source  of  pride  or  of  much  good 
fruit.  Page  3 

Choose  the  orchard  site  carefully.  A tract  with  a soil  adapted  to  a 

wide  range  of  fruits,  slightly  elevated  and  located  near  the  house  is 
preferable.  Pages  3-5 

Hardiness  is  the  first  consideration  in  selecting  varieties.  A farm 
orchardist  may  experiment  with  new  and  untried  varieties,  but  the 
greater  part  of  the  planting  should  be  of  standard  varieties  adapted 
to  the  particular  section.  Pages  10-12 

Good  care  of  the  trees  before  planting,  careful  planting,  and  proper 
pruning  after  planting  are  absolutely  necessary  if  satisfactory  results  are 
to  be  secured.  Pages  13-18 

The  system  of  soil  management  should  be  adapted  to  the  character 
of  the  site.  On  lands  level  enough  to  cultivate,  the  tillage-cover  crop 
system  is  probably  best.  Cropping  with  cultivated  crops , is  per- 
missible in  a young  orchard  if  care  is  exercised  not  to  injure  the  plants 
either  temporarily  or  permanently.  Never  use  a young  orchard  as  a 

pasture.  Pages  18-20 

The  average  farm  orchard  which  has  been  bearing  for  some  time 

needs  fertilizer.  Manure  or  commercial  fertilizers  which  supply 
nitrogen  are  usually  most  beneficial.  Best  results  in  fertilization  can 
only  be  attained  when  the  orchardist  makes  a careful  study  of  the 
performance  of  his  trees.  Lack  of  fruitfulness  may  result  either  from 
too  much  or  too  little  vegetative,  (twig  and  branch)  growth.  P^ge  21 

Neglect  of  pruning  means  trouble  later  on.  Pruning  should  start  as 
soon  as  the  tree  is  planted  and  should  be  done  annuallv  during  the 
life  of  the  tree.  Alternate  neglect  and  spasmodic  pruning  results  in 
a poorly  formed  and  less  productive  tree.  Pages  22-27 

Spraying  is  necessary  to  the  production  of  good  fruit  and  healthy 
trees.  It  is  a preventive,  not  remedial.  Only  effective  spraying  is 
worth  while.  It  is  effective  only  when  the  proper  materials  are 
thoroughly  applied  at  the  proper  time.  Have  a spraying  program  and 
follow  it  persistently  unless  you  are  sure  that  you  can  improve  up- 
on it.  Page  28 

If  your  orchard  is  too  small  to  warrant  the  purchase  of  a power 

sprayer  consider  the  advisability  of  organizing  a “spray  ring”  among 
your  neighbors  who  are  similarly  situated.  Orchard  pest  control  in 
small  orchards  will  be  more  efficient  and  less  expensive  in  a “spray 
ring”  than  when  done  by  the  individual  orchardist.  Page  33 


Farm  Orchards 

James  G.  Moore 

A MAJORITY  of  the  farm  orchards  in  Wisconsin  are  money  losers. 
For  the  most  part  they  are  left  to  care  for  themselves  and  forced 
to  compete  with  other  crops  for  their  food  and  moisture.  Under 
such  conditions  they  will  not  be  sources  of  profit  nor  produce  good  fruit 
for  use  in  the  home. 

To  be  profitable,  orchards  must  be  properly  cared  for  from  the  time 
the  trees  are  received  from  the  nurserymen.  Often  a grower  does  not 

Successful  Orchard  Culture  Demands 

A soil  adapted  to  the  fruit  grown. 

Planting  of  hardy  varieties. 

Care  in  planting. 

An  adapted  and  thorough  system  of  soil  management. 

Pruning  which  conserves  the  energies  of  the  tree  and  lightens 
the  orchard  work. 

Spraying  of  a character  which  will  control  the  pests  and  make 
the  fruit  edible  and  salable. 


know  what  are  the  best  ways  of  managing  an  orchard.  This  bulletin 
treats  briefly  of  practices  of  orchard  management  which  seem  best 
suited  to  give  best  returns  from  the  farm  orchards  of  this  state. 

Select  Orchard  Site  With  Care 

Four  things  need  consideration  in  selecting  the  site  for  a farm  orchard : 
convenience,  soil,  elevation  and  exposure.  Convenience  is  the  first,  for 
unless  the  orchard  is  located  at  least  fairly  close  to  the  house  its  care  is 
almost  sure  to  be  neglected  and  poor  utilization  is  made  of  the  fruit  that  is 
produced.  Convenience  should  take  precedence  over  all  the  other  con- 
siderations except  soil  and  it  may  make  it  desirable  in  some  cases  to  select 
a site  with  a somewhat  less  favorable  soil  than  one  which  is  not  conveniently 
located,  but  with  more  favorable  soil. 

Soil,  of  course,  is  very  important  for  without  reasonably  favorable  soil 
conditions  failure  is  sure  to  result.  While  various  fruits  seem  to  prefer 
somewhat  different  types  of  soil,  type  of  soil  is  not  of  so  much  importance 
to  the  farm  orchardist  as  some  other  soil  conditions.  Usually  the  farm 


4 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


orchardist  wishes  to  grow  a number  of  kinds  of  fruit.  In  fact,  he  should 
grow  all  the  kinds  which  can  be  grown  with  reasonable  success  in  his 
section.  A soil  suited  to  grow  reasonably  well  a number  of  kinds  would 
then  be  preferable  to  one  especially  adapted  to  one  kind.  When  available, 
a heavy  sandy  loam,  gravelly  loam,  or  light  clay  loam  soil  would  be  a 
desirable  type  for  a farm  orchard. 

There  are  other  considerations  in  selecting  a soil  of  even  greater  im- 
portance than  surface  soil  type.  The  kind  of  subsoil  is  often  a controlling 
factor  in  selecting  a site.  When  the  subsoil  comes  clos'e  to  the  surface  it  is 


FIG.  1.— A NEGLECTED  FARM  ORCHARD 
With  proper  care  this  orchard  would  produce  good  crops, 
important  that  it  be  such  as  will  allow  free  development  of  the  root  sys- 
tem of  the  trees  and  the  ready  escape  of  excessive  soil  moisture.  An  open, 
gravelly  subsoil,  containing  some  clay  or  a pervious  limestone  meets  the 
requirements  of  an  orchard.  The  subsoil  should  not  be  so  porous  as  not 
to  hold  soil  moisture  reasonably  well.  A favorable  soil  depth  including 
surface  and  subsoil  of  at  least  four  or  five  feet  is  desirable.  A site  with 
unbroken  rock  or  hardpan  within  three  feet  of  the  surface  should  be 
avoided. 

Good  soil  drainage  is  imperative.  The  site  should  be  studied  in  this 
regard  beyond  mere  consideration  of  the  slope  of  the  surface.  Not  in- 
frequently sites  with  good  surface  slope  have  poor  soil  drainage.  If  the 
site  has  favorable  subsoil,  the  danger  of  poor  drainage  is  largely  over- 
come, but  even  then  attention  should  be  given  to  the  presence  of  small 
potholes,  or  seepage  from  higher  elevations. 

Physical  condition  and  fertility  should  be  given  attention  in  selecting 
a soil.  It  is  desirable  that  the  soil  have  good  tilth  and  abundant  fertility. 
If  other  conditions  are  favorable  a soil  which  does  not  possess  these 
characteristics  may  be  chosen  providing  these  deficiencies  can  be  cor- 
rected. 


Farm  Orchards 


5 


Elevation  Reduces  Frost  Injury 

There  is  always  a possibility  of  damage  from  late  spring  frosts  dur- 
ing the  flowering  period  and  orchards  on  low  land  suffer  first.  An  elevated 
orchard  site  does  not  mean  that  it  must  be  the  highest  piece  of  land  in 
the  vicinity,  but  rather  that  it  should  have  lower  levels  near  it.  A site  on 
a slope,  if  it  is  not  so  steep  as  to  cause  soil  erosion,  is  preferable  to  a level 
one. 

It  is  no  advantage  to  have  the  orchard  on  an  elevated  site  unless  there 
is  opportunity  for  air  drainage.  “Frost  pockets”  caused  either  by  forests 
or  lay  of  the  land  should  be  avoided. 

No  One  Exposure  Best  Under  All  Conditions 

Exposure  is  the  direction  of  slope  of  the  site.  On  rolling  sites  it  is 
impossible  to  have  all  land  slope  in  the  same  direction,  but  in  such  cases 
the  general  slope  is  considered. 

It  is  important  that  the  orchard  be  protected  in  sections  in  Wisconsin 
subject  to  strong,  dry,  cold  winds  during  the  winter.  An  exposure  away 
from  the  prevailing  winter  winds  is  desirable.  Exposure  also  is  im- 
portant as  regards- winter  injury.  A northerly  exposure  is  much  preferred 
in  this  regard.  As  a rule,  in  this  state  a northern  or  northeastern  exposure 
is  best.  Near  large  bodies  of  water  an  exposure  towards  the  water  is  us- 
ually advantageous. 

Most  farm  orchardists  will  find  it  impossible  to  secure  on  their  farm 
sites  which  are  ideal.  In  such  cases  the  aim  should  be  to  approach  as  near 
the  ideal  as  possible,  laying  the  greatest  emphasis  on  convenience  and  soil. 

Most  Farm  Orchards  Are  Too  Large 

The  farm  orchard  should  supply  an  abundance  of  fruit  for  the  home. 
In  doing  this  there  will  be  times  when  a surplus  will  be  produced,  but  the 
farm  orchardist  should  not  attempt  to  produce  fruit  for  market.  Many 
farmers  in  Wisconsin  will  doubtless  find  it  desirable  to  plant  orchards  to 
produce  fruit  for  market  as  a distinct  part  of  their  farm  operations,  but 
in  such  cases  their  orchards  should  be  planned  very  differently  from  those 
designed  to  produce  fruit  for  the  home.  A tract  115  by  200  feet,  well 
chosen,  planted  with  adapted  varieties,  and  given  the  proper  care  will 
produce,  when  in  moderate  bearing,  more  tree  fruit  than  can  be  used  in  the 
average  home. 

Under  the  varying  conditions  in  Wisconsin,  it  is  not  possible  to  make 
a plan  which  will  apply  possibly  even  in  a majority  of  cases.  The  fol- 
lowing plan  (Fig.  2)  is  suggestive  only  and  will  need  modification  to  fit 
local  conditions.  In  cases  where  pears  or  cherries  cannot  be  grown 
they  may  be  replaced  by  apples  or  small  fruits  or  the  size  of  the 
orchard  may  be  reduced. 

Thoroughly  Prepare  the  Ground  for  Planting 

The  character  of  the  surface  soil  and  the  subsoil  should  be  considered 


6 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


when  preparing  ground  for  planting.  The  surface  soil  should  be  con- 
sidered from  two  standpoints — the  character  of  the  tilth  and  the  presence 
of  organic  material.  While  the  former  is  more  or  less  dependent  upon 
the  latter,  the  degree  of  fineness  is  a matter  that  should  not  be  overlooked. 


FIG.  2.— A SUGGESTIVE  PLAN  FOR  A HOME  ORCHARD 
Most  home  orchards  are  too  large. 

A good  method  is  to  plow  under  a clover  sod,  or  still  better,  a crop 
of  clover,  and  follow  it  with  a cultivated  crop,  preferably  corn.  This  puts 
the  soil  in  the  best  possible  condition  for  the  planting  of  the  trees  the 
following  year.  Cultivate  the  crop  frequently  so  as  to  put  the  soil  in  good 
tilth.  The  clover  which  has  been  turned  under  adds  both  organic  matter 
and  nitrogen  which  assists  in  a vigorous  growth  of  the  trees  the  season 
planted.  If  the  soil  has  been  put  in  good  condition,  little  work  is  nec- 
essary in  the  spring  before  planting.  The  land  may  have  been  plowed  the 
fall  previous  or  just  before  planting.  Fall  plowing  usually  permits 
earlier  setting  of  trees.  A couple  of  discings  or  harrowings  just  before 
planting  puts  the  soil  in  fine  condition  to  receive  the  trees,  although  this  is 
not  absolutely  necessary  before  planting. 

A porous  suDsoil  will  need  no  attention,  but  if  it  is  compact  and  comes 
close  to  the  surface  it  should  be  broken  up.  The  common  methods  of 
doing  this  are  by  subsoiling  or  dynamiting.  On  sites  two  steep  for  tillage 
practically  nothing  can  be  done  in  preparing  the  soil  for  planting. 

The  Square  Is  the  Simplest  System 

There  are  a number  of  systems  of  planting  orchards,  but  the  one 
commonly  used  for  farm  orchards  is  the  square.  In  this  system  the  trees 
are  planted  at  the  four  corners  of  a square.  The  equilateral  triangle 


Farm  Orchards 


7 


system,  sometimes  called  the  hexagonal,  permits  of  about  15  per  cent 
more  trees  to  the  acre  without  reducing  the  shortest  distance  between 
the  trees. 

Give  the  Trees  Lots  of  Room 

The  orchardist  seldom  makes  the  mistake  of  setting  his  trees  too  far 
apart.  The  trees  in  probably  90  per  cent  of  the  farm  orchards  in  Wisconsin 

are  set  too  close.  Figure  4 
shows  the  result.  This  orchard 
will  never  be  productive  and 
it  is  physically  impossible  to 
properly  care  for  the  fruit  that 
is  produced.  There  is  only  one 
remedy  for  orchards  set  as 
close  as  this  one : Take  out 
every  other  tree  when  they 
begin  to  interfere.  The  or- 
chard illustrated  has  long 
since  passed  the  time  when 
this  treatment  would  have 
been  effective.  It  is  really 
better  for  the  farm  orchardist 
to  give  more  space  than  is 
really  needed  than  to  plant  too 
close. 

The  following  distances  are  suggested  for  farm  orchard  planting  under 
Wisconsin  conditions : Apples,  not  less  than  25  feet,  and  in  many  in- 

stances 30  feet  will  be  found  preferable;  plums,  16  to  20  feet;  cherries,  20 
feet ; pears,  20  to  25  feet,  depending  on  the  characteristic  growth  of  the 
variety. 

Fillers  Are  Not  Recommended 

There  is  a considerable  area  unused  by  the  trees  in  a newly  set  or- 
chard. One  of  the  methods  devised  for  using  this  area  is  to  plant  tempo- 
rary or  filler  trees.  These  fillers  are  earlier  bearing  kinds  of  fruit  or 
earlier  bearing  varieties  of  the  same  kinds.  The  fillers  are  left  until  they 
begin  to  crowd  the  permanent  trees,  when  they  should  be  removed. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  their  use  should  be  recommended  for  Wisconsin, 
as  in  most  cases  some  other  method  of  utilizing  this  area  will  be  more 
advantageous. 


FIG.  3.— GOOD  PLANTING  PLANS 

The  square  is  more  popular  for  farm 
orchards. 


Locating  the  Trees 


There  are  many  methods  of  determining  where  the  trees  are  to  be  set. 
The  following  will  usually  be  found  satisfactory  when  trees  are  to  be  set 


8 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


in  squares.  Lay  out  base  lines  along  one  end  and  one  side  at  the  desired 
distance  from  the  fence,  usually  not  less  than  20  feet,  and  at  right  angles 
to  each  other.  Set  stakes  along  these  lines  at  intervals  equal  to  the  dis- 
tance between  trees.  Fasten  two  wires  equal  in  length  to  the  distance 
between  trees  to  a piece  of  iron  in  the  form  of  a right  triangle.  The 
triangle  and  free  ends  of  the  wire  should  be  fitted  with  rings  for  con- 
venience in  handling.  (See  Fig.  5.) 


FIG.  4.— DO  NOT  PLANT  TOO  CLOSE 
Close  planting  causes  trees  to  grow  like  these. 

To  locate  the  remaining  trees,  hold  the  free  ends  of  the  wire  at  one 
side  and  one  end  stake,  and  set  a third  stake,  marking  the  location  for  the 
next  tree,  in  the  corner  of  the  triangle.  Using  the  newly  set  stake  and 
one  previously  set,  other  trees  may  be  properly  located.  It  requires  three 
men  to  operate  this  device.  On  sloping  areas,  the  wires  should  be  kept 
horizontal  and  the  place  for  setting  the  stake  located  by  means  of  a 
plumb-bob  suspended  from  the  triangle. 

For  locating  trees  in  the  hexagonal  system,  the  method  is  the  same 
as  for  the  square  except  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  set  stakes  along  one 
end  or  side  and  that  three  wires  of  equal  length  are  fastened  together  to 


Farm  Orchards 


9 


FIG.  5.— CONVENIENT  METHODS  OF  LOCATING  TREES 


The  figure  on  the  left  shows  the  method  of  planting  in  rectangles;  right,  for 
planting  after  the  hexagonal  plan.  The  letter  A represents  stakes  marking  the 
location  of  border  trees  and  B stakes  marking  the  positions  of  other  trees 
located  by  use  of  rings  and  wires. 

form  a triangle  with  sides  of  equal  length.  Or  two  wires  of  desired 
length  fastened  to  a piece  of  iron  forming  an  angle  of  60  degrees  may 
be  used. 


Plant  Only  Good  Trees 

It  is  a waste  of  time  to  plant  poor  trees.  Cheap  trees  are  often  the 
most  expensive  in  the  end.  Therefore,  one  should  be  willing  to  pay 
enough  to  get  good  trees  and  then  insist  upon  having  them. 

Best  results  will  usually  be  had  by  planting  well  developed  one-year- 
old  trees,  particularly  of  those  kinds  which  branch  the  first  season  as  cher- 
ries. Apples  may  be  planted  at  two  years,  but  most  commercial  orchard- 
ists  prefer  to  set  them  at  one  year.  Young  trees  are  cheaper,  transplant 
easier,  permit  of  developing  the  top  at  the  desired  height,  and  give  greater 
freedom  in  selecting  foundation  branches.  The  only  disadvantage 
urged  against  them  is  that  it  requires  a little  more  time  for  them  to  come 
into  bearing.  The  advantages,  however,  more  than  offset  this  dis- 
advantage. 


10 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


FIG.  6.— TYPES  OF  NURSERY  TREES 

From  left  to  right — small  one-year- 
old;  exceptionally  large  one-year-old; 
good  two-year-old;  three-year-old  (all 
apples).  One  and  two-year-old  trees 
are  preferable  for  planting.  ‘ They 
offer  greater  opportunity  to  shape  the 
top  as  desired. 


How  to  Order  Trees 

It  is  advisable  to  order  trees 
directly  from  the  nurseryman 
and  to  deal  with  a firm  known 
to  be  responsible  so  in  case  the 
shipment  is  not  satisfactory,  ad- 
justment is  easily  made. 

The  order  should  be  placed 
early.  By  doing  so  you  are  much 
more  likely  to  get  the  varieties 
you  want.  If  ordering  trees  over 
one-year-old,  state  definitely  size 
and  age  of  tree  desired.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  keep  a copy  of  the 
order.  It  will  be  convenient  in 
checking  up  the  trees  and  help 
to  avoid  disputes. 

The  order  should  state  that 
substitutions  are  not  allowed. 
Unless  this  Js  done  the  nursery- 
man may  feel  at  liberty  to  sub- 
stitute in  case  he  is  short  of 
anything  in  the  order. 


Select  Adapted  Varieties 


Hardiness  is  the  principal  thing  to  consider  in  selecting  varieties  for 
the  home  orchard.  Owing  to  the  peculiar  geographical  features  and  the 
varying  climatic  conditions  in  different  parts  of  Wisconsin,  it  is  practically 
impossible  to  give  varieties  equally  adapted  to  the  various  sections.  The 
accompanying  map  and  list  of  varieties  show  in  a general  way  the  varieties 
which  may  be  expected  to  be  reasonably  satisfactory  for  home  orchard 
planting.  In  some  localities  in  which  conditions  are  more  favorable  than  is 
generally  found  in  that  section,  the  varieties  suggested  for  a section  with 
less  rigorous  climatic  conditions  may  give  good  results. 

Suggested  Varieties  for  Wisconsin  Home  Orchards 


In  all  cases  varieties  hardy  in  the  northern  part  of  the  state  will  be 
hardy  in  a southern  section.  However,  because  better  varieties  frequently 


Farm  Orchards 


11 


may  be  grown  in  the  southern  sections  than  certain  of  those  recommended 
for  the  northern  section,  it  is  not  always  best  to  select  a variety  simply 
because  it  is  hardy.  Figures  in  the  lists  refer  to  divisions  on  the  map. 


FIG.  7.— FRUIT  ZONES  OF  WISCONSIN 
It  is  possible  to  divide  the  state  into  such  zones  only  in  a general  way. 


Apples 

Summer: 

1-2  Charlamoff,  Yellow  Transparent,  Lowland  Raspberry,  Tetofsky, 
Oldenburg  (Duchess). 

3-4  Same  as  above  also  Red  Astrachan. 

On  account  of  its  susceptibility  to  fire-blight.  Yellow  Transparent 
should  probably  be  omitted. 

Fall: 

1-  Patten  Greening.  Longfleld,  Okabena. 

2-  Dudley,  Fall  Orange,  Fameuse,  McIntosh,  Plumb  Cider,  St.  Lawrence, 
University,  Wealthy,  Wolf  River. 

3- 4  Bailey  Sweet,  Golden  Sweet,  Twenty-ounce. 


12 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


Winter: 

1-  Malinda.* 

2-  Delicious,  Golden  Russett,  Northwestern  Greening,  Salome,  Talman 
Sweet,  Windsor. 

3-  Grimes  Golden,  Jonathan,  Northern  Spy,  Stark,  Wagener,  Winter 
Banana,  Westfield  (Seek-no-further),  Willow  Twig. 

4-  Hubbardston,  King,  Sutton  Beauty,  Stayman  Winesap. 

Crab  apples  in  order  of  ripening. 

For  all  sections — Whitney,  Martha,  Virginia,  Hyslop. 

*Not  recommended  for  sections  3 and  4. 

Pears 

1.  Cannot  he  successfully  grown  in  this  section. 

2.  Only  the  hardiest  varieties  and  then  only  in  most  favored  situations. 

3.  Hardiest  varieties  moderately  safe. 

4.  Hardy  varieties  escape  with  only  occasional  winter  injury. 

Varieties  ,(In  approximate  order  of  ripening). 

Tyson,  Clapp’s  Favorite,  Wilder  Early,  Bartlett,*  Flemish  Beauty, 
Lincoln,  Howell,  Seckle,*  Worden  Seckle,*  Sheldon,  Anjou,  Keiffer.** 

* Slightly  more  tender  than  other  varieties. 

**  Hardiest,  but  poorest  in  quality. 

Plums 


1.  Hansen  Hybrids. 

2.  Native. 

3-4.  European  and  Japanese  fairly  successful. 

Hansen  hybrids — sand  cherry  type;  Opata,  Sapa,  Plum  type;  Waneta,  Toka, 
Tokata. 

Native — De  Soto,  Forest  Garden,  Hammer,  Hawkeye,  Surprise,*  Terry. 

‘Somewhat  shy  bearer  as  tree  gets  older. 

European — Damson  (for  conserve)  Lombard,  German  Prune,  Italian  Prune, 
Green  Gage*. 

* Not  as  hardy  as  other  varieties,  needs  very  favorable  location. 
Japanese — Abundance,  Burbank. 

Not  recommended  for  general  culture. 

Cherries 

1.  and  West  three-fourths  2.  (Substitute  sand  cherry  type  of  Hansen 
plums  or  compass  cherry-plums.) 

3-4.  and  east  fourth  2.  Early  Richmond,  Montmorency. 

Peaches 

Peaches  can  scarcely  be  recommended  even  in  the  most  favored  sections. 
Occasionally  seedling  peaches  live  to  produce  fruit  two  or  three  years. 
Elberta  and  Champion  are  among  the  most  successful  named  varieties. 

Some  varieties  not  listed  may  be  quite  as  satisfactory  in  certain  areas  as 
those  suggested,  but  in  general  those  recommended  are  most  satisfactory. 

Neglect  of  Trees  Means  Failure 

Neglect  of  trees  before  planting  and  improper  planting  are  more  often 
the  causes  of  losses  than  poor  trees.  Three  rules  should  be  followed  in 
handling  trees  after  their  arrival : 


Farm  Orchards 


13 


1.  Get  the  trees  as  soon  as  possible  after  they  arrive  at  your 
station. 

2.  Never  let  the  roots  dry  out. 

3.  Plant  the  trees  just  a's  soon  after  they  arrive  as  condi- 
tions will  permit. 

Open  the  package  at  once  and  if  the  roots  are  dry  it  is  a good  plan  to 
put  them  in  water  for  a few  hours.  When  the  roots  are  in  good  condi- 
tion and  planting  is  to  be  done  in  a day  or  two,  the  plants  may  be  kept 
in  the  package  providing  the  material  around  the  roots  is  kept  moist.  If 
planting  is  to  be  delayed  several  days,  the  trees  should  be  removed  from 
the  package  and  heeled-in. 


Care  in  Heeling-in  Pays 


Heeling-in  is  temporary  planting.  Select  a well  drained  place,  prefer- 
ably protected  from  wind  and  sun.  A better  job  of  heeling-in  will  ordi- 


FIG.  8.— “HEELED-IN”  TREES 

The  best  method  of  protecting  trees  between  their  arrival  and  planting  time. 


narily  be  done  if  the  bundle  is  opened.  Dig  a trench  about  eighteen  (18) 
inches  deep,  one  side  slanting  at  an  angle  of  about  30  to  45  degrees.  Place 
the  roots  of  the  trees  in  the  trench  with  the  trunks  against  the  slanting 
side.  Cover  the  roots  with  earth,  working  and  packing  it  around  the 
roots  so  that  all  parts  of  the  root  system  will  be  in  contact  with  the 
soil.  Be  careful  not  to  break  or  bark  the  roots  or  leave  openings  around 
the  stems.  When  trees  are  heeled-in  in  the  open,  the  tops  should  slant 
to  the  south. 


14 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


Plant  in  the  Spring 

Ordinarily  in  Wisconsin,  trees  should  be  planted  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  soil  and  climatic  conditions  will  permit.  While  late  planting 
may  be  successful,  especially  if  the  trees  are  dormant,  the  results  are 
usually  less  satisfactory.  Fall  planting  may  also  be  successful  at  times, 
but  it  is  too  uncertain  under  Wisconsin  conditions  to  be  recommended. 

Attention  to  Details  Insures  Successful  Planting 

The  difficulty  of  placing  the  tree  in  the  proper  location  due  to  having 
removed  the  stake  while  digging  the  hole  can  be  avoided  by  the  use  of  a 
planting  board. 

A simple  one  is  made  from  a piece  of  board  four  to  six  feet  long  and 
four  inches  wide.  Notches  are  cut  in  one  side,  at  the  center  and  at  either 
end.  (Fig.  9.)  The  side  notch  is  placed  over  the  stake  locating  the  tree 
and  stakes  stuck  in  the  ground  through  the  notches  in  the  ends.  The  board 
and  stake  may  then  be  removed  and  the  hole  dug.  Replacing  the  board 
over  the  pins  shows  the  exact  location  for  the  tree. 


FIG.  9.— SETTING  THE  TREES 
Careful  planting  reduces  losses  in  trees  and  time. 


Roots  Like  Roomy  Quarters 

The  roots  of  a young  tree  are  reduced  considerably  in  digging.  Crowd- 
ing and  further  reduction  of  the  root  system  is  to  be  avoided  in  planting 
trees.  With  favorable  soil  conditions,  a hole  18  to  20  inches  in  diameter 


Farm  Orchards 


15 


will  make  it  possible  to  meet  this  requirement.  When  the  soil  is  heavy 
and  compact  and  has  not  been  put  in  the  proper  tilth  before  planting,  the 
hole  should  be  considerably  larger. 

The  hole  should  be  deep  enough  to  permit  setting  the  tree  two  to  four 
inches  deeper  than  it  stood  in  the  nursery.  For  most  trees  this  is  suffi- 
cient but  with  high  headed  trees  slightly  deeper  planting  in  frequently 
practiced.  Root  grafted  trees  should  be  set  deep  enough  so  that  the  union 
of  the  stock  and  the  scion  is  some  distance  below  the  surface. 

Roots  Need  Little  Pruning 

In  pruning  the  roots,  the  object  should  be  to  put  them  in  good  shape 
with  the  smallest  amount  of  removal  possible.  Little  attention  need  be 
given  the  small  roots.  If  numerous  enough  to  interfere  in  putting  in  the 
soil,  the  fibrous  roots  may  be  removed.  The  rough,  splintered  ends  of  the 
larger  roots  should  be  cut  back  to  secure  smooth  wounds.  The  injured 
portions  of  badly  broken  of  split  roots  should  be  removed.  An  excessively 
long  root  may  be  shortened. 

Slanting  the  Tree  Is  Often  Desirable 

When  the  orchard  is  so  situated  that  the  tree  will  be  exposed  to  strong 
winds,  it  is  advisable  to  slant  the  trees  into  the  prevailing  wind.  The 
amount  of  slant  is  determined  by  the  amount  of  exposure,  in  most  cases 
eight  to  ten  degrees  being  sufficient.  Another  reason  for  slanting  trees  is 
to  give  the  trunk  greater  protection  during  the  winter  so  as  to  lessen  sun 
scald  or  southwest  injury.  In  such  cases,  the  trees  should  slant  southwest. 

Do  Not  Leave  Air  Spaces 

Air  spaces  around  the  roots  result  in  injury  to  the  tree.  It  is  essen- 
tial that  every  part  of  the  root  system  be  in  contact  with  the  soil.  Fine 
soil  and  proper  packing  is  necessary  to  give  this  condition.  Either  loosen 
the  soil  in  the  bottom  of  the  hole  or  throw  in  enough  fine,  loose  earth  so 
that  when  the  tree  is  put  in  place  it  will  sink  into  the  soil. 

In  filling  in,  use  the  fine  soil  first.  After  the  first  two  or  three  spade- 
fuls, it  should  be  packed  by  tramping.  Be  careful  not  to  crowd  the  tree 
out  of  place  or  bark  the  roots.  Alternately  put  in  and  pack  the  soil  to 
within  two  or  three  inches  of  the  surface,  then  put  it  on  loose  as  a mulch 
to  prevent  loss  of  moisture  and  mound  it  slightly  around  the  trunk  of 
the  tree. 

Watering  and  fertilizing  newly  set  trees  are  usually  of  little  benefit. 
Avoid  using  manure  either  as  a fertilizer  or  mulch  as  its  effects  are  usually 
injurious.  If  the  trees  are  watered,  use  enough  to  nearly  saturate  the 
soil.  Put  it  on  before  filling  in  the  last  few  inches  of  soil.  Keeping  the 
top  two  or  three  inches  of  soil  lose  and  fine  is  usually  more  beneficial  than 
the  application  of  mulches,  although  it  is  better  to  use  a mulch  if  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil  is  not  to  be  kept  loose. 


16 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


Prune  Newly  Set  Trees  Carefully 

Pruning  immediately  after  planting  is  important  in  the  formation  uf 
the  head  of  the  tree.  No  absolute  rules  can  be  given  for  pruning  for  this 
purpose,  because  the  practice  is  somewhat  different  for  different  kinds  of 
fruits  and  each  tree  of  the  same  kind  offers  a different  set  of  conditions. 
A few  general  suggestions  will  help  determine  the  extent  of  cutting  back. 

In  pruning  one-year-old  whips  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  cut  off  the 
tops  sufficently  high  to  bring  the  head  at  the  desired  height  after  allow- 
ing about  twelve  inches  for  distribution  of  the  branches.  In  older  stock, 
it  is  not  always  possible  to  get  the  head  at  the  right  height.  Sometimes 

it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  secure  the  desired  head,  to  remove  better 

branches  than  some  which  are  to  be  left,  but  if  those  left  are  average 
then  the  lower  heading  is  to  be  preferred. 

If  the  tree  is  branched,  the  number  of  branches  to  be  left  and  their 

position  depend  on  the  form  of  the  top  desired.  In  Wisconsin,  a some- 

what open  topped  tree  is  probably  best.  A newly  set  tree  usually  does  not 
have  enough  branches  or,  if  it  has  enough,  they  are  not  so  placed  as  to 
make  it  possible  to  select  as  many  foundation  branches  properly  placed  as 
are  needed.  This  makes  it  practically  necessary  to  leave  the  leader,  the 
branch  making  the  upright  growth  from  the  center  of  the  tree,  so  that  it 
may  produce  additional  foundation  branches.  A leader  will  need  to  be 
continued  one  to  two  years  to  get  the  desired  number  of  foundation 
branches  and  have  them  well  placed.  The  branches  chosen  for  founda- 
tion branches  should  be  as  equally  distributed  around  the  tree  as  pos- 
sible. If  unevenly  distributed  and  the  space  left'  be  wide,  they  should 
be  so  pruned  as  to  throw  the  growth  from  the  top  bud  of  each  of  the 
adjoining  branches  into  the  vacant  space. 

With  the  apple,  one  is  fortunate  if  he  can  secure  three  or  four  well 
developed  and  properly  spaced  foundation  branches  at  planting.  There 
are  frequently  enough  branches,  but  they  come  out  from  the  trunk  too 
close  together.  Avoid  as  much  as  possible  selecting  branches  which  come 
out  very  close  together.  Six  inches  or  more  would  be  a desirable  distance, 
but  as  a rule,  a somewhat  smaller  distance  will  have  to  be  accepted.  Avoid 
as  much  as  possible  V-shaped  crotches.  They  are  weak  and  the  branches 
are  very  likely  to  split  under  high  winds  or  heavy  loads  of  fruit. 

There  is  a tendency  to  leave  too  many  branches.  Four  are  sufficient 
at  planting  time.  It  is  better  to  leave  even  a smaller  number  than  to  use 
weak  ones  or  those  at  least  not  fairly  well  placed  or  which  have  bad 
angles. 


Cut  Foundation  Branches  Back 

The  branches  left  should  be  cut  back  somewhat  in  order  that  the  new 
branches  may  be  forced  out  nearer  the  head  of  the  tree  and  the  top  equal- 
ized with  the  reduced  root  system.  The  main  branches  of  apples  are  usually 
left  from  eight  to  ten  inches  long.  Twelve  inches  is  the  maximum  length 


Farm  Orchards 


17 


FIG.  10.— PRUNE  IMMEDIATELY  AFTER  PLANTING 
A two-year-old  apple  tree  before  and  after  pruning. 


18 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


under  normal  conditions,  and  there  is  little  doubt  that  in  most  cases,  ten 
inches  would  be  better  than  the  greater  length.  Weaker  branches  should 
be  left  proportionately  longer  than  the  strong  ones.  The  leader  should 
be  left  about  two  or  three  inches  longer  than  the  foundation  branches. 

Some  growers  prune  cherries  and  plums  very  similar  to  apples,  while 
others  prefer  to  cut  the  branches  practically  to  spurs,  about  six  to  eight 
inches  long,  leaving  the  upper  branch  about  twelve  to  fifteen  inches  long. 

Keep  the  Soil  Cultivated 

There  is  probably  no  better  method  of  handling  the  soil  in  a young 
orchard  than  cultivation.  In  orchards  where  too  much  washing  of  the 
soil  would  occur,  till  a good  sized  area  six  to  eight  feet  in  diameter,  around 
the  base  of  the  tree.  Sow  a cover  crop  July  15th  to  30th  or  mulch  the 
tilled  area  with  straw  or  hay  when  the  ground  freezes.  Protect  the  tree 
from  mice  by  using  tree  protectors  before  putting  on  the  mulch. 

Where  possible,  till  the  entire  area.  If  desired,  grow  a vegetable 
or  other  cultivated  crops  in  the  space  not  occupied  by  the  roots  of  the 
trees.  While  from  the  standpoint  of  the  trees,  growing  of  other  crops 
in  the  orchard  is  not  beneficial,  yet  if  properly  done,  it  doubtless  has  no 
injurious  effects,  if  the  orchard  is  located  on  ordinary  soil.  The  question 
then  resolves  itself  into,  “What  is  the  best  practice  in  the  cropping  of  a 
young  orchard?’’ 

How  much  of  the  land  may  be  used  in  orchard  cropping  depends  upon 
the  distance  between  the  trees  and  upon  the  age  of  the  orchard.  In  a newly 
planted  orchard,  a strip  three  to  four  feet  wide  along  the  row  should  be 
devoted  entirely  to  the  use  of  the  trees.  As  the  size  of  the  trees  increase 
from  year  to  year,  this  space  should  be  gradually  increased.  At  all  times 
it  would  be  advisable  to  give  the  trees  all  of  the  soil  in  which  the  roots 
grow,  using  only  that  unoccupied  by  the  trees  for  the  crop.  The  mistake 
is  frequently  made  of  growing  crops  too  close  to  the  trees,  often  result- 
ing in  permanent  injury  to  them. 

If  the  young  orchard  is  cropped,  provision  should  be  made  to  return 
at  least  as  much  plant  food  to  the  soil  as  is  removed  with  the  crop. 

The  part  not  occupied  by  the  crop  should  be  kept  cultivated  during  the 
early  part  of  the  season  and  in  July  be  sown  to  a cover  crop  or  the  trees 
may  be  mulched  as  for  a sod  orchard. 

Cropping  of  the  orchard  should  cease  when  the  trees  begin  to  pro- 
duce profitable  crops  or  when  the  roots  occupy  most  of  the  soil  area. 

Sod  or  Tillage — Which? 

There  are  several  possible  ways  of  handling  the  soils  of  bearing  or- 
chards. No  one  system  is  best  under  all  conditions,  therefore,  before 
selecting  the  system  for  the  orchard,  a careful  study  should  be  made  of 
the  conditions  under  which  it  is  to  be  operated.  In  selecting  a system  for 
use  in  Wisconsin,  the  following  should  be  carefully  considered:  The 


Farm  Orchards 


19 


effect  of  the  system  upon  the  ability  of  the  tree  to  withstand  unfavorable 
winter  conditions;  upon  the  development" of  the  tree,  both  immediate  and 
ultimate ; upon  the  amount  and  character  of  the  fruit ; and  upon  parasit- 
ism. The  availability  of  the  system  to  the  site,  and  the  cost  of  the  sys- 
tem in  relation  to  its  advantages  are  other  factors  which  should  be  con- 
sidered. 

Three  favorite  ways  of  handling  the  soil  of  the  bearing  farm  orchard 
are : As  a pasture ; for  producing  hay ; or  for  producing  other  farm 

crops.  Some  of  these  are  worse -than  others  but  all  are  bad  and  should 
be  discontinued.  There  are  two  methods  which  are  satisfactory.  These 
are  the  sod  mulch  and  tillage  supplemented  by  a cover  crop  (Tillage  Cover 
Crop  System).  The  latter  is  the  most  desirable  where  the  slope  of  the 
orchard  site  makes  it  possible  to  use  this  method  without  too  much  wash- 
ing of  the  soil.  Even  on  sites  where  tillage  can  be  used  there  may  be 
times,  although  they  will  be  rare,  when  putting  the  orchard  in  sod  may  be 
desirable.  This  will  depend  upon  the  performance  of  the  trees  which 
means  that  the  grower  will  need  to  study  his  trees  and  modify  his  soil 
treatment  according  to  what  he  learns  about  their  growth  and  fruitfulness. 

Some  orchard  sites  make  sod  necessary.  In  such  cases  it  should  be 
clearly  understood  that  the  grass  growing  in  the  orchard  should  be  left 
there.  It  may  be  cut  and  piled  under  the  trees  but  it  should  not  be  re- 
moved from  the  orchard. 

The  tillage  cover-crop  system  as  practiced  in  Wisconsin  consists  in 
keeping  the  orchard  under  cultivation  during  the  first  part  of  the  grow- 
ing season,  then  sowing  a crop  which  remains  in  the  ground  during 
the  winter. 

The  orchard  is  plowed  or  disced  in  the  spring  to  turn  under  the  cover- 
crop.  The  plowing  need  not  be  as  deep  as  if  a field  crop  were  to  be  grown 
upon  it.  As  the  base  of  the  tree  is  approached,  the  plow  should  be  run 
more  shallow.  It  is  more  convenient  to  use  one  horse  in  turning  the  last 
two  or  three  furrows  next  to  the  tree,  as  this  permits  getting  much  closer 
to  the  tree  without  so  much  danger  of  injury.  The  use  of  a short  whiffle- 
tree  with  leather  ends  or  with  the  ends  covered  with  burlap  protects  the 
trees  from  being  barked.  All  the  soil  possible  should  be  turned  and  that 
which  cannot  be  reached  conveniently  with  the  plow  should  be  stirred  later 
on  with  the  cultivator.  On  lighter  soils,  when  there  is  little  of  the  cover- 
crop  left  at  the  time  of  cultivation,  the  cut-away  or  disc  harrow  may  be 
substituted  for  the  plow. 

After  plowing,  the  soil  should  be  put  in  fine  tilth.  The  ideal  condi- 
tion is  to  have  a mulch  of  fine  soil  two  or  three  inches  in  depth  over  the 
entire  orchard.  Harrowing  after  each  rain  and  at  least  every  two  weeks 
maintains  the  soil  mulch,  conserving  the  moisture  and  keeping  down  the 
weeds. 


Cover  Crops  Help  In  Several  Ways 

Several  advantages  may  be  gained  by  the  use  of  a cover-crop.  It  is 
of  great  value  in  lessening  the  danger  of  winter  injury  in  that  it  forms  a 
mulch  and  helps  hold  the  snow,  thereby  protecting  the  roots  and  lessening 


20 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


FIG.  11.— A WELL  TILLED  ORCHARD 
Later  on  a cover  crop  will  be  sown  for  protection  during  the  winter. 

the  drying  out  of  the  soil.  It  may  also  influence  the  maturity  of  the 
growth  of  the  season,  lessening  to  a degree  the  danger  of  top  injury.  It 
benefits  the  soil  by  adding  organic  matter,  holds  plant  foods  which  might 
leach  from  the  soil,  prevents  erosion,  and  if  a leguminous  crop,  may  in- 
crease the  nitrogen  content  of  the  soil. 

The  time  of  sowing  the  cover-crop  in  Wisconsin  is  usually  between 
July  10  and  August  1.  The  soil  should  be  fitted  the  same  as  for  sowing 
ordinary  field  crops.  The  amount  of  seed  to  be  sown  for  the  various  crops 
is  somewhat  in  excess  of  that  used  in  ordinary  field  culture. 

A cover  crop  is  food  supplying  or  non-food  supplying;  hardy  if  it 
lives  through  the  winter,  tender,  if  it  does  not.  Some  hardy  cover-crops 
are  less  efficient  in  holding  snow  on  the  orchard  than  some  of  the  tender 
crops.  In  selecting  a cover-crop,  its  ability  to  hold  snow  should  be  con- 
sidered. Hairy  vetch  is  about  the  only  hardy  food-supplying  cover  used 
in  Wisconsin.  Field  peas  and  soybeans  are  the  best  of  the  food  supplying 
tender  crops ; barley,  oats  and  millet  are  the  most  used  non-food  supply- 
ing tender  crops  and  rye  the  best  non-food  supplying  hardy.  Buckwheat, 
a non-food  supplying  tender  crop,  is  frequently  used  but  it  does  not  stand 
up  very  well  during  the  winter.  It  is  advisable  at  times  to  combine  two 
or  more  crops  in  producing  a cover.  Canada  peas  and  oats  are  a com- 
mon combination. 


Farm  Orchards 


21 


Feed  the  Trees 

There  is  no  other  factor  of  orchard  management  about  which  less 
definite  information  can  be  given  than  orchard  fertilization.  Orchard  soils 
differ  so  much  in  their  composition  and  treatment  that  no  hard  and  fast 
rule  can  be  made.  The  grower  must  determine  for  himself  what  is  the 


FIG.  12.— OATS  A GOOD  COYER  CROP 
A growth  like  this  reduces  the  danger  of  winter  injury. 


limiting  factor  in  his  production  and  then  bring  that  up  to  normal.  The 
difficulty  may  not  be  a deficiency  in  any  element  of  plant  food,  but  one  of 
cultivation  or  lack  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil. 

On  ordinary  soils  and  unless  other  crops  are  being  grown,  an  orchard 
will  not  need  fertilization  until  the  bearing  age  is  reached.  If  other  crops 
are  grown  the  equivalent  of  the  plant  foods  removed  should  be  returned 
to  the  soil.  Heavily  bearing  orchards  on  lighter  soils  will  usually  need 
fertilizers  sooner  than  those  on  heavier  soils.  This  applies  not  only  to  the 
initial  application,  but  as  the  orchard  grows  the  lighter  soils  will  require 
heavier  and  more  frequent  applications.  The  food  supply  of  orchards  on 
heavy  soils  in  more  dependent  upon  keeping  the  soil  in  good  tilth  so  that 
the  plant  food  which  is  usually  quite  abundant  may  become  available. 

With  the  average  grower,  the  application  of  a nitrogenous  fertilizer, 
the  incorporation  of  vegetable  matter  into  the  soil,  and  keeping  up  a 
good  tilth,  are  undoubtedly  the  operations  of  most  concern.  More  often 
than  is  usually  thought  lack  of  nitrogen  is  a limiting  factor  in  fruit  pro- 
duction. Its  deficiency  is  indicated  by  short  annual  growths,  and  an  un- 
healthy or  yellowish  green  appearance  of  the  leaves.  On  most  farm  or- 
chards an  annual  application  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulphate  of  ammonia 
will  be  beneficial.  Depending  upon  the  size  of  the  tree,  two  to  four 
pounds  per  tree  may  be  safely  used.  It  should  be  put  on  two  or  three 
weeks  in  advance  of  blossoming.  In  using  nitrogen,  however,  care  must 
be  taken  not  to  apply  too  much  as  this  would  tend  to  produce  excessive 
wood  growth  and  decrease  the  color  of  the  fruit. 


22 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


Stable  manure  is  one  of  the  most  commonly  used  orchard  fertilizers. 
It  chiefly  supplies  nitrogen  and  should  be  supplemented  by  other  materials 
if  it  is  to  be  used  most  economically.  One  of  the  chief  advantages  of 
manure  is  that  it  supplies  considerable  vegetable  matter  to  the  soil  which 
is  even  more  important  than  the  plant  food  it  furnishes.  No  matter  how 
much  plant  food  is  in  the  soil,  the  tree  will  be  unable  to  profit  by  it  unless 
the  soil  also  contains  organic  matter.  The  first  thing  to  do  in  the  orchard 
which  seems  to  be  suffering  from  lack  of  food,  is  to  see  that  the  soil  is 
well  supplied  with  organic  matter.  Good  cultivation  is  also  important  for 
otherwise  the  best  conditions  are  not  given  for  rendering  available  the 
plant  food  already  in  the  soil.  Good  tillage,  should,  therefore,  precede 
the  application  of  fertilizers. 

If  the  orchard  shows  indications  of  lack  of  plant  food,  supply  vegeta- 
ble matter  by  growing  a cover  crop  or  applying  barnyard  manure,  and 
incorporate  it  into  the  soil  by  thorough  tillage;  then  if  the  orchard  does 
not  respond,  use  fertilizers. 


FIG.  13.— UNPRUNED  AND  PRUNED  TREES 

Neglect  of  pruning  results  in  inferior  fruit.  The  top  of  the*  tree  should  be 
fairly  open  to  secure  the  best  results. 

Proper  Pruning  Gives  Better  Crops 

Pruning,  although  essential  to  rational  orchard  management,  is  one 
of  the  most  neglected  practices.  The  little  that  is  done  is  usually  hap- 
hazard, spasmodic,  and  not  infrequently  more  injurious  than  beneficial. 
The  bad  effects  of  neglected  pruning,  especially  of  young  trees,  can  never 
be  corrected  so  as  to  give  as  good  a tree  as  thought  the  work  had  been 
done  at  the  right  time. 


Farm  Orchards 


23 


The  best  pruning  has  a definite  purpose  and  is  founded  on  right  prin- 
ciples, a careful  study  of  local  conditions,  and  'the  peculiarities  of  the  kind 
of  fruit  and  of  the  variety  grown.  If  the  tree  is  properly  pruned  before 
bearing,  pruning  after  it  comes  into  bearing  is  a much  less  troublesome 
problem. 

Pruning  during  the  early  stages  of  a tree’s  development  has  for  its 
primary  object  the  formation  of  an  ideal  fruit  bearing  area.  Making  up 
this  ideal  are  such  factors  as : Proper  branching,  keeping  the  top  open, 

encouraging  the  production  of  fruit  spurs,  correcting  defects  of  growth, 
and  keeping  the  head  down  so  that  spraying  and  harvesting  will  be  facili- 
tated. It  should  not  be  a matter  of  merely  clipping  out  a branch  here  or 
there,  but  each  tree  should  be  carefully  studied  as  to  its  individual  char- 
acteristics and  then  pruned  accordingly. 

Dormant  Period  Best  Time  To  Prune 

Pruning  is  not  confined  to  distinct  periods  or  seasons.  Some  of  the 
best  growers  carry  heavy  pocket  knives  and  whenever  they  see  an  unde- 
sirable branch,  remove  it.  As  a rule,  however,  pruning  is  performed  dur- 
ing the  dormant  period  and  called  winter  pruning.  Prune  any  time  after 
the  leaves  drop  in  the  fall  and  before  growth  starts  in  the  spring.  Plan 
to  prune  early,  then  there  is  less  danger  of  its  being  hurried  or  entirely 
neglected  because  of  the  rush  of  spring  work. 

Pruning  the  Young  Tree 

The  pruning  during  the  season  following  the  selection  of  the  founda- 
tion branches  consists,  primarily,  in  removing  the  superfluous  twigs  which 
have  been  formed  on  the  main  branches  chosen  at  the  first  pruning,  in 
shortening  the  growth,  and  in  selecting  additional  foundation  branches. 
The  tendency  to  leave  too  many  branches  the  second  year  is  almost  as  great 
as  at  the  first  pruning.  One  or  two  strong  twigs  to  each  foundation 
branch,  depending  upon  the  number  of  main  branches,  will  be  sufficient 
to  fill  in  the  head.  It  is  best  to  remove  branches  having  a tendency  to 
grow  into  the  center  the  second  season,  as  there  will  be  sufficient 
time  to  thicken  the  top  later. 

The  new  foundation  branches  should  be  cut  back  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  inches.  The  secondary  branches  arising  from  the  first  founda- 
tion branches  should  be  left  from  two  to  four  inches  longer.  Varieties 
with  a weak,  slender  growing  habit  need  to  be  cut  back  more  than  those 
with  strong,  heavy  branches.  The  leader  should  be  left  if  additional 
foundation  branches  are  desired.  It  should  be  two  or  three  inches  longer 
than  the  foundation  branches.  When  not  needed  to  provide  for  more 
foundation  branches,  the  leader  should  be  suppressed.  This  is  ordinarily 
done  by  cutting  out  the  leader  or  leading  branch,  cutting  back  to  the  top- 
most lateral  produced  by  the  leader  which  was  left  the  previous  season. 

If  the  tree  was  a whip  when  planted,  pruning  the  next  season  will  be 
similar  to  that  for  a two-year-old  tree  at  planting  except  that  the  founda- 


24 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


tion  branches  chosen  should  not  be  cut  back  so  severely.  In  pruning  trees 
of  this  type,  the  foundation  branches  should  be  left  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  inches  long. 

Precautions  should  be  taken  at  the  pruning  the  season  after  selecting 
the  first  foundation  branches  to  correct  any  defects  in  the  direction  which 
the  branches  are  taking.  If  there  are  open  spaces  being  left  in  the  top, 
prune  so  the  top  buds  of  branches  on  either  side  will  be  on  the  side  next 
to  the  opening.  If  the  branches  have  a tendency  to  grow  too  upright,  cut 
back  so  that  the  top  bud  will  be  on  the  lower  or  outer  side;  if  they  spread 


FIG.  14.— SUPPRESSION  OF  LEADER 


Practically  all  of  the  main  branches  are  of  the 
same  size.  The  leader  should  be  definitely  sup- 
pressed at  “A”  or  even  lower.  Note  the  desirable 
development  of  lateral  branches  (B,  B).  This  is  a 
tree  “full  of  brush,”  but  yet  rather  typical  of 
Transparent.  The  top  is  relatively  flat  and  open 
to  the  light. 


Farm  Orchards 


25 


too  much,  have  the  bud  on  the  upper  or  inner  side.  Pruning  to  a particu- 
lar bud  is  of  great  importance  in  the  early  pruning  of  a tree  if  the  best 
head  is  to  be  secured.  Many  growers  pay  too  little  attention  to  this  mat- 
ter when  “heading-in.” 

Choose,  if  possible,  a good  strong  bud  in  the  position  in  which  de- 
sired. In  cutting  back,  make  the  cut  just  above  this  bud.  A strong  knife 
will  be  found  best  for  this  purpose. 

Do  Less  Pruning  the  Third  Year 

If  the  pruning  during  the  first  two  years  has  been  properly  done,  that 
for  the  third  year  will  be  proportionately  less.  The  frame  work  of  the 
tree  should  be  formed  by  this  time  so  that  pruning  will  consist  almost  en- 
tirely in  removing  superfluous  shoots  and  cutting  back  the  new  growth 
which  is  to  be  left.  Branches  which  rub  or  are  inclined  to  form  bad 
crotches  should  be  removed.  Too  many  branches  should  not  be  allowed 
to  grow  into  the  center  of  the  tree  as  it  is  desirable  in  Wisconsin  to  keep 
the  top  quite  open  to  permit  the  entrance  of  sunlight  and  allow  the  air  to 
circulate  through  the  tops.  The  ends  of  long  seasonal  growths  may  be 
cut  back  somewhat  but  proportionally  less  than  in  previous  prunings. 
Pruning  for  subsequent  years  with  bearing  trees  will  follow  closely  that 
outlined  for  the  third  season  except  that  cutting  back  will  be  less  pro- 
nounced as  the  tree  gets  older. 

Trees  Need  Pruning  Every  Year 

Pruning  should  be  done  every  year.  The  results  will  be  more  satis- 
factory and  less  time  will  be  required  than  when  the  growth  accumulates 
for  a number  of  years. 

Priming  of  the  bearing  tree  has  for  its  primary  purposes,  the  removal 
of  sucker  growths,  keeping  the  top  fairly  open  and  as  low  as  practical, 
the  production  of  new  fruiting  wood  and  the  maintenance  in  a vigorous 
condition  as  long  as  possible  older  fruiting  wood.  New  growths  tending 
to  fill  the  center  and  water  sprouts  (suckers),  unless  needed  to  fill  vacan- 
cies, should  be  promptly  removed. 

The  usual  practice  of  shearing  back  the  ends  of  all  the  longer  termi- 
nal growths  should  be  avoided  because  this  causes  bushiness  of  the  top. 
Do  little  cutting  back  of  terminals  but  keep  the  head  of  the  tree  down 
by  selecting  a side  shoot  lower  down  on  the  two-year-old  wood  and  re- 
move the  end  of  the  second  year’s  growth  with  its  new  shoots. 

In  pruning  neglected  trees,  the  same  general  practices  should  be  fol- 
lowed. The  first  thing  that  the  grower  should  realize  is  that  this  opera- 
tion usually  requires  more  than  one  year.  As  a rule  the  top  of  a neglected 
tree  is  a mass  of  growths,  a large  number  of  which  should  be  removed 
or  cut  back.  However,  if  this  is  done  in  a single  season,  the  tree  is 
forced  into  a heavy  top  growth  and  conditions  are  almost  as  bad  at  the 
end  of  the  season  as  they  were  before. 


26 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


In  pruning  such  a tree,  the  first  thing  is  to  cut  out  the  dead  wood 
and  then  remove  the  water  sprouts  or  suckers  that  have  arisen  from  the 
main  branches.  If  these  are  not  numerous,  the  more  seriously  interfering 
branches  will  next  receive  attention.  On  most  trees  some  heading  back 

may  be  done.  Don’t  “de- 
horn” the  tree  but  grad- 
ually work  down  the 
head  by  cutting  back 
the  tallest  branches  to  a 
good  lateral  lower  down. 
Pruning  the  second  sea- 
son consists  in  remov- 
ing the  new  growth  of 
water  sprouts  and  fur- 
ther opening  up  the  top 
if  desirable.  In  thinning 
out  a neglected  tree  nu- 
merous small  cuts  made 
throughout  the  top  will 
give  much  better  results 
than  the  removal  of 


FIG. 


15.— CUT  BACK  TO 
LATERAL 


A STRONG 


Make  cuts  at  the  arrows.  This  method  keeps 
the  top  down  and  prevents  bushiness. 


large  branches  leaving 
large  open  spaces  in  the 


top.  A fairly  safe  rule  to  follow  in  pruning  is  to  make  as  few  large 
cuts  as  possible.  If  the  tree  has  been  properly  pruned  from  planting, 
large  cuts  will  be  necessary  only  in  unusual  cases. 


Pruning  Wounds  Are  Danger  Points 

Neglect  or  improper  making  of  wounds  frequently  results  in  serious 
injury  or  even  premature  destruction  of  the  tree.  In  pruning  young  trees, 
or  where  thorough  annual  pruning  is  practiced,  a strong  knife  and  small 
hand  shears  are  all  the  tools  that  are  necessary  until  the  tree  reaches  the 
height  where  a pole  pruner  will  be  needed  for  heading  back.  On  newly 
set  trees,  a strong  knife  is  more  desirable  than  hand  shears,  because  the 
branches  can  be  cut  off  nearer  the  trunk.  By  cutting  from  below  toward 
the  trunk  or  branch  to  which  they  are  attached,  quite  large  branches  may 
be  removed  without  difficulty.  When  the  branch  is  nearly  severed  be  care- 
ful that  the  knife  does  not  come  through  suddenly  and  injure  other 
branches  which  are  to  be  left.  In  removing  branches  with  the  pruning 
shears,  put  the  blade  next  to  the  trunk  or  main  branch  and  press  the 
branch  to  be  removed  away  from  the  blade. 

To  avoid  splitting  large  branches,  double  sawings  are  usually  desir- 
able. This  consists  in  cutting  the  branch  off  some  little  distance  from  the 
trunk  or  main  branch,  and  then  removing  the  stub.  In  the  first  sawing, 
it  is  well  to  saw  one-third  to  one-half  through  the  branch  from  the  under 
side,  then  finish  the  sawing  from  above.  The  upper  cut  should  be  made 


Farm  Orchards 


27 


First 


FIG.  16.— REMOVING  LARGE 
BRANCHES 


Splitting  down  often  occurs  in  re- 
moving large  branches.  There  will  be 
little  chance  for  trouble  if  the  branches 
are  cut  away  as  indicated  in  this 
drawing. 


slightly  farther  from  the  trunk 
than  the  under.  For  removing 
large  branches,  a pruning  saw  is 
desirable.  There  are  a number  of 
forms  on  the  market.  Those 
shown  in  Figure  18  are  desirable. 
An  axe  should  never  be  used. 

All  branches  should  be  cut 
off  near  the  branch  or  trunk  to 
which  they  are  attached,  the  cut 
being  made  just  beyond  the  col- 
lar and  nearly  parallel  to  the  part 
from  which  the  branch  is  re- 
moved. Avoid  stubs  because  they 
seldom  heal  over  and  therefore 
become  sources  of  infection  and 
decay.  Have  the  surface  of  the 
wound  smooth.  Rough  or  splin- 
tered wounds  heal  slowly;  and 
the  longer  the  time  required  in 
healing,  the  greater  the  danger 
from  infection.  If  the  bark  has 
been  torn,  the  uneven  edges 
should  be  cut  back  to  sound 
bark.  A sharp  knife,  pruning 
shears,  or  saw  usually  make  good 
wounds.  Always  avoid  dull  tools. 


FIG.  17.— MAKE  WOUNDS  CAREFULLY 

(Left) — Wound  improperly  made.  Do  not  leave  stubs.  (Center) — The  proper 
place  to  make  the  cut.  (Right) — The  properly  made  wound  heals  more  rapidly. 


28  Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 

Wounds  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter  should  be  treated  with  a protec- 
tive material  to  insure  good  healing.  The  material  used  will  not  hasten 
the  healing  only  as  it  prevents  unfavorable  external  conditions.  An  ad- 
hesive material  that  will  prevent  checking,  keep  out  moisture  and  fungi, 


FIG.  18.— GOOD  WOUNDS  REQUIRE  GOOD  TOOLS 

A good  knife,  shears  and  a pruning  saw  are  not  only  convenient  but 
practically  necessary  for  good  work. 

and  not  injure  the  cambium  (just  inside  the  inner  bark)  is  desirable.  This 
combination  is  hard  to  get.  Selby*  recommends  gas  tar  or  asphaltum. 
White  lead  is  commonly  used  but  it  has  a tendency  to  dry  out  and  permit 
checking.  If  used,  it  should  be  applied  thick.  A second  application  may 
be  made  if  checking  occurs. 

Spraying  Is  Necessary  for  Good  Fruit 

The  two  most  common  mistakes  in  spraying  the  home  orchard  are 
failure  to  spray  at  the  proper  time  and  lack  of  thorough  work.  Both 
proper  time  and  thoroughness  are  essential  to  success.  Spraying  is  pre- 
ventive. Spraying  after  the  “worms”  are  in  the  apples  will  not  give 
“wormless”  fruit.  Apple  fruits  or  foliage  which  are  not  entirely  covered 
with  spray  will  be  open  to  the  attacks  of  the  apple  scab  fungus.  The 
same  is  true  of  other  fruits.  Thorough  and  timely  spraying,  therefore, 
is  the  only  spraying  worth  while.  Because  the  pests  which  commonly  at- 

•Oliio  Agr.  Expt.  Sta.  Cir.  126,  “Dressings  for  Pruning  Wounds  of  Trees.” 


Farm  Orchards 


29 


tack  fruits  to  a serious  extent  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  spraying 
operations  can  be  largely  confined  to  more  or  less  definite  times.  Direc- 
tions as  to  the  materials  to  be  used  and  the  time  of  their  application  form 
what  is  popularly  known  as  a “spraying  program.”  Even  with  the  spray- 
ing program,  the  grower  must  study 
his  conditions  in  order  to  spray 
most  successfully. 

In  giving  a program  for  spray- 
ing common  fruits,  it  must  be  clearly 
understood  that  there  are  certain 
pests  which  are  not  controlled  by 
the  application  of  the  materials  rec- 
ommended. Some  pests  demand 
special  treatment. 

How  to  Control  Apple  Pests 

Common  pests  of  the  apple  in 
Wisconsin  are  codling  moth,  plant 
lice  (aphis),  curculio,  scale  insects, 
apple  scab  and  fire  blight. 

Fire  blight  is  usually  first  noted 
by  the  leaves  at  the  tips  of  the 
branches  turning  a reddish  brown. 
This  discoloration  extends  down- 
ward along  the  branches  as  the  sea- 
son advances.  A close  examination 
will  reveal  a blackened,  shrunken, 
and  frequently  shriveled  appearance 
of  the  bark.  When  peeled  off,  the 
inner  portions  will  be  found  to  be 
discolored.  This  brown  discoloration 
will  often  extend  beyond  a point 
where  the  bark  shows  any  sign  of 
the  disease  on  the  outside.  It  may 
also  appear  as  sunken  or  “can- 
kered” areas  on  the  trunk  or  larger 
branches. 

The  disease  is  most  prevalent  on  rapidly  growing  trees  although  varie- 
ties differ  as  to  resistance  to  attack.  There  is  no  spray  treatment  for  the 
control  of  fire  blight.  The  only  treatment  is  to  cut  out  the  infected 
twigs  six  to  eight  inches  below  any  sign  of  the  disease  and  burn.  Cut 
cankered  areas  back  to  healthy  bark.  Disinfect  the  wound  with  corrosive 
sublimate  and  mercuric  cyanide,  one  part  to  each  one  thousand  of  water 
and  then  treat  as  for  wounds  in  pruning.  It  is  best  to  disinfect  the  knife 
after  removing  the  infected  part  by  dipping  it  in  the  solution.  The  mate- 
rial is  a deadly  poison  requiring  care  in  handling. 


FIG  19. — BLIGHTED  APPLE  TWIG 

Blight  is  very  severe  on  young, 
rapidly  growing  wood;  the  leaves 
becoming  black. 


30 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


Spray  Occasionally  for  Scale 

Quite  frequently  in  home  orchards,  oyster  shell  scale  becomes  so  nu- 
merous as  to  cause  considerable  damage.  Spray  with  lime  sulfur  shortly 
before  growth  starts.  Use  5 gallons  commercial  lime  sulfur  in  40  gallons 
of  water,  which  is  known  as  “winter  strength  lime  sulfur.”  This  spray 
is  needed  only  when  the  scale  become  fairly  numerous.  If  it  is  desired 
to  combine  this  spray  with  the  one  following,  delay  the  application  until 
the  buds  show  green.  In  some  parts  of  the  state  San  Jose  scale  also  needs 
attention.  Spray  shortly  before  growth  starts  with  scalecide  1 part  to 
12  of  water  or  with  other  miscible  oils. 

Use  “Nicotine  Sulfate”  Against  Plant  Lice 

While  plant  lice  are  usually  present,  they  seldom  become  so  injurious 
under  Wisconsin  conditions  as  to  make  control  measures  necessary.  If 
spraying  is  desirable,  apply  “nicotine  sulfate,”  x/z  pint  to  50  gallons  of 
water,  to  which  should  be  added  2 pounds  of  soap  in  solution.  One 
half  pound  of  casine  spreader  may  be  substituted  for  the  soap.  Apply 
just  as  the  buds  begin  to  show  green. 

Annual  Sprays  Necessary 

While  spraying  for  scale  and  plant  lice  may  not  be  necessary  in  a 
particular  season,  the  control  of  apple  scab  and  the  codling  moth  (apple 
worm)  demands  that  spraying  be  done  each  season  if  pest  free  fruit  is 
to  be  obtained. 

Use  5 quarts  lime  sulfur  and  1 pound  powdered  arsenate  of  lead  in  50 
gallons  of  water. 

1.  “Pink  Spray” — Just  before  the  blossom  buds  open.  (If  leaf  roll- 
ers are  numerous  use  3 pounds  of  arsenate  of  lead.) 


Do  Not  Spray  Fruit  Trees  With  Poison  When  Many  of  the 
Blossoms  Are  Open 


2.  “Calyx  Spray.”  As  soon  as  most  of  the  petals  have  fallen  and 
before  the  calyx  cups  close. 

3.  Fifteen  to  eighteen  days  after  second  spray. 

4.  About  August  15-20  on  late  varieties. 

In  addition  to  these  four  applications,  the  “pre-pink  spray”  is  strongly 
recommended  because  of  its  great  benefit  in  controlling  apple  scab.  Apply 
when  leaves  of  opening  buds  are  about  the  size  of  a squirrel’s  ear.  Use 
regular  spray. 

In  the  home  orchard,  the  same  spray  program  may  be  used  for  pears. 
The  cherry  and  plum  should  receive  two  applications  soon  after  the  bios- 


Farm  Orchards 


31 


soms  are  off.  These  applications  can  usually  be  made  at  the  same  time 
as  applications  (1)  and  (2)  for  the  apple.  An  additional  application 
should  be  put  on  cherries  soon  after  the  fruit  is  harvested.  On  European 
and  Japanese  plums,  an  application  made  when  the  plums  begin  to  change 
color  will  help  to  control  brown  rot. 


FIG.  20.— FOUR  PESTS  OF  APPLES 

(Top  row) — Oyster  shell  scale  (greatly  enlarged)  on  the  right;  curculio  on 
the  left.  (Bottom  row) — Scab  on  the  right;  codling  moth  on  the  left. 

How  Much  Spray? 

For  an  apple  tree  the  average  amount  of  spray  for  one  application  is 
as  follows : 

Age  in  years 10  12  15  20  25 

Gallons  of  spray 2 2 y2  3-4  4-5  5-6 

When  preparing  sprays  in  small  quantities,  it  is  very  convenient  to 
have  a postal  scale  and  a measuring  spoon  such  as  is  used  in  the  kitchen. 
It  is  much  more  satisfactory  to  weigh  the  dry  materials.  The  following 
formulas  give  spray  materials  of  approximately  the  same  strength  as 
those  used  in  commercial  orchards  : 


32 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


Lime  sulfur  (liquid)  (winter  strength)  1 pint  to  1 gallon 
water. 

Lime  sulfur  (liquid)  (summer  strength)  1 pint  to  5'  gallons 
water. 

Lime  sulfur  (dry)  (summer  strength)  1 ounce  (2  level  table- 
spoonfuls) to  1 gallon  water. 

Arsenate  of  Lead : To  make  a spray  equivalent  to  1 pound  to  50 

gallons  of  water,  use  1 ounce  (6  level  tablespoon fuls)  to  3 gallons  of 
water. 


Good  Spraying  Necessitates  Good  Equipment 

Time  and  money  are  lost  in  attempting  to  spray  with  poor  equipment. 
First  class  machinery  in  good  working  order  and  mixing  equipment  ade- 
quate for  the  amount  of  material  to  be  handled  and  designed  to  facilitate 
the  preparation  of  materials  and  the  filling  of  spray  tanks  are  essential  to 
economical  and  efficient  work. 


FIG.  21.— A POWER  SPRAYER 
A quick,  economical  and  efficient  outfit. 


The  mixing  equipment  will  vary  with  the  amount  of  spraying  to  be 
done  and  the  materials  to  be  used.  Convenient  water  supply  is  a time 
saver  in  spraying.  A creek  or  pond  in  proximity  to  the  orchard  saves 
much  time  in  pumping  or  hauling  water.  It  is  important,  however,  that 
the  water  be  free  from  grit. 


Farm  Orchards 


33 


Pump  Depends  on  Size  of  Orchard 

The  character  of  the  pump  depends  largely  upon  the  size  of  the 
orchard  to  be  sprayed.  A gasoline  pump  is  most  desirable.  Such  a pump 
is  designed  to  handle  large  amounts  of  material  and  furnish  sufficient 
pressure  to  produce  an  ideal  spray.  A good  gasoline  sprayer  should  main- 
tain a pressure  of  200  to  300  pounds,  be  light  in  proportion  to  power 
generated,  be  compact,  have  working  parts  easily  accessible,  have  a good 
device  for  controlling  pressure  and  an  engine  preferably  fitted  with  force 
feed. 


What  Is  a Spray  Ring? 


Home  orchards  are  as  a rule  too  small  to  make  it  economical  to  pur- 
chase a power  sprayer  so  that,  in  a number  of  instances,  farm  orchardists 
have  united  in  their  orchard  spraying.  The  organization,  composed  of 


FIG.  22.— A GOOD  TYPE  OF  SPRAYER  FOR  SMALL  ORCHARDS 
It  will  do  good  work  when  carefully  and  properly  used. 


from  six  to  twelve  farmers  whose  farms  are  close  together,  is  known  as 
a “spray  ring.”  They  purchase  a power  machine  suitable  for  their  needs, 
the  cost  ranging  from  $200  to  $400.  Each  farmer  owns  an  equal  share. 
A member  of  the  “ring”  acts  as  operator  and  is  paid  for  his  work.  Other 
officers  are  named  if  desired.  The  operator  buys  spraying  materials ; 
sprays  the  orchards  of  members  at  the  proper  time  and  in  the  right  way 
and  distributes  the  cost  of  spraying  among  members  of  the  “ring”  on 
the  basis  of  time  and  materials  used  in  spraying  each  orchard. 


34 


Wisconsin  Bulletin  363 


The  following  are  the  principal  advantages  gained  through  the  organ- 
ization : It  makes  possible  the  owning  of  a power  sprayer  at  an  individual 

cost  less  than  that  of  a hand  outfit.  It  reduces  the  price  of  spray  mate- 
rials, as  they  can  be  secured  in  large  quantities  at  much  better  prices  than 
when  purchased  in  small  amounts  by  the  individual  farmer.  It  results 
in  more  efficient  spraying  because  of  better  equipment  and  more  expe- 
rienced operator.  It  costs  less  because  the  time  and  material  used  are 
reduced. 


A Barrel  Pump  May  Be  Used 

When  only  one  home  orchard  is  to  be  sprayed  with  a pump,  the  hori- 
zontal type  of  hand  pump  is  usually  most  satisfactory.  It  is  built  with 
two  cylinders  which  makes  it  possible  to  maintain  a fairly  satisfactory 
pressure.  They  are  much  more  easily  operated  than  the  old  style  vertical 
barrel  pump.  Some  of  them  are  not  fitted  with  agitators.  If  this  is  the 
case,  agitation  must  be  provided  as  most  orchard  sprays  require  agitation 
for  good  results. 


FIG.  23.— A SPRAY  “GUN” 


More  rapid,  but  efficient  if  properly  used. 

It  Pays  to  Use  Good  Hose 

A good  quality  spray  hose  costs  less  in  the  end  as  it  is  more  durable 
than  the  common  garden  hose.  One-half  inch  hose  is  sufficiently  large. 
If  but  one  lead  is  used,  it  should  be  at  least  25  feet  long.  If  two  leads 
are  used,  it  is  well  to  have  different  lengths.  If  the  work  is  to  be  done 
from  the  ground,  20  to  25  feet  is  a minimum  length. 

Hose  should  be  fitted  with  couplings  with  long  shanks  and  good  hose 
clamps.  Two  clamps  to  a coupling  are  usually  preferred.  With  the  ordi- 
nary type  of  hose  coupling  there  is  continual  trouble  from  having  the 
hose  blow  off.  On  a power  machine  it  is  advisable  to  have  a shut-off  be- 
tween the  pump  and  hose. 

Don’t  Miss  the  Tops 

An  extension  rod  or  spray  gun  is  necessary  in  spraying  trees  over 
seven  or  eight  feet  high.  The  best  type  of  spray  rod  is  a bamboo  pole 
through  the  center  of  which  runs  a brass  tube.  These  rods  may  be  had 
in  lengths  to  suit  the  work  to  be  done.  A ten  foot  rod  is  usually  pre- 
ferred. There  should  be  a “shut-off”  or  “stopcock”  between  the  hose  and 
the  spray  rod  which  should  be  non-leakable  and  close  with  a half  turn. 


Farm  Orchards 


35 


The  spray  gun  is  very  much  more  convenient  than  the  spray  rod  and 
does  faster  work.  It  can  be  used  efficently,  however,  only  when  a high 
pressure  of  200  pounds  or  over  is  maintained. 

Selection  of  Nozzle  Important 

Two  general  types  of  nozzles  are  used  in  orchard  spraying.  They 
may  be  characterized  as  the  Bordeaux  and  eddy  chamber  types.  The  Bor- 
deaux, which  is  not  extensively  used  in  the  East,  produces  its  spray  by 
forcing  the  material  through  a small  aperture  against  a smooth  surface. 
The  character  of  the  spray  is  regulated  by  the  pressure  and  the  angle  at 
which  it  strikes  the  obstructing  surface.  This  nozzle  has  great  driving 
power  and  is  extensively  used  in  the  West  for  calyx  spray  of  apples 
and  pears. 

The  eddy  chamber  type  of  nozzle  produces  the  spray  by  forcing  the 
liquid  to  rotate  rapidly  as  it  is  expelled  through  a small  aperture  at  high 
pressure  which  breaks  it  up  into  a mist-like  form.  There  are  various 
devices  for  producing  the  whirling  motion.  The  character  of  the  spray 


FIG.  24.— CHOOSE  SPRAY  NOZZLES  CAREFULLY 


Spray  nozzles  differ  in  their  adaptability.  Care  in  selecting  the  right 
nozzle  will  result  in  economy  and  in  effectiveness  in  spraying.  (Rottom)  — 
Left — Rordeaux  nozzle.  Right — Angle  disc  nozzle.  (Top) — Parts  of  the  disc 
nozzle. 

is  regulated  to  a greater  or  lesser  extent  by  the  pressure,  the  size  of  the 
aperture  and  the  relation  of  the  openings  in  the  whirling  device  to  the 
aperture.  This  is  the  type  of  nozzle  used  extensively  in  the  East. 

It  is  desirable  to  have  the  opening  of  the  nozzle  at  an  angle  to  the 
rod  as  it  greatly  facilitates  putting  on  the  material.  Some  nozzles  known 
as  angle  nozzles  are  so  constructed  as  to  accomplish  this.  Unless  an 
angle  nozzle  is  used,  an  angle  connection  is  imperative  for  efficient  work. 


<s 


o 


^SeRSITY  UHLUNUU  UIWANA 

SSSSTwum  C"01 

345-363  1922-24  . 


3 0112  019929519 


